District Heating For New Builds.

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CE299
The applicability of
district heating
for new dwellings
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Table of contents
Introduction
1. UK district heating and building stock
2. The energy requirements for new dwellings in the future
2.1
2.2
Heating requirements
Heat and electricity requirements
7
11
3. The implications of low heat demand for district heating networks

3.1
3.2
District heating systems

The influence of heat density on the applicability of district heating
4. Low carbon and renewable supply technologies for district heating

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
13
13
16
19
Biomass only heating

Solar thermal
Renewable combined heat and power
Other technologies
Technology integration
19
21
22
24
24
5. Implementation of district heating
28
5.1
5.2
Energy services companies

Capacity for delivering district heating in the UK
28
29
6. Conclusions and recommendations for further work
30
Appendix A Opportunities for cost reduction in the heat

distribution pipe work: the Scandinavian research
31
Unless otherwise indicated, images are BRE
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The applicability of district heating for new dwellings
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Introduction
This report has been commissioned by the Energy Saving Trust to look at the role district heating could
play in response to the demands of the Code for Sustainable Homes. It also examines how future
reductions in the heating requirements of new dwellings may affect the viability of district heating schemes.
Section 1 looks at the UK implementation of district heating according to building stock.
Section 2 examines the heat demand of new dwellings in the future.
Section 3 reviews the implications of low heat demand on the viability of district heating networks.
Section 4 provides a brief description of several low carbon and renewable district heating supply
technologies and their role in achieving compliance with different levels of the Code for Sustainable
Homes.
Section 5 describes the role of energy services companies in the implementation of district heating
schemes.
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1. UK district heating and

building stock
Space heating and domestic hot water (DHW) needs within the UK domestic sector have traditionally
been supplied by individual heating systems, either in the form of boilers using gas, oil or solid fuels
or through electric heating systems.
Community or district heating (DH) systems generate heat from one or more energy sources and deliver
it to users via distribution pipes. DH schemes can normally be found in domestic or mixed use
developments. Domestic schemes vary in size from simple sheltered housing developments fed with a
communal boiler, through housing estates
where several hundred homes are supplied
with heat from a central energy source, all the
way to city-wide heat distribution networks
that serve a wide range of customers. Figure 1
shows a district heating scheme that connects
several apartment blocks in Aberdeen.
Figure 1: Seaton state district heating scheme, Aberdeen

While district heating is widely extended and adopted in Scandinavian countries, the penetration of DH
schemes within the UK is still very limited. Figures for 2004 show that only 2% of housing stock in
England, Wales and Northern Ireland was connected to district heating systems1. Of this, 89% of the
dwellings connected were flats and the remaining 11% were houses (see figure 2).
Proportion of individual and community
heating systems
Proportion of flats and houses served by community

heating systems
2%
11%
Individual
Community
Flats
Houses
98%
89%
Figure 2: Proportion of individual and district heating systems (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)
1. Data is based on a survey of about 20,000 dwellings in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and covers the period 2003-04. The data
presented here has been adapted from the BRE report Desk study on heat metering prepared by Richard Hartless, Jonathan Williams and
Robert Burzynski. June 2007.
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UK trends for new build housing stock indicate that more dwellings currently under construction may be
suited to district heating than is the case with existing stock. For example, from 2002 to 2006, the
number of detached houses decreased by almost 50% in favour of flats and maisonettes2. In 2006, flats
and maisonettes accounted for 40% of all new dwellings.
120%
Flats and maisonettes
100%
Terraced
80%
Semi-detached
Detached
60%
40%
20%
0%
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Figure 3: UK new housing built by type of dwelling

