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Angle measurement
Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electrooptical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass
cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best quality total stations are
capable of measuring angles to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction grade"
total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.
Distance measurement
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated infrared carrier
signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical
path, and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the
computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and
receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of
wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most total stations use purposebuilt glass corner cube prism reflectors for the EDM signal. A typical total station
can measure distances with an accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.0049 ft) + 2
parts per million over a distance of up to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft).Reflectorless
total stations can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in
color, up to a few hundred meters.
Coordinate measurement
The coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known coordinate can be
determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be
established between the two points. Angles and distances are measured from the
total station to points under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z or easting,
northing and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the total station position
are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation. To determine an absolute
location a Total Station requires line of sight observations and must be set up
over a known point or with line of sight to 2 or more points with known
location.For this reason, some total stations also have a Global Navigation
Satellite System receiver and do not require a direct line of sight to determine
coordinates. However, GNSS measurements may require longer occupation
periods and offer relatively poor accuracy in the vertical axis.
Data processing
Some models include internal electronic data storage to record distance,
horizontal angle, and vertical angle measured, while other models are equipped
to write these measurements to an external data collector, such as a hand-held
computer.When data is downloaded from a total station onto a computer,
application software can be used to compute results and generate a map of the
surveyed area. The newest generation of total stations can also show the map on
the touch-screen of the instrument immediately after measuring the points.
Applications
Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and civil engineers, either to
record features as in topographic surveying or to set out features (such as roads,
houses or boundaries). They are also used by archaeologists to record
excavations and by police, crime scene investigators, private accident
reconstructionists and insurance companies to take measurements of scenes.
Meteorologists also use total stations to track weather balloons for determining
upper-level winds.
Mining
Total stations are the primary survey instrument used in mining surveying.A total
station is used to record the absolute location of the tunnel walls (stopes),
ceilings (backs), and floors as the drifts of an underground mine are driven. The
recorded data are then downloaded into a CAD program, and compared to the
designed layout of the tunnel.The survey party installs control stations at regular
intervals. These are small steel plugs installed in pairs in holes drilled into walls
or the back. For wall stations, two plugs are installed in opposite walls, forming a
line perpendicular to the drift. For back stations, two plugs are installed in the
back, forming a line parallel to the drift.A set of plugs can be used to locate the
total station set up in a drift or tunnel by processing measurements to the plugs
by intersection and resection.
Mechanical and Electrical Construction
Total stations have become the highest standard for most forms of construction
layout.It is most often used in the X and Y axis to layout the locations of
penetrations out of the underground utilities into the foundation, between floors
of a structure, as well as roofing penetrations.Because more commercial and
industrial construction jobs have become centered around Building Information
Modeling (BIM) the coordinates for virtually every pipe, conduit, duct and hanger
support are available with digital precision. The application of communicating a
virtual model to a tangible construction potentially eliminates labor costs related
to moving poorly measured systems, as well as time spent laying out these
systems in the midst of a full blown construction job in progress.
OBJECTIVES
To introduce and familiarize students with measuring distance and angles with a
total station.
The point at which both the fore sight and back sight are taken during the
operation of leveling, is called a change point. Two sight, are taken from two
different instrument stations, a fore sight to ascertain the elevation of the point
while a back sight is taken on the same point to establish the height of the
instrument of the new setting of the level. The change point is always selected
on a relatively permanent point .
Aras Lompat
Kerja pengukuran aras untuk menyemak satu siri pengukuran yang telah
dijalankan dari titik akhir ke titik mula
EQUIPTMENTS
EQUIPTMENTS
AUTOMATIC LEVELS
FUNCTIONS
In automatic level, spirit level tube is
not used anymore for horizontal
collimation set up.But, adjustment still
need to make sure that circular bubble
is exactly in the centre of circle.This
level are easy to set up and used
DIGITAL LEVELS
TRIPOD
PEGS
STAFF
STAFF BUBBLE
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT
DISTANCE
PRISM
PRACTICAL THEORY
Electromagnetic Energy
The electromagnetic principles of EDM theory and operation are well covered in
most surveying text books and on the internet. The intent here is to give the
reader a general understanding of EDM so that error sources are better
understood and controlled.An EDM uses electromagnetic (EM) energy to
determine the length of a line. The energy originates at an instrument at one end
of a line and is transmitted to a "reflector" at the other end from where it is
returned to the originating instrument. The nature of the "reflector" is dependant
on the type of EM. If electro-optical (infrared or laser) EM is used then the
"reflector" is typically a passive medium which bounces the signal back. If the EM
is microwave, then the reflector is a second instrument which captures the
incoming energy and re-transits it back to the originating instrument.
Electro-optical System
Microwave System
In either case the
total distance from the
reflector and back to
Comparing the two EM
EM Type
Electro-optical
measurement is the
instrument to the
the instrument.
types:
Advantages
Less susceptible to
atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages
Shorter range.
