Chapter 1: Subtopics and Mechanics of Writing1

CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND A REVIEW OF LITERATURE
I
ntroduction. The introduction is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph side-head which begins the Chapter
1. The first few sentences in the introduction should be strong enough to cause an impact on the reader or stimulate
interest in the paper (manuscript). Statements in this chapter should signify the importance of the paper through
statements supported and substantiated by references from important researches.
Reports or quotations taken from references should not be more than one-third of a page. One should bear in mind that a
research report is an objective report, not a literary piece, like the Iliad or Noli me Tangere, but is one which deals only
with cold facts. Although one is permitted to give a personal opinion, such should also be backed up by statements from
persons of authority or substantiated by documents or records.

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eview of Related Literature and Studies. The review of related literature has always been Chapter 2 in the past,
although there have been recent trends to incorporate it in Chapter 1. Related literature and studies are empirically-based,
like scientific paper, theses, and dissertations, both published and unpublished, coming from local and foreign sources.
The most recent ones should be mentioned, or only that is the state-of-the-art, unless it is historical literature. When doing
a review of related studies, give proper acknowledgments; and then get the gist of its objectives, findings, and conclusions
using your own words.
Literature review can be categorized to include major types of literature, such as:
Sources of research, reading from various research journals, theses, and dissertations;
Theoretical literature from books, articles, scholarly/professional magazines/journals, and speeches;
General and special related literature on field of educational endeavor, education business, psychology, medical
researches, quality health and health sciences, and the like;
Methodology literature;
Research literature coming from other disciplines, e.g., anthropology, sociology, economics, and others;
Popular literature written by experts.
While invoking the related literature, you may discuss the differences of the similarities of your paper with it, either
within the chapter or in the synthesis of the review of related literature. Toward the end of the chapter, you may give
justifications of your study, or the reasons why you undertook the study and that you attempt to confirm, negate, or
improve the findings with new knowledge. This is what is referred to as bridging the gap.
In writing the review, be sure to acknowledge the contributions of the authors and writers (termed citation/s), as they form
part of your bibliography.
In some schools, the theoretical or conceptual framework is placed after the review. If the theoretical framework or
conceptual framework contains the essence of the problem, the variables, and the dynamics of the variables of the study,
then it should be placed before the statement of the problem, as it will strengthen the objectives of the study and make the
research report more cohesive. A theoretical or conceptual framework serves as a roadmap of the researcher and will
guide him where he is.

Functions of a Theory. A theory is important since it establishes a direction, a target, or an objective to be attained:

It provides the study with theoretical or conceptual framework, the process for hypothesizing, and contemplating its
end results.
It gives insight on the past findings or the current status of the topic one is working on
It gives information on what objectives and methodologies are to be used to attain the purposes of the study, which
one can avail of.
It gives information on what future studies can be made to add knowledge to the present and current status of the
topic.

1 Excerpted from Methods of Research: A Primer (2009), by Estela Adanza, Pedrito Jose Bermudo & Marietta Rasonabe, pp. 13-31.
1

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heoretical Framework or Conceptual Framework. The research report may rest on a theory or set of theories. It is
a general statement which shows interplay of variables, a happening with an eventual result, a guide, or a roadmap of
what the research should be.
The problem of the study is based on both theoretical and conceptual frameworks. They serve as an inductive approach
toward the objectives of the study or the statement of the problem. By reading through the theoretical or conceptual
framework, one can easily discern what the study is all about. If there is a theory upon which the study rests, it is well and
good. While it is a general statement, a conceptual framework can be drawn from it, this time, with all the variables given.
If the study has no theoretical framework, the researcher may build up his own conceptual framework, putting all the
variables in a schematic diagram. All the variables stated in the problem and the dynamics of such variables, should be
considered in this part. [Caution: Variables found in the study, but not mentioned in the framework, are bound to be
questioned as irrelevant to the research. Or put in another way, it is wise not to put a variable in the conceptual framework
that is not relevant to the study, for it will be questioned.]
The importance of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks lies on the fact that there are parts of the conclusion as with
regard to empirical support. Through the theoretical framework, the research can be woven into a cohesive undertaking
and makes the research more understandable, as there is a point of reference.
A researcher may say in the end that the theoretical or conceptual framework has been:
Fully supported.
Partially supported, or
Negated.
By empirical data, it must be remembered that a theory has to be tested, not taken to be accepted immediately.