A more detailed analysis of the new build housing stock3 shows that most new houses/dwellings are built
in small developments. For example, published figures indicate that 32% of new dwellings are in
developments of less than ten homes: only 15% are built in developments of over 500 homes.
Both the type of housing and the size of the development will ultimately shape the range of technologies
to be implemented.
Summary
Community or district heating (DH) systems generate heat from one or more energy sources and
deliver it to users via distribution pipes.
In 2004, 89% of all the dwellings connected to district heating schemes within England, Wales and
Northern Ireland were flats.
From 2002 to 2006, the number of newly built detached houses decreased by almost 50% in favour
of flats and maisonettes.
2. Adapted from Trade Sector Profile. Domestic Insulation 2007. www.eeph.org.uk Original Source: ONS / Department of Communities and
Local Governments Housing Statistics 2006.
3. The Role of onsite energy generation in delivering zero carbon homes. A report from the Renewable Advisory Board. November 2007.
www.renewables-advisory-board.org.uk
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2. The energy requirements for new

dwellings in the future
The Code for Sustainable Homes (CSH)4 was published in England and Wales in December 2006. It is
expected to be progressively introduced through changes to the national building regulations, with an aim
in England of achieving net zero carbon new build homes by 2016.
The Code for Sustainable Homes refers to six levels of energy efficiency, the final four of which demand
progressively higher levels of emissions reduction as follows:
Code Level 3 (CSH3): 25% carbon reduction beyond 2006 Building Regulations requirements.
Code Level 6 (CSH6): net zero carbon homes (this level also includes energy use not covered by building
regulations, i.e. from cooking and appliances).
Code level 6 (zero carbon home) definition
Code level 6 further criteria
Heat loss parameter equal to 0.8 W/m2K.
Onsite renewable/low carbon is defined as:

installations which are either on/in the dwelling
or elsewhere on/off site where these directly
supply the dwelling through a private wire
agreement.
Net zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

including the energy consumed in the operation
of space heating/cooling and hot water systems,
ventilation, all internal lighting, cooking and
electrical appliances.
Green tariffs not allowed for.
Achievement of Code level 5.
No connection to main gas*.
Source: Code for Sustainable Homes.
* BN 26. Stamp Duty: Relief for new zero carbon homes. Budget
Technical Guide. October 2007.
2007. HM Revenue and Customs
For Code levels up to and including 5 it seems like there will be no specific requirements in relation to
how to achieve the required CO2 reduction. This means that the same levels of CO2 reduction could be
achieved from the use of energy efficiency and/or the use of renewable energy technologies, as long as
the fabric insulation and airtightness levels comply with the minimum regulatory requirements. However,
according to its current definition5, a zero carbon home is required to achieve a heat loss parameter (HLP)
of 0.8 W/m2K or less, which is equivalent to having a heat requirement of 15 kWh/m2 per year similar
to the PassivHaus standard6.
As part of the process of achieving zero carbon homes, the Department of Communities and Local
Government (CLG) has published a timescale that establishes targets for CO2 emission reductions relative
to 2006 Building Regulations. Table 1 shows the required CO2 emissions reduction, the timescale for
implementation and the required HLP 7 for different Code levels.
4. Code for Sustainable Homes. A step-change in sustainable home building practice. December 2006. www.planningportal.gov.uk
5. As given in the Code for Sustainable Homes. Technical Guide. October 2007.
6. www.passivhaus.org.uk
7. The heat losses parameter indicates the heat losses through the building fabric accounting for fabric (including thermal bridges), ventilation
and infiltration losses.
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Table 1: Carbon reduction and heat loss parameter required for different levels of the Code
Year
CO2 reduction beyond 2006

Building Regulations
HLP (W/m2K)
minimum requirements
CSH3
2010
25%
Uncertain: HLP given by the Part ADL1 acceptable