Sine Curve
This wave form repeats every 360. The distance between wave form ends is
the wavelength, ?:
Wavelength
Different wavelengths are generated at different modulation frequencies, f.
Wavelength, frequency, and the speed of light are related by:
Eqn (III-1)
The wavelength is a known
generated by the EDM at a
signal leaves the EDM at
number of full phases on
reflector, and returns to
between 0 and 360
wavelength, p:
quantity
since
it
is
specific frequency. The
0 phase, goes thru N
its way to and from the
the EDM at some angle
creating
a
partial
Signal
Propagation
Example
Assume
the
is 20.00 ft. The last
wavelength in Fig 5
partial wave is:
The distance between the EDM and reflector is half that: 204.584 ft / 2 =
102.292 ft.
Unfortunately, the EDM can't determine it how many full wavelengths occurred
along the distance.So how does it resolve this dilemma? By decreasing the
frequency by a factor of 10 and repeating the process. Decreasing the frequency
by a factor of 10 increases the wavelength by a like amount. The partial
wavelength at this level will give the next higher distance digit. This is repeated
a number of times until the distance is resolved.
illustrates three
each folded out
continuous
EDM path:
frequencies
to show a
EDM-reflector-
f1 = 10xf2; f2
= 10xf3
Multiple frequencies
Example
The following table shows the length of the last partial wave for each of 4
different wavelengths. What is the total distance?
, ft
10.00 ft
100.0 ft
1000. ft
10,000 ft
p, ft
3.69
53.7
454
8450
dist, ft
The digits in bold represent the digits added to the distance as a result of each
partial wavelength.
, ft
10.00 ft
100.0 ft
1000. ft
10,000 ft
p, ft
3.69
53.7
454
8450
dist, ft
3.69
53.69
453.69
8453.69
The total distance is 8453.69 feet. The distance from the EDM to the reflector is
8453.69/2 = 4226.84 ft
Distance Reduction
An EDM measures the line of sight distance between the instrument and
reflector. This is a slope distance and not horizontal unless the EDM and reflector
are at the same elevation.
Slope
Distance
In order to
determine a
horizontal or
vertical distance
additional
information is
needed.
Combining an
EDM with a
digital
theodolite results in a Total Station Instrument (TSI). When distance
measurement is made, the TSI measures the slope distance and a zenith angle.
Total Station
Instrument
From these
two
Eqn (III-2)
Eqn (III-3)
It's a little more complex than this and we'll discuss a refinement in the section
on Errors.
Evolutionary sidebar
Early attempts to integrate EDMs with theodolites resulted in some pretty
interesting (and bizarre) hybrid instruments. When EDMs were first affordable a
typical procedure a surveyor used would be: (1) measure a zenith angle with a
theodolite, (2) remove the theodolite from the tripod and mount the EDM (often
using the same tribrach to maintain the same setup) and measure the slope
distance, and, finally (3) manually reduce the slope distance to horizontal.As
EDMS became more affordable and smaller, other integration methods
appeared.EDMS were placed in yokes mounted to a theodolite's standards. The
vertical angle would be measured with the theodolite, and recorded or manually
entered into the EDM. The slope distance would be measured with the EDM.
Slope would be reduced to horizontal either manually or by the EDM if it could
accept angle input.The advantage of this mounting method was that the EDM's
measuring center was always vertically above the same point - it did not change
position as it was elevated or depressed to sight the prism. The disadvantage
was that if the zenith angle was measured to the center of the prism an offset
error was introduced because the signal path and line of sight weren't
coincident.Another mounting method placed the EDM on top of, and later above
and below, the theodolite telescope. Measurement and slope reduction was
similar to that of a yoke-mount EDM.This method had the same disadvantage as
the yoke mount plus two additional ones: (1) It shifted the measuring center of
the EDM as the zenith angle changed (necessitating more computations), and,
(2) it stressed the telescope mount and lock which were not designed for the
additional eccentric weight.It wasn't until the digital theodolite was developed
that the EDM could be seamlessly integrated with an angle measuring device:
the Total Station. This has become the primary instrument for most surveyors
and represents the latest evolutionary step of the EDM. For the rest of this
chapter, we will discuss distance measurement with a TSI.
Reflector
Any surface capable of reflecting the electro-optical signal will allow distance
measurement. However, the more efficient the reflector, the stronger the
returned signal and the longer distance which can be measured. Efficiency
includes
amount of signal reflected along with
the
direction of its return path. For
example,
while a flat mirror reflects most of the
signal, if it
is not perpendicular to the incoming
path, the
signal will be reflected away from the
TSI.
Mirror not
Mirror Reflector
To overcome this problem, a corner cube prism is used as a reflector for most
TSIs. A corner cube prism is based on a 45 right angle prism. This type of prism
has the property that any signal which intersects its long (hypotenuse) side will
be reflected parallel to the incoming path even if the prism is not perpendicular
to the signal path.
