Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

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Wear
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Wear mechanism study of exhaust valve system in modern heavy duty

combustion engines
P. Forsberg , P. Hollman, S. Jacobson
Department of Engineering Sciences, The ngstrm laboratory, Uppsala University, Sweden

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 September 2010
Received in revised form
28 November 2010
Accepted 29 November 2010

Keywords:
Exhaust valve system
Wear
Oxidative
Corrosive
Adhesive

a b s t r a c t
The increasing demands from environmental legislations are changing the conditions that the valve
system is exposed to in heavy duty engines. Increased pressures, higher temperatures and lower amounts
of soot which can build up a protective lm are some of the increasing challenges which the system has
to endure.
Three pairs of valves and valve seat inserts with the same material and design properties but with
different service condition have been analyzed with a variety of analytical instruments to gain information
of how the wear occurs.
The wear mechanisms found were a combination of oxidation, where many different oxides were
found, adhesive wear, which was seen both in form of material transfer and ow lines. On top of Sample
Mild and Hard there were tribo lms of thickness varying from 1 to 5 m consisting of Ca, O, P, S and Zn.
The lm has in all cases protected the underlying surface from wear but in some cases seems to have a
corrosive impact instead.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The exhaust valve system of modern combustion engines experiences a very complex contact situation including frequent impact
involving micro sliding, high and varying temperatures, complex
exhaust gas chemistry and possible particulates. The wear rate has
to be extremely low, and the individual wearing events operate at
a very minute scale that is hard to detect even in scanning electron microscope. These difculties have resulted in that very little
is known about why present well-working systems really work. The
current system congurations are based on extensive testing and
decades of gradual development rather than on knowledge-based
design.
The tribological situation in the exhaust valve system is
expected to be severe for engines that will follow the Euro 6 emission regulation, which is briey compared to earlier legislations in
Fig. 1. Due to enhanced combustion and cleaner fuels, almost no
combustion products are formed that might ease the wear conditions. The wear of the contact surfaces is thus expected to become
more aggressive, which in the case of the exhaust valve could lead to
change in the combustion conditions and increasing emission levels. Obviously, this sharpens the requirements for reduced wear,
to keep the emissions low throughout the life of the engine, and
presents a great challenge.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 18 471 6376; fax: +46 18 471 35 72.
E-mail address: peter.forsberg@angstrom.uu.se (P. Forsberg).
0043-1648/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wear.2010.11.039

The wear mechanisms of valves are not easy to investigate. They

have been described to include a combination of abrasive, adhesive and oxidative wear [1,2]. Simultaneously, thin tribolms are
formed on the surfaces, composed from material from the valves
and residues from the combustion, acting as a solid lubricant. A
large part of the residues is soot. Soot is a relatively good lubricant for the valves but will become strongly reduced with the new
regulations.
One of the biggest steps in valve seat inserts (VSI) development
was in 1970 when the Clean Air Act prescribed the introduction of
catalytic converters to the market in an attempt to reduce vehicle
emissions. The proper operation of the catalysts required the lead
content in the fuel to be removed, to avoid lead poisoning. However, in the 70s the lubricating role of lead in the valve seat/valve
contacts was not known. The removal resulted in heavy wear, especially on the exhaust side. Research proved that the lead reacted and
formed complex lead oxides on the valve and seat surfaces, these
had benecial friction properties and protected the surfaces [3,4].
In absence of the lead, a brittle iron oxide formed. This oxide aked
during operation, directly leading to accelerated oxidative wear and
further to abrasion in other locations where the hard particles got
stuck [5,6]. For several years, a common solution to counteract this
wear was to harden the seat surface [4]. However, new designs
using valve seat inserts made from alternative materials solved the
problem.
Many test rig designs have been employed to simulate the contact situation, some involving real valve and valve seats [1,2,710]
but also some with simplied simulated contact situations [1113].

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Table 1
Material composition for used samples.

C
Co
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Mo
Ni
S
Si
V
W
Others

Valve [%]

VSI [%]

1.75
Bal
25.5

Max 1.5
0.5
0.6
22.5

0.801.30
15.022.0
3.55.5
10.020.0
Balance
0.31.5
9.014.0

0.150.75
0.52.0
1.32.3
2.54.5
<3

1.1

12

Fig. 1. Accepted emission of sot (PM) and NOx depending on legislation.