insulation and air permeability requirements.
CSH4
2013
44%

CSH5
100%

CSH6
2016
100% + appliances and cooking
0.8
The following two sections look at the energy requirements for dwellings built to different levels of the
Code. The first looks at the heating requirements while the second also accounts for electricity requirements.
A mid-floor flat (61m2) and a detached house (104m2) have been chosen for the analysis presented in this
section. This choice represents dwellings of high and low density; as we will see in section 3.2, housing
density has a major impact on the viability of district heating schemes.
2.1
Heating requirements
The heating requirements in a dwelling are dictated by both space heating and DHW requirements.
DHW requirements depend not only on the occupancy of a dwelling but also on the householders
patterns of consumption. The CSH establishes minimum targets for water consumption under its different
levels this will consequently reduce the DHW requirements for the higher code levels. However, at this
stage it is not clear how these targets will affect the DHW requirements for building regulations energy
calculations. SAP 2005 currently calculates the DHW needs assuming a standard occupancy profile and
the DHW need is related to the floor area of the dwelling. The calculations here make the same
assumption and therefore the water consumption maximum allowances as defined in the CSH have been
omitted from the calculations.
The HLP indicates the level of heat loss through the envelope and considers fabric, thermal bridges and
ventilation losses including infiltrations. The smaller the HLP, the smaller will be both the annual space
heating demand and the magnitude of the heating design load.
The relative proportion of heat loss accounted for by these different elements is illustrated in figure 4 for
both a detached house and a flat.
The proportion of heat loss due to fabric losses and ventilation is very much dependent on the
building shape.
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Heat losses for a 2006 compliant dwelling

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Detached
Ventilation
Flat
Thermal bridges
Fabric
Figure 4: Heat losses for a 2006 Building Regulation