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tatement of the Problem. The statement of the problem can be expressed either generally or specifically.
How do we state the problem? Basically, every research starts with a problem or problems. At the start, the problem
may be a broad one. In this case, it needs to be made specific and clear by breaking up the major problem into smaller of
limited ones.
How can you make the problem specific? Read lots of materials that are relevant to the topic. The topic for the
moment is broad because not much about it is known. In this case, one needs to survey and gather related literature. Let
us say, you have chosen MOTIVATION as one topic.

The first step you should take is to define the word motivation. Get the definition from several sources. Read books,
especially those written by both foreign and local authors, including researches from both foreign and local sources, as
well.
Afterward, summarize what the authors have said about motivation and focus your attention on the definition that
interests you most.
What special aspects about motivation did you gather? What variables that are of interest have you identified? Are
there different kinds of motivation that drive students to enroll in computer or maritime courses? What categories can
motivation be made to or developed? When a student enrolls in a course, what intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
factors drive a student to take a course? What variables play an important part in such motivation? The selection of
variables plays an important part in research, for they can make research dull or interesting.
What readings about investigations of motivation have you found interesting?
At this point, you are undergoing a process of analysis (i.e., breaking up the topic, delimiting them, and have selected
your variables, perhaps one or two variables). Together with this, you may already have an insight as to who your
respondents would be: elementary, high school, or college students of various courses, among others.
You can now start formulating your problem, thinking, and putting together the objectives you have in mind, including
the variables.

How to state the statement of the problem? There are two ways of stating a problem: in question form and in topical
form. For example, in question form:
Statement of the Problem: The study seeks to answer the following question:
A. General: What are the motivations of college students to enroll in maritime courses?
B. Specific:
1. What is the profile of college students, in terms of:
1.1 Age?
1.2 Socio-economic status?
1.3 Parents educational attainment?
2. What are the intrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses, as to:
2.1 Personal?
2.2 Social?
2.3 Economic?
3. What are the extrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses, as to:
3.1 Popularity of the courses?
3.2 Peer influence?
3.3 Parents choice?
3.4 School factors?
3.5 Teacher factors?
4. Are there significant relationship between:
4.1 Personal variables and intrinsic motivation factors?
4.2 Personal variables and extrinsic motivation factors?

Note that in the above statement of the problem, three of the problems start with what. These are questions that deal
with presentation of data, since data here are exploratory. It is only the last problem that deals with analysis, difference,
and relationship. Note also that the problems are independent and can be answered independently. At the same time, they
are interdependent upon each other and they form a cohesive part.
Another example, in topical form:
Statement of the Problem: The study seeks to determine the following:
A. General: The motivations of college students to enroll in maritime courses?
B. Specific:
1. The profile of college students, in terms of:
1.1 Age
1.2 Socio-economic status
1.3 Parents educational attainment
2. The intrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses, as to:
2.1 Personal
2.2 Social
2.3 Economic
3. The extrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses, as to:
3.1 Popularity of the courses
3.2 Peer influence
3.3 Parents choice
3.4 School factors
3.5 Teacher factors
4. Significant relationship between:
4.1 Personal variables and intrinsic motivation factors
4.2 Personal variables and extrinsic motivation factors

In general, however, different schools in the Philippines prefer the question form for all areas, except in business
researches, where the topical form is more preferred.
More information on the major types of question for Statement of the Problem : There are other types of factors
that have to be considered in the formulation of the statement of the problem, and among these are:

Factors that are independent. Independent factors are intervening variables that act on another variable. Some
examples are:
a.
b.
c.

What are the leadership skills of middle managers of the National Power Corporation in terms of the skills in the Skill-Mix
theory?
What are the emotional quotient dimensions of the faculty in the College of Arts and sciences in a certain university?
What are the problems faced by engineering graduates about to take the board?

Factors that lead to analysis of relationships. They are factors that are contained in questions that imply the use of
relationships. Some examples are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Factors that answer how of the variables. These are the variables that require a lot of explanation and insight on the
role of variables and the manipulation of one variable on the other. Examples are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

What role does leadership skills have in the empowerment of faculty?

What is the relationship between study habits and academic performance of third year students in communication arts?
What is the relationship knowledge symmetry of lines and differential calculus?
To what extent do the constructs of TQM improve organizational effectiveness in the organization?

How will early diagnosis of breast cancer affect the survival of the patient?
How will ChaCha affect the process of legislating laws in Congress?
How will the increase in the amount of sugar affect the taste of salad?
How will the increase in the number of class hours in Mathematics influence the span of motivation?
How will the change of school schedule from June to September affect enrolment in schools?