The wear mechanisms found in these studies include adhesive

wear in form of micro welding and material transfer. The transferred material have in some cases resulted in abrasive wear as the
valve rotates and the protruding material meets a non-matching
surface.
Large adhesive forces have induced shear forces and deformation in the material and in some cases created ow lines which can
be seen in cross sections. In some cases there have been cracking
of the valve due to high stresses due to misalignment and material
defects [1,2].
Lewis et al. [7] have composed the following list of design
changes tested through the years with successful results and
reduced wear; hardening of seat, increased seat width, welding
material onto valve seating face, greater rigidity of valve mechanism, improved cooling of cylinder head bottom, greater rigidity
of valve head, positive rotation of valve, use of hardened valve
seat inserts, reducing speed of valve impact, lubrication of contact
between valve and seat, reduction in seating face angle. The latter
has been reported to be very effective; a change from 45 to 30 may
lead to a wear reduction of up to 75% due to decreased frictional
movement [14].
To sum up the different tests, a number of factors should be
considered when minimizing the wear. The two major mechanical factors are; impact force of the valve on the seat insert during
valve closing and sliding of the valve on the seat insert during the
action of the combustion pressure [15]. The impact due to closing
can be, and nowadays is, greatly reduced with clever design of the
camshaft. Other factors that inuence the wear; impact resistance
of the seat insert material, lubricity of the seat insert material under
dry running conditions, combustion load, exibility of the valve
head, machining tolerances of the seat insert and valve guide, seat
insert and valve guide concentricity, uniformity of cylinder head
cooling, temperature, etc.
The main objective of the present investigation is to analyse the
wear mechanism of some typical exhaust valves that have operated under different conditions. The valves and valve materials
are investigated using several analytical instruments, both on the
surface and in cross sections.
2. Experimental
Three pairs of valves and valve seat inserts (VSI) have been analyzed. All pairs are made from the same material combination, listed
in Table 1, and they share the same geometry with a contact angle
of 45 , see Fig. 2.
The valve head and stem consists of austenitic and martensitic stainless steel, respectively (Table 2). The contact surface has

Fig. 2. Valve seat and insert, both with a contact angle of 45 . Contact surfaces
marked grey in the magnication.

Fig. 3. Typical microstructure of the tested samples before testing imaged with
BSE-SEM on polished cross sections. To the right is the Stellite F and to the left is the
AR20. Material composition marked. Note the different magnications of the two
materials.

a welded hard face consisting of Stellite F. Stellite F is a cobalt

chromium based alloy with a microstructure shown in Fig. 3. The
Ni content is higher than in the other members of the Stellite family. The alloy is specically designed for combustion engine valve
Table 2
Sample descriptions.
ID

Origin

Operated condition

Sample Mild

Consumer truck

Sample Hard

Consumer truck

Sample Engine cell

Engine cell tested

440,000 km mildly
driven
210,460 km relatively
hard driven
723 h (equals 400,000
hard km or 800,000
mild km)

P. Forsberg et al. / Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

Fig. 4. Showing examples of analyses performed on the valve contact surface. SEM
overview image to the left and a surface topography overview map to the right. A
surface prole plotted from the bottom up in the surface map. Note the strongly
exaggerated y-axis which is magnied 40 times in comparison to the x-axis.

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Fig. 6. Surface characterisation of the valve from Sample Mild. SEM overview image
to the left and a surface topography map in the middle. The chart to the right shows
the surface prole along the red line (from bottom and up) in the topography map.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this sentence, the reader is referred
to the web version of the article.)