compliant dwelling
For the detached house examined in this section (a representative 2006 compliant dwelling), the fabric
loss including thermal bridge loss is responsible for about 70% of the total heat loss, with the rest due to
ventilation and infiltration. For a representative 2006 mid-floor flat, fabric loss is reduced to about 60% of
total heat loss.
To reduce heat loss further it will be necessary to address all of the factors which are fabric insulation,
thermal bridges, ventilation and infiltration.
There will be a limit to the heat loss reduction achievable due to better insulation standards. And there
will be a point where ventilation losses will need to be reduced through construction techniques that use
high levels of air tightness and mechanical heat recovery ventilation (MVHR) devices. So the additional
electrical consumption of the MVHR system must to be taken into account. Different techniques can be
used and they have been extensively examined in the development of the PassivHaus standards.
While CSH3 can be achieved through the demand-reduction measures, renewable generation
technologies will be necessary to exceed the required CO2 reduction targets of CSH4.
To calculate the heat losses in this section, a progressive linear reduction between 2006 and the CSH68
space-heating requirements has been assumed. Values are shown in table 2 .
8. For a CSH6 dwelling, a space heating requirement of 15 kWh/m2 has been assumed.
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Table 2: Indicative reduction in annual space heating for different code levels as a percentage of a 2006
Building Regulations compliant dwelling
Estimated space heating reduction below 2006
Building Regulations
Code
Revised Building Regulations
Detached house
Flat
CSH3
2010
23%
21%
CSH4
2013
47%
43%
CSH5
52%
48%
CSH6
2016
64% plus
70% plus
Figure 5 shows the estimated monthly combined space heating and DHW requirements for the flat and
detached house respectively at an average UK location.9 The effect of the heat loss reduction is to flatten
the curve through the different months of the year, indicating that the heating requirements are
increasingly dominated by DHW (rather than space heating).
1600
1600
1400
1400
1200
kWh
1200
kWh
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1000
800
1000
800
600
600
400
400
200
200
DHW
DHW
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2006 flat
CL4 flat
CL5 flat
CL6 flat
2006 detached
house
Flat (61m2)
CL4 detached
house
CL5 detached
house
CL6 detached
house
Detached house (104m2)
Figure 5: Monthly variation of a dwellings heating requirements for different heat loss standards
To estimate the weight of space heating and DHW requirements, figure 6 shows the overall dwelling
heating requirements split between space heating and DHW for the different CSH standards. It shows how
a CSH6 dwellings space heating would account for only around 30% of the total heating requirements.
The HLP values for different Code levels will depend on the minimum requirements for insulation and air
tightness set in future revisions to building regulations, and the extent to which developments are
encouraged to go beyond the minimum requirements by CSH credits for improved HLP.
Apart from in CSH6, minimum insulation and airtightness requirements for future building regulations
have not been set up. It is therefore difficult to estimate the HLP that will be required for different Code
levels. This task is even more complicated because compliance with the required CO2 reduction targets
can be achieved through different measures.