Factors that tend to be normative. These are the factors in problem that establish explicit goals or actions. They equire
development of plans under which the goals may be achieved. Examples are:
a. What should be done to eliminate post-operative vomiting?
b. What should be done to improve enrolment in the university?
c. What should be done to prevent absenteeism among personnel in a manufacturing company?
d. What should be done to improve board performance in accounting?
e. What should be done to prevent fire accidents due to electrical defects?

H
ypothesis. One of the important features of a good research is hypothesis formulation. It also determines the objective of
the research and it is a salient feature of a good research report. Some time in your study, you may need to make a
decision or make some predictions of the behavior of a variable on the other. They may be wild guesses that you
anticipate will happen in the study. A hypothesis is a tentative solution to a particular problem, which may be accepted or
rejected depending on what the facts are.

Functions of Hypothesis. Researches seek to guess the behavior of one variable over the other. In this case, the
researcher offers tentative guesses or probable actions of such variables. Or, the researcher would like to know what will
happen or what will be the behavior of the variable and their interactions with one another. These are the researchers
tentative guesses on what probably would happen.
It introduces the thinking of the researcher, of what is the objective or target of research in his mind.
It structures the next stages of the research report after presenting the variables in the study.
It identifies the characteristic of the researcher5, whether an objective or a biased researcher.
It brings the research to a deeper analysis of the variables in the study.
It identifies what the research hopes and contemplates for the study.
It helps a research provide the format of the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data gathered from the study.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis.

It should be reasonable. It should be one that can really be tested and should involve the variables in the study.
It should state the type of analysis between the variable, whether differences of relationships.

Types of Hypothesis and How they Differ. In general, there are two types of hypothesis: (1) Research hypothesis
and (2) Statistical hypothesis.

Research Hypothesis is a temporary solution to a set of problems of the research, using their words. It should be with
the statistical hypothesis, so that there would be no conflict on interpretation. This is the essence of inferential
statistics or for problems that need decision-making. A research hypothesis will be better understood if discussed with
the statement of the problem, especially since not all statements of the problem have research hypotheses.
Example: Statement of the Problem
1. What is the profile of middle managers in the company in terms of the following personal variables:
1.1 Gender
1.2 Civil status
1.3 Educational attainment
1.4 Length of work experience
2. What are the leadership skills of middle managers in terms of:
2.1 Human relations
2.2 Technical
2.3 Administrative skills
2.4 Institutional skills
3. Is there a significant difference in the leadership skills when respondents are grouped according to personal variables?

Note: Problems 1 and 2 do not need hypothesis. As a matter of fact, statement of the problem which starts with
what is generally hypothesis-free, for they present only data. There is no analysis and interpretation of data. It is
Problem 3 that needs hypothesis, because it is a problem that needs analysis. One is not licensed to use the word
significant if it has not undergone statistical testing. So, the research hypotheses of Problem 3 are:
3.1Leadership skills of middle managers do not significantly differ when grouped according to age.
3.2 Leadership skills of middle managers do not significantly differ when grouped according to gender.
3.3 Leadership skills of middle managers do not significantly differ when grouped according to educational attainment.
3.4 Leadership skills do not significantly differ when grouped according to work experience.

One will observe that all the above-mentioned hypotheses are in the null form. The word no does not express a
negative concept, but expresses a neutral one. It shows that the researcher is objective and has no preconceived notion
about the results, but is ready to accept a different one when proven.
There is, however, another possible way of expressing a research hypothesis, for example, in a positive one. Take this
problem:
Is there a significant relationship between age and leadership skills of managers?
The following research hypotheses may be offered as temporary solutions:
Research hypothesis no. 1 (Null form): There is no significant relationship between age and leadership skills.
Research hypothesis no. 2 (Positive directional form): The researcher hypothesizes that the older the manager is, the better the
leadership skills he possesses.

Statistical Hypothesis. Similarly, there are two types of statistical hypotheses: (a) Null hypothesis and (b) Alternative
hypothesis.
Null hypothesis (Ho). Null, in mathematics, means empty, or zero. For example:
Research hypothesis. There is no significant relationship between emotional quotient and leadership skills. This
implies, the Pearson r correlation coefficient is zero, expressed:
Ho: P=0 (this is a statistical hypothesis)
Examples:
Research hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between maturity and human relations skill.
Statistical hypothesis: Ho: P=0
Research hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the two processes A and B.
Statistical hypothesis: Ho: A=B
Research hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the two groups of respondents in Mathematics
performance.
Statistical hypothesis: Ho: M(2)=M(1)
The null hypothesis is always the first statistical hypothesis to be tested.