3. Analysis

Fig. 5. Wear depth is measured via image processing of optical microscope. Prole from picture in white compared to an unworn reference. Grey area represents
removed material. Wear depth is marked with white arrow.

hard facing. It has a slightly higher hardness and better resistance

to erosion and corrosion compared to Stellite 6.
The valve seat is made of a sintered material with brand name
Novofer AR20, produced by Bleistahl. This is a high speed steel
incorporating intermetallic phases and high temperature solid
lubricants. A typical microstructure is shown in Fig. 3. To enhance
the thermal conductivity, which is of great importance since about
75% of the heat from the valve is transported via the VSI to the cooling channels [11], the majority of the pores are lled with copper.
Each pair has run under different service condition. One has been
part of a highway truck engine and has therefore experienced a relatively mild load. The second has been driven relatively hard with
lots of high load on the engine, but has a lower mileage, and the
third was tested in an engine test cell. The third pair is from a different engine model of a later design, resulting in less combustion
residues. The test cycles in the engine cell are cycled between maximum load, and sometimes even above, and back to idle in order to
stress the engine hard, so the wear can be expected to alter somewhat from ordinary use. Each cylinder has two pairs of exhaust
valves and VSI (back and forward), for this analysis we chose the
back pair from each cylinder.

Surfaces and polished cross sections were analyzed with several instruments. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) were used
for imaging. SEM with backscatter detector in composition mode
(BSE) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was used
to get compositional information. The distribution of all elements
detected was mapped, while only the most interesting are presented in Section 4.
3D topography measurement was performed using white light
interference microscopy (WYCO). Due to the rotation of the valves,
the wear scars become almost uniform all around the contact. The
3D topography scanning was performed over a 0.9 mm wide track
along the sliding direction of the valve and VSI, as shown in Fig. 4.
The Focused Ion Beam (FIB) was used to create small scale, wellpolished cross sections. The ion beam is very mild to the surface,
which reduces the composition changes, smearing, etc. compared
to the conventional grinding/polishing process. Prior to preparing
the cross section, a thin layer of Pt is deposited to protect the outermost surface from the milling ion beam. These Pt-layers, deposited
in two steps, are visible in the cross sections as a light upper layer
with a slightly darker layer beneath, with a total thickness of about
0.50.8 m.
An optical microscope was used to estimate the wear depth on
each sample. Cross section pictures were processed to show only
the contours of the samples. The contours were compared to an
unworn reference Sample and the wear was measured, see Fig. 5.
4. Results
4.1. Valve from Sample Mild
The valve surface appeared spotty, with bright and darker areas,
as shown in Fig. 6. The dark areas correspond to a thin tribolm on
the surface while the bright areas indicate bare valve material. The

Fig. 7. Cross section of the valve surface in Sample Mild. SEM to the left. EDX maps to the right illustrate the signal strength for different elements. Brighter areas represent
higher element concentration in that area.

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P. Forsberg et al. / Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

Fig. 8. Cross section of the valve surface where the deformed microstructure reveals
plastic ow on the outermost layer. The ow pattern is pointing towards the outer
radius of the valve. On top of the affected microstructure there is a thin oxide of
about 1.5 m. BSE SEM.

Fig. 9. Cross section showing a 0.5 m thick tribolm with embedded carbon particles. FIB SEM cross section.

Fig. 12. Surface characterisation of the valve from Sample Hard. SEM overview
image to the left and a surface topography map in the middle. The chart to the right
shows the surface prole along the red line (from bottom and up) in the topography
map. (For interpretation of the references to color in this sentence, the reader is
referred to the web version of the article.)

4.2. Valve seat insert from Sample Mild

The valve seat insert from Sample Mild shows a very smooth
surface, both in the SEM and in the topography image in Fig. 10.
The wear depth is estimated to 20 m. The valve surface appears
slightly darker in the middle section, which can be seen as an
elevation in the corresponding topography image. The elevation
is some 5 m above the bottom of the wear scar. The dark lines
across the SEM image are machining grooves, which indicates that
this area is almost unworn. A surface lm covers parts of the seat.
It has a thickness of a few m and consists of Mo, Si and O, see
Fig. 11.
4.3. Valve from Sample Hard

Fig. 10. Surface characterisation of the valve seat insert from Sample Mild. SEM
overview image to the left and a surface topography map in the middle. The chart
to the right shows the surface prole along the red line (from bottom and up) in the
topography map. (For interpretation of the references to color in this sentence, the
reader is referred to the web version of the article.)

tribolm consists mainly of Mo and O, see Fig. 7. No scratches can be

seen on the surface. The topography is characterised by pits with a
depth of a couple of micrometers in an otherwise smooth plateau,
see Fig. 6. The outermost micrometers of the valve are strongly
deformed, showing ow lines pointing towards the outer rim, see
Fig. 8.
FIB cross section shows a dark coating which contains Ca, O, P,
S and Zn. The coating include black embedded particles consisting
of carbon residues resulting from poor combustion, see Fig. 9.