9. The average UK location is taken to be the East Pennines, as detailed in SAP.
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Space heating and DHW energy requirements as a percentage of total heating requirements
100%
100%
80%
80%
49%
59%
39%
50%
57%
65%
73%
60%
68%
60%
40%
40%
61%
50%
51%
41%
20%
43%
20%
35%
32%
27%
0%
0%
2006 Flat
CL4 Flat
DHW
CL5 Flat
2006
Detached
CL6 Flat
CL4
Detached
CL6
Detached
Space heating
DHW
Space heating
CL5
Detached
Flat (61m2)
Figure 6: Proportion of space heating and DHW requirements for different dwelling heat loss standards.
Flat and detached house
The important message to remember is that by 2016, the total heat load will be dominated by DHW.
Space heating will account for less than a third of total heat load and may decline further.
Note: The overall hot water requirements of a dwelling would be increased by substituting electric
heaters in dishwashers and washing machines with hot water circuits10 which could reduce distribution
losses from a district network and lead to lower carbon dioxide emissions. This may however, increase the
cost of the appliances.
It is also important to consider the overall reduction in heating design load expected for typical dwellings
that meet the higher Code levels. A comparison of these reductions is shown in figure 7.
Heating design load reduction compared with 2006 Building Regulations
45%
50%
40%
40%
35%
30%
30%
25%
42%
20%
31%
15%
10%
47%
20%
21%
10%
35%
24%
5%
0%
0%
CL4 Flat
CL5 Flat
CL6 Flat
CL4 Detached
house
CL5 Detached
house
CL6 Detached
house
Figure 7: Indicative reduction in the design heating load for different Code levels
10. Persson, Tomas and Rnnelid, Mats. Increasing solar gains by using hot water to heat dishwashers and washing machines. Applied Thermal
Engineering, Volume 27, Issues 2-3, February 2007.
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Heat and electricity requirements
Under current building regulations and up to CSH5 only, CO2 emissions from space heating, domestic hot
water, fans, pumps and lighting need to be considered. For CSH6, cooking and all appliances must be
included.
Figure 8 summarises the estimated useful energy requirements under different Code levels, reflecting the
need to include cooking and all appliances for CSH6 requirements.
The importance of including the appliances in the energy balance is quite significant. Up to and including
CSH5, the useful energy requirements of the dwelling are dominated by the space heating and DHW
requirements. This is mainly because the energy used by the appliances and cooking are not included and
means that heating dominates. However, for CSH6, the energy used by heating and electricity is equally
balanced, see figure 8.
It is also interesting to relate the annual heating to electricity requirements for different levels of the Code.
This is shown in table 3 with and without considering the electricity used in the appliances and cooking.
Note: values apply only to the dwellings examined in this report.
Heating and electricity energy requirement

100%
100%
80%
60%
80%
52%
88%
86%
60%
85%
40%
90%
87%
85%
40%
48%
20%
12%
0%
49%
2006 Flat
14%
CSH4 Flat
15%
CSH5 Flat
Electricity
Flat (61m2)
Heat
51%
20%
CSH6 Flat
0%
10%
13%
15%
2006
Detached
House
CSH4
Detached
House
CSH5
Detached
House
Electricity
CSH6
Detached
House
Heat
Figure 8: Contribution of heat and electricity energy requirements to the total energy requirements of a
dwelling under different Code levels (see figure 7 heating design load peak demand)
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Table 3: Annual heat to electricity requirements ratio