Alternative hypothesis (Ha). When null hypothesis is rejected, there are three alternative hypotheses you can
choose from: (a) Non-directional hypothesis, (b) Positive directional hypothesis, and (c) Negative dire4ctional
hypothesis.
(a) Non-directional hypothesis is one which asserts that there is significant difference between the variables, but
researcher is only interested in the difference (and its being greater or lesser than, is of no importance).
Furthermore, there are statistical methods that do not have positive directional hypothesis. In a hypothesis
referring to relationship, especially in the use of a Pearson r correlation coefficient, the non-directional
hypothesis refers to the positive and negative relationships.
Examples:
There is significant (positive or negative) relationship between maturity and human relations skills is a nondirectional hypothesis. The statistical hypothesis is: Ho: P0
The Pearson has no positive directional hypothesis, because both positive and negative Pearson r may be
significant. It has only a non-directional hypothesis.
There is no significant difference between technical skills when respondents are grouped according to
educational attainments. (Assume there are three educational attainments: A, B, and C).
When problem of this type arises, alternative hypothesis is non-directional: Ho: AB (at least, one pair of means
is not equal).

(b) Positive directional hypothesis implies a difference in the positive direction.

Example:

The performance of Group A is better than that of Group B.

Ha:5
AB

(c) Negative directional hypothesis implies a difference in a negative direction.

Example:

The effects of A on the weight of the baby is lesser than that of B.

Ha: AB

Note: But statistically, one posts the null hypothesis (Ho) as a first solution. Errors in accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis can be avoided, and the findings will not be bungled up or confusing as rejecting the null hypothesis in a
statistical test and accepting the alternative hypothesis (Ha) offered in a research hypothesis.

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ssumptions. An assumption is a statement taken for granted. It does not have to be proven like a theory or tested like a
hypothesis. In other words, it is taken as a simple truth. When one says, assume the line is straight; then, the forthcoming
statements will be based on a straight line. It also helps in establishing the parameters of the study.
This is because there is no such thing as a perfect research. There will always be flaws in the setting or situations which
are beyond ones control. A clear example of a need for assumption is when one gives a respondent a questionnaire for
him to fill up, and one is not sure that he will be telling the truth about some personal matters, like age, income, or other
variables that may be included in the questionnaire; and when interviewed whether he will give the same answer. It is
something beyond ones control, so one can only assume that he is telling the truth.
This is a situation beyond your control and you simply have to assume that his assertions in the questionnaires are true
and controlled. Likewise, one cannot be sure that the data one has taken from an office, hospital, or from a government
agency are true and correct. Data which one needs and which one has no direct hand as in secondary data, its gathering
will just have to be assumed. Assumptions are also necessary in forecasting for factors that are assumed constant in
prediction.
However, there are situations which cannot be assumed. For example, one cannot assume a methodology in research as valid
and correct, or the computations in the study are accurate, for such are within your control and your are held accountable for that; and
its precision reckoned against you.
Example of assumptions:
The study rests on the assumption that:
a. Facts and data gathered from the hospital are true and may be taken in for analysis and inference.
b. Students assertions made on the questionnaire are to the best of their ability; hence, inferences can be made
from their responses on attitudes toward birth control.

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cope and Delimitation of the Study. Some would prefer Scope and Limitations of the Study, which may also be
right. When Scope and Delimitation of the Study is preferred, it would only mean the extent of the study; or it will be a
discussion of what it will not do, but will confined only to the topics referred to in the study. To be more specific, the
scope defines clearly the where, what, when, and who of the study; and will not go beyond that.
On the other hand, when the other is preferred or used and limitations are expressed, it would mean it is a phase, aspect,
or a situation in the study which may adversely affect the results with which you have no control.

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ignificance of the Study. One of the most important considerations in the choice of a topic is the fact that it is
important, or that it is of value. The study should have an importance to you, to the school, or to the community; or that it
will end up developing a policy that will benefit national leadership in education, in the university, or in the community.
You should be able to mention the sectors that will be benefited by the study, as well as its contribution to the current
research and knowledge.

D
efinition of Terms. There are some terms in the study, which the reader may not understand. It is therefore important to
define terms which are within the context of the study, starting from the words in the title, statement of the problem/s,
and even in the methodology. Definition of terms is not footnoted, since they are operational or how they are used in the
studyand it is not a technical concept.
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