The valve from Sample Hard is mainly characterised by its

smooth appearance with a layer including small scattered pits, see
Figs. 12 and 13. The pit appears brighter in the SEM which indicates a heavier/denser material than the coating. The close-up in
Fig. 13 shows one of the pits in the smooth surface layer and the
element maps conrm that the pits expose the bare valve material.
The smooth surface coating consists of Ca, O, P, S and Zn. EDX also
shows that the darker regions in the pits are depositions of carbon.
A rough estimated based on image processing of the overview SEM
picture gives an approximate value of 10% bare metal on the surface. The EDX cross section in Fig. 14 further identies the tribolm,
as a 5 m thick lm and made up by Ca, O, P, S and Zn on top of the
seemingly unaffected valve material.
4.4. Valve seat insert from Sample Hard
The valve seat insert from Sample Hard shows a very smooth
surface with some circular spots, which are residues from the cleaning agent, see Fig. 15. The surface has a smoothly rounded elevation,
roughly 5 m high. The wear depth is estimated to 50 m. No oxide
layer was detected by EDX analysis of a cross section in an area

Fig. 11. Cross section of the seat surface in Sample Mild. SEM to the left. EDX maps to the right illustrate the signal strength for different elements. Brighter areas represent
higher element concentration in that area.

P. Forsberg et al. / Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

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Fig. 13. Surface overview and composition analyse of the valve in Sample Hard from area marked by white rectangle in Fig. 12. The small pits are areas where the surface
lm has aked off and exposes the underlying metal.

Fig. 14. Cross section of the valve surface in Sample Hard. A smooth, 5 m thick tribolm covers the seemingly unaffected valve material.

close to the outer edge of the valve seat. The FIB cross section in
Fig. 16 reveals two layers on top of the original microstructure. The
outermost layer is a dark smooth tribolm composed of Ca, O, P, S
and Zn that covers the entire surface. Beneath this layer, in the left
part of this section, there is layer of iron oxide with a rough, almost
etched-like surface. Severe cracks have developed in the valve seat,
as revealed by Fig. 17. The cracks appear to propagate towards the
inner radius.

Fig. 15. Surface characterisation of the valve seat insert from Sample Hard. SEM
overview image to the left and a surface topography map in the middle. The chart
to the right shows the surface prole along the red line (from bottom and up) in the
topography map. (For interpretation of the references to color in this sentence, the
reader is referred to the web version of the article.)

Fig. 16. FIB cross section of the valve seat insert from Sample Hard. The outermost
bright layer is the deposited protective platinum. The tribolm is around 1 m and
the oxide up to 2 m thick.

Fig. 17. Optical micrograph of a polished cross section of the valve seat insert from
Sample Hard showing large cracks that have propagated towards the inner radius
of the VSI.

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P. Forsberg et al. / Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

Fig. 18. Surface characterisation of the valve from Sample Engine Cell. SEM overview
image to the left and a surface topography map in the middle. The chart to the right
shows the surface prole along the red line (from bottom and up) in the topography
map. (For interpretation of the references to color in this sentence, the reader is
referred to the web version of the article.)

4.5. Valve from Sample Engine Cell

The valve from Sample Engine Cell deviates from the others by
showing a much sharper prole, see Fig. 18. Several ridges, out of
which the largest is about 20 m high, continue around the valve.
This ridge consists of ne grained material that seamlessly transforms to the original Stellite structure beneath, see Fig. 19. The
ne-grained ridge is covered by a thin darker coating. The interface to this coating is very rough. The EDX-analyse in Fig. 20 is from
the foot of the ridge where the adhered material is thinner. At the
surface there is an oxidised lm which is built up by two layers of
oxides. On the outermost surface there is a 300 nm layer of copper
oxide. Beneath this layer there is a thicker layer of iron oxide with
a thickness of about 700 nm. There are no evident wear depths that
can be measured on the valve, however the edges of the valve cross
section are rounded off.
4.6. Valve seat insert from Sample Engine Cell
The valve seat insert from Sample Engine Cell shows very similar, but inverted, surface prole to that of the mating valve, compare
Fig. 21 with Fig. 18. The highest ridge on the valve has a matching
trench in the valve seat, and so on. The trenches are also visible
in the SEM image as darker patterns in the rotating direction. The
wear depth is estimated to 80 m.