Excluding appliances
and cooking
Including appliances
and cooking
Flat
Detached house
Flat
Detached house
2006 Building Regulations
7.3
8.6
1.6
1.8
CSH4
6.1
6.8
1.3
1.4
CSH5
5.5
5.8
1.2
1.2
CSH6
4.9
4.9
1.1
Summary
By 2013 CSH4 will require 44% CO2 emissions savings above 2006 Building Regulations requirements.
CSH5 will require 100% savings. Up to CSH5, CO2 emissions from space heating, domestic hot water,
ventilation and lighting must be considered.
By 2016 CSH6 all new homes in England will have to be built to net zero carbon standards - this
accounts for all energy use within the dwelling, including cooking and appliances.
Up to and including CSH5, the energy requirements and CO2 emissions of the dwelling (from the
point of view of building regulations compliance) are governed by the space heating and DHW
requirements. For CSH6 the CO2 emissions from electricity usage in the dwelling will be dominant.
The HLP indicates the heat losses through the building fabric accounting for fabric (including
thermal bridges), ventilation and infiltration losses.
By 2016 the heat loss parameter in dwellings will be limited to 0.8W/m2K.
Achieving a HLP of 0.8 W/m2K under CSH6 is equivalent to achieving heat loss standards similar to
those permitted under the PassivHaus standard, i.e. space heat requirements of 15 kWh/m2y.
Note: 15 kWh/m2 is an indicative figure.
A smaller HLP will reduce both the annual space heating demand and the magnitude of the heating
design load.
A dwelling built to CSH6 will reduce space heating requirements by at least 60-70% compared with
a 2006 compliant dwelling.
By 2016 the total heat load will be dominated by DHW, while space heating demands will account
for less than a third of total heat load and may decline further.
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3. The implications of low heat

demand for district heating networks
3.1
District heating systems
District Heating (DH) is where a number of buildings or dwellings are heated from a central source. Heat is
delivered to the end user through distribution pipes carrying hot water, as shown in figure 9 below.
Dwellings/offices/retail/schools...
Energy centre
Woodchip/pellet boiler
Biomass CHP
Figure 9: Schematic of a district heating system

Distribution is normally via pre-insulated steel pipes, as shown in figure 10 below, courtesy of Aberdeen
City Council.
The use of pre-insulated flexible plastic pipes is extensive in some Scandinavian countries such as
Denmark, although they are normally used for smaller systems.
Aberdeen City Council
Figure 10: City-wide district heating pipe works
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Heat transfer between the distribution network and the building or dwellings internal heating
distribution systems occurs via a hydraulic interface unit (HIU) installed in the building/dwelling. Among
other things, they normally include a heat exchanger(s) which substitutes the need for an individual
boiler. The DH network usually guarantees instant access to DHW, therefore removing the need for hot
water cylinders or any type of individual boiler at a dwelling or building level. This frees extra space in
the dwelling, which is beneficial from a developers and residents point of view.
From the users point of view there is no operational difference compared with an individual heating
installation. Radiators equipped with thermostatic valves, programmers and room thermostats are the
same for both systems.
Once the heat network is installed, DH offers fuel
flexible energy provision. For example, fossil fuel-fired
heat plants could be substituted in the future by new,
renewable technologies such as fuel cells and biomass
combined heat and power (CHP). This means that
carbon-intensive heating networks can be converted
relatively simply to use low or zero carbon energy
sources.
Fuel flexibility increases the security of supply. When
using renewable fuel sources, heat-generating plant is
normally installed with backup boiler capacity such as a
gas or oil boiler. Multiple fuel types can therefore be
easily integrated within the same scheme.
In a DH scheme there is no need for a gas connection
to the dwelling, provided occupants are happy to cook
by electricity. This reduces the risk of fire and poisoning
by carbon monoxide within the dwellings.
Figure 11: Detail of a domestic heat exchanger
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DH supply sources include both fossil fuel, e.g. gas fired combined heat and power, and renewable
energy sources (for example biomass).
CHP is the generation of electricity and the use of the heat that is generated in the process as a byproduct. This allows system efficiencies that exceed conventional electricity-generating technologies.
Indicative CHP energy balance
45 units of heat
100 units of fuel
Combined heat
and power plant
30 units of electricity
25 units waste heat
CHP systems can use a range of electricity generating techniques, however reciprocating internal
combustion engines are the only technology in common use in district heating schemes in the UK.
As a rule of thumb and in order to achieve attractive economical returns, CHP plants need to run for at
least 4,000-5,000 hours per annum, which is equivalent to running the plant about 13-14 hours every
day of the year. In order to meet the threshold criteria for good quality CHP, it is necessary for the
majority of the heat generated to be used. This is easily achievable in mixed-use developments where
the load diversity smoothes the heat profile and allows the plant to maximise the number of hours that
usable heat is produced. For a domestic-only scheme where heat requirements normally occur for a few
hours early in the day and in the evening (see figure 12) thermal storage is normally required to match
the heat output of the CHP with the heat demand profile.
The use of highly responsive top-up sources such as gas boilers is normally required in DH schemes to
cope with variations in demand, ensuring that enough heat is produced at any time to supply both peak
space heating and DHW requirements. Sufficient plant capacity and a suitable distribution network size
and controls are fundamental to ensuring this.
2006 flat
CL4 flat
CL6 flat
23:00
21:00
22:00
20:00
19:00
18:00
16:00
CL5 flat
17:00
14:00
15:00
12:00
13:00
11:00
10:00
8:00
9:00
6:00
7:00
4:00
5:00
2:00
3:00
0:00
1:00
dwelling thermal load
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Figure 12: Typical daily