Prism not
Prism Reflector
A typical corner cube prism uses a
cylinder having three 45 facets at one
This creates three right angle prisms
sharing the glass cylinder's flat front
hypotenuse. From the front the facets
as six radial segments:
glass
end.
all
as their
appear
Triple prism
Over short distances of a few hundred feet, other objects such as bicycle
reflectors and reflective tape will also work. While not as efficient as a prism they
have the advantage of being cheap.
Reflectorless Total Stations
The past decade has seen the introduction and maturation of reflectorless total
stations. Their inherent advantage is the ability to measure distances to points
not accessible with a prism. Their biggest drawback is their generally (much)
shorter range. This is in large part dependent on surface reflectivity. However,
most reflectorless instruments can also use a prism as a conventional TSI giving
them greater flexibility. A reflectorless TSI uses short pulses of high energy laser
light. This energy is considerably higher than that used by phase shift TSIs in
order to get a return signal off low reflection surfaces. The instrument measures
travel times of the laser pulses and from that can determine the total
instrument-surface-instrument distance.Because the laser pulses reflect off
different surfaces, care must be exercised when pointing the instrument. This is
especially critical when there are multiple surfaces at various orientations near
the measurement point. Many instruments feature a built-in laser pointer which
provides the operator a visual indication of where the measurement will be
made.
WORKING PROCEDURE
The TA will demonstrate how to use each of the total stations in the field.
That tangent locks do not need to be rotated more than of a turn tolock
or unlock the circle. If you over-tighten the tangent locks when lockingthe
circle, this will strip the lock assembly
Do not unlock the lower circleassembly, as this instrument does not
function like a theodolite. Take the timeto learn which screws adjust which
orientations.
Take the instrument out of the box and insert the battery into the slot on
theside of the instrument.
Put the instrument back in the box, lock the latches, and head for the
NorthLawn.
Use this checklist to remember the point-to-point procedure.
Setup and level the instrument over the point.
Backsight the previous point with a plumb bob or prism.
Calculate and enter the azimuth to the backsight in the instrument.
Foresight the next point and shoot the horizontal distance.
DISCUSSION/SUGGESTION
As the discussions of this leveling fieldwork practical, my friends and I have
gone through a lot of new and useful experiences. First of all, we had learned on
how to level an empty land by using the leveling equipments. This was my first
time knowing using and handling such equipments. Moreover, we also learned to
be patient in adjusting the bubble to the center of the circle. Although it was
testing my patient but with the help of my group members I managed to balance
the automatic level. However, we also faced some problems some problems
when was leveling, it was very difficult for us to measure the incline land surface
using the automatic level. This was because, the bubble was very difficult to
position it into the center of the circle by 360 rotation. Furthermore, there are
some suggestions on how to make this leveling fieldwork practical easier and
faster. First of all, the automatic level have to change to digital level, so that the
leveling practical would be much more easier and accurate. Besides, the leveling
fieldwork area should be quite plane surface, so that the leveling practical would
be more easy and can end up quickly. Relatively quick collection of information.
Advantages of Total Station Surveying .Multiple surveys can be performed at one
set-up location.Easy to perform distance and horizontal measurements
withsimultaneous calculation of project coordinates (Northings, Eastings,and
Elevations).Layout of construction site quickly and efficiently.Digital design data
from CAD programs can be uploaded to datacollector.Vertical elevation accuracy
not as accurate as using conventionalsurvey level and rod technique.Horizontal
coordinates are calculated on a rectangular grid system.However, the real world
should be based on a spheroid andrectangular coordinates must be transformed
to geographiccoordinates if projects are large scale.Examples : highways, large
buildings, etc.As with any computer-based application Garbage in
equalsGarbage out. However, in the case of inaccurate constructionsurveys
Garbage in equals lawsuits and contractors claims for extras.Disadvantages of
Total StationSurveying.Daily survey information can also be quickly downloaded
into
CADwhich
eliminates
data
manipulation
time
required
using
conventionalsurvey techniques.
CONCLUSION
As the conclusion of this leveling fieldwork practical, the data that we obtained
from the leveling using the automatic level were calculated and booked in
correct form of data table. Those data were used to plot the profile and cross
sections (1 - Longitudinal & 6 - Cross Section ) by using the Rise and Fall method.
These plotting can decide the most suitable and economic levels and gradients
in longitudinal section and in the traverse direction. It is also help to locating the
places of cut, fills or neither cut nor fills occurs. Furthermore, the data that we
obtained can be also used to plot contour section by using the method of Height
of Collimation. The plotted contour shows lines which join the points that have
the same height above or below the datum of a particular area (fieldwork). By
doing this leveling fieldwork practical, my friends and I had learned a brand new
experience on how to level an empty land by using the leveling equipments
correctly and also how to book in the data in correct manner.In this work a
systematic methodology in collecting and reducingfield data to obtain
planimetric and contour maps simultaneously. This method should reduceerror
and time of field work. A formula is derived to be used for correcting errors in
elevationresults.The contour map produced by this work shows high degree of
fidelity. The 3Dversion was produced by draping the satellite photographs
obtained from Google Earth ontothe elevation data of the selected region. It
REFFERANCES