Fig. 19. Cross section of the valve from Sample Engine Cell prepared at the position
of the 20 m ridge seen in Fig. 18. The original Stellite structure is covered by a layer
of ner structure, with a thickness that matches the height of the ridge. An oxide
layer has formed on top of the ridge. SEM-BSE.

The microstructure is largely unaffected although the surface is

not totally smooth, and no tribolm could be detected, see Fig. 22.
5. Discussion
The two valve seat inserts from the customer trucks (samples
Mild and Hard) have similar surface characteristics. They are both
smooth and have a darker elevated middle part of the contact surface. Based on the present investigations, the surface can be said to
be covered by a smooth surface lm containing Ca, O, P, S and Zn
which for some reason has a more benecial situation and becomes
thicker in the centre. If this is due to difference in oxide growth,
wear, difference in pressure distribution, sliding distance, gas ow
conditions or something else is not revealed by the present analyses The composition of the surface lm contains elements which
are common in the additive packages in engine oil (zinc dithiophosphate, calcium sulfonates, etc.) and is presumably partly residues
from evaporated oil.
No evidence of abrasive wear in the sliding direction was found.
The sliding distance in the contact between the valve and the insert

Fig. 20. Cross section of the valve in Sample Engine Cell. SEM to the upper left. EDX maps to the right illustrate the signal strength for different elements. Brighter areas
represent higher element concentration in that area.

P. Forsberg et al. / Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

Fig. 21. The valve seat insert from Sample Engine Cell is relatively rough with deep
trenches and raised ridges. Note that the surface prole of the valve seat matches
that of the valve in Fig. 18. SEM overview image to the left and a surface topography
map in the middle. The chart to the right shows the surface prole along the red line
(from bottom and up) in the topography map. (For interpretation of the references
to color in this sentence, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)

Fig. 22. Cross section of the valve seat insert in Sample Engine Cell. SEM to the left.
EDX maps to the right illustrate the signal strength for different elements. Brighter
areas represent higher element concentration in that area.

has been estimated from several to tens of m [1]. If abrasive wear

was a dominant factor, scratches with a length of the same magnitude as the sliding length should likely have been detected.
Many different oxides with varying thickness and different distribution across the surface were found. Due to the limited insight in
the history and tribological conditions for the different valve pairs,
it cannot be said how and why they form other than that it appears
to be very random. It is worth mentioning that the different cross
sections have been made on parts of the valve and VSI that appeared
as most interesting to investigate. This selection gives just a small
image of the total surface.
Obviously, the tribolms found on many of the surfaces contain Ca, O, P, S and Zn and have a protective effect for the material
beneath. Apparently the tribolms sometimes locally ake off and
expose the bare metal beneath. Depending on the situation for
the exposed metal, it either forms an oxide by oxidising itself, or
becomes covered by a new layer of tribolm based on residues from
the combustion. A rough estimation from image processing gives
that surface lms cover somewhere in the vicinity of 90% of the contact surface on the valves. The remaining parts are exposed metal
where the lm has been removed. This probably represents a steady
state situation, where the lm forms, akes off and rebuilds.
On the Sample Engine Cell pair there is no sign (except local
traces on the surface) of the lm consisting with Ca, O, P, S and Zn.
Instead there are much thinner oxide layers on the surface of the
valve. Further, the surfaces are noticeably rougher and have coarser
proles than the other two sample pairs. The matching surface
proles in Figs. 18 and 21 can be explained by following mechanisms; Plastically deformed material on the valve which leads to
grain renement and hardening of the surface. The hard rough surface leads to accelerated wear on the VSI due to lack of protecting
tribolms and stress concentration. There are also evidents that
copper is transferred from the VSI to the valve. From these samples

2483

it cannot be said if the lack of tribolm is due to the cleaner running

conditions or due to the variation in between the engine cell and
normal service conditions.
C.A. Mantey describes a similar nding when investigating different material combinations for a Liqueed petroleum gas (LPG)
application. In a LPG engine there is very little exhaust residues
which can build up a protecting lm and hence have an atmosphere
that is comparable to that of future diesel engines. For a material
combination similar to the one investigated here, he observed that
during operation, very small portions of the VSI are pulled from
the seat and deposited on the valve face due to adhesive deposition. This resulted in an accelerated abrasive wear of the VSI as
the deposited material on the valve came in contact with new VSI
surfaces due to rotation of the valve. The reduced VSI area lead
to decreased heat transfer possibilities and therefore also larger
thermo related stresses. Before the wear and deposits have gone
the whole rotation and creating a symmetrical pattern, which it
eventually will, the valve will also suffer from bad valve sealing
and higher local peak loads due to poor load distribution [10].
Several occurrences of corrosive wear on the surfaces were identied. Especially in the FIB cross section in Fig. 16, the corrosive
action has not only etched the outermost surface on the oxide but
also etched out a piece of the VSI material. It looks like one of the
phases of the material has been left whereas the material around
it has been consumed. Since Mo often is added to counteract the
corrosion a qualied guess is that this is from within an area of high
Mo content and it is the Mo-phases that have been spared. Whether
this corrosion has taken place before the tribolm was formed or if
it is the forming process of the tribolm itself that has caused the
corrosion is hard to determine.
The valves on Samples Mild and Hard show no measurable wear
although there are signs of plastic deformation. This is probably due
to the well covering tribolms that protect the surfaces. In Sample
Engine Cell the edges of the valves have become rounded. It is hard
to establish if this is due to that the engine cell test procedure differs
from ordinary engine use, an effect of cleaner exhausts or higher
compression pressures.
An interesting observation is that the microstructure of the valve
seat inserts never seems to be affected. There are no evidences that
the VSI material has been plastically deformed.
Regarding the cracks in Fig. 17, it should be noted that these were
only observed in one sample and in one cross section of that sample.
More cross sections of the same sample were prepared without
nding any trace of cracks. Thus, it seems to be a rare phenomenon.
Nevertheless, if these cracks had been left to propagate, which one
can assume they would, they would eventually have lead to large
spalling of the VSI material and nally to valve leakage and failure.
It is possible that the cracks originate from the disassembly. As the
inserts are shrunk into the cylinder head they have to be pulled
out when disassembled. This can result in large bending forces and
crack formation.
When the combustion process gets more optimised, fewer
residues are left that can create a soot layer on the bottom of
the valve. Moreover, the combustion temperatures are increasing.
These two factors will lead to higher temperatures in the valve [15]
and thereby also require a higher heat ow through the valve/VSI
contact, which could be expected to further aggravate the wear
situation. A solution for this could perhaps be to add an isolating
coating which would protect the valve, or perhaps just polish the
bottom of the valve to enhance its reective properties.

6. Conclusions
Based on the analyses performed and information given in published papers it can be concluded that:

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P. Forsberg et al. / Wear 271 (2011) 24772484

The dominant wear mechanism of the VSI material is oxidation

and formation of a tribolm.
There are no signs of abrasive wear on any part of the studied
systems.
The valves did not wear for the samples where the tribolm was
found.
For the cleaner engine Sample Engine Cell the combustion
residues have not been sufcient to build up a protective layer,
which has lead to material transfer and rougher surfaces.
Acknowledgements
This project is supported by FFIStrategic vehicle research and
innovation through contract no. 2009-01208. Staffan Jacobson was
also supported by the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research,
through the programme Technical advancement through controlled tribolms.
The authors wish to thank sa Gustafson at Scania CV AB, Materials Technology, Basic Engine, Dominique Debord, Daniel Lindberg
and Petter Kylefors at Scania CV AB, Engine development, Valve system for their comments on the draft manuscript, for sharing their
knowledge and for supplying the samples studied.
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