average heat profile in a
representative mid-heating
season day for different
Code levels
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3.2
The influence of heat density on the applicability of district heating
Successful implementation of a DH scheme relates primarily to a sites building density and more
specifically, to its heat density11. This is due to the high capital and installation costs of the heat
distribution network. The greater the distance between dwellings, the longer the pipe run and the
greater the costs, even though the heat sold remains fixed. Figure 13 shows two hypothetical DH
schemes supplying the same amount of heat for a high and a low density development. The distribution
network required to supply the block of flats is considerably smaller, even allowing for risers and
horizontal heat distribution within the flats.
LOW
DENSITY
Detached houses
Total heat demand H
Pipe length L1
HIGH
DENSITY
Flats
Total heat demand H
Pipe length L2 (L2<L1)
Figure 13: Housing density influence on the distribution network required for a certain amount of
heat demand
Historically it has been assumed that densities above 50 dwellings per hectare, e.g. a development of
flats, justify implementation of a district heating scheme based on economic parameters. However, the
requirement for zero carbon homes involves a step change in carbon savings. So district heating schemes
may need to be applied at lower densities (e.g. for houses) than has traditionally been the case, even
though there will be higher costs involved and heat demands will be lower due to improved HLPs.
Figure 14 shows the cost breakdown of a DH installation according to the District Heating Indicators
published by the Community Energy programme in May 2004. The diagrams use amalgamated costs
obtained for DH schemes that use different technologies (either heating-only or CHP) and have different
housing densities. Although the higher cost range could be representative of low-density schemes, one
needs to treat the information with care as under the Community Energy programme12 there were only a
few low-density schemes. Nevertheless, in the case of low-density schemes, the heat network is often
the single largest element of the schemes cost.
The feasibility of low-density DH schemes will more than likely depend on the ability to deliver cost
reductions in the DH distribution network.
11. Heat density refers to the amount of heat required per m2 of land or per pipe length.
12. http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing
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Low cost scenario
High cost scenario
5%
3%
23%
38%
40%
Energy centre
Energy centre
Electrical connection
Heat network
2%
32%
Electrical connection
Heat network
Internals
Consumer connection
Internals
Consumer connection
Heat
network
Heat
network
43%
2%
20%
Figure 14: Cost breakdown of district energy schemes. Source: Community Energy Indicators. May 2004.
The Energy Saving Trust
The Swedish sparse district-heating research programme has been looking at ways to increase the
competitiveness of community heating in low heat-density areas13. In contrast to the UKs motive for
implementing DH in low-density developments (to achieve zero carbon homes), the Swedish research
responds to the need to expand existing DH schemes to include low-density areas. Its conclusions
therefore need to be seen in perspective. Nevertheless the Swedish experience and those of other
Scandinavian countries needs to be taken into account if the UK is to successfully implement DH in low
density areas.
Ultimately, the benefits of DH schemes will depend on the ability of centralised heat production to
outweigh the disadvantages relating to heat distribution. While this has been already successfully achieved
in high density developments, more work is required to examine the viability of implementation of DH in
low heat density areas.
Figure 14 shows the variation of the district heating network cost with the dwelling density.
DG capital installation costs influence of housing density
housing density
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48%
12%
14%
15%
cost per dwelling
Figure 15: District heating system capital cost variation with housing density (dwellings/hectare)
13. Nilsson S.F. et al., Sparse district heating in Sweden, Appl Energ (2007), doi : 10.1016/ j.apenergy.207.07.011.
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Lower heat losses mean that the building heat design load will be smaller. This could offer opportunities
to reduce the pipe diameter and that will reduce the capital investment required for the distribution
network and, potentially, the installation costs. Smaller pipe diameters may allow for smaller trenches
and therefore smaller excavation and refilling costs.
Some Scandinavian countries are also examining the possibility of installing heat storage in dwellings to
reduce pipe diameters further, particularly in low-density developments.
Section 2 of the report has shown how heat loss reductions mean that heating requirements in dwellings
will be increasingly driven by the DHW requirements. For a given dwelling density, this means that the
heat density will be smaller and that the life cycle costs of the heat delivered per dwelling will increase.
This phenomenon will be more significant in those areas where the housing density is already lower e.g.
groups of detached houses.
In addition, lower heat densities mean that higher distribution losses are likely to occur. This issue needs
to be considered before deciding the suitability of DH in low-density areas.
Appendix A of this report summarises the current research in some Scandinavian countries to identify
opportunities for reducing the cost of heat distribution networks.
Summary
For district heating schemes:
Viability decreases with lower dwelling and heat densities.
The heat network is often the highest capital cost element, particularly in low-density developments.
The capital cost of the heat network per dwelling increases as dwelling density drops.
The lower heat demands of new dwellings in the future will mean:
Heat demand density will be lower and cost effectiveness worse for any given dwelling density.
Smaller diameter pipes can be adopted, although cost per dwelling increases.
In order to achieve zero carbon homes, district heating schemes may need to be applied at lower
densities than traditionally has been the case, even though there will be higher costs involved
compared to individual heating systems.
Heat distribution losses in low density housing areas will be higher.
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4. Low carbon and renewable supply

technologies for district heating
DH networks can be supplied by a variety of low and renewable carbon heat sources, primarily:
Biomass boilers.
Solar thermal collector fields.
Biomass CHP.
Other sources such geothermal, waste heat and waste to energy heat recovery.
4.1
Biomass only heating
A suitable definition of biomass for the purposes of this report is any fuel, whether solid, liquid or gas,
derived from a renewable organic source14.
Both woody and non-woody biomass sources exist. Woody biomass includes short rotation coppice, forest
residues, untreated wood waste and crop residues such as straw. Non-woody biomass refers to vegetable
oil crops, animal residues and industrial waste.
Woody biomass can be either burnt directly as a raw product or processed into other forms such as pellets
or woodchips. Pellets and woodchip boilers are the two most common technologies for DH biomass schemes.
Wood pellets can be obtained by refining sawmill products and from different wood processing
operations such as furniture manufacturing. Wood pellets for use in building heating applications are
cylindrical and have a diameter of 6 to 12mm and length of 10 to 30mm. They have less moisture content
than woodchips and thus have more energy content for the same volume. They are, however, more
expensive to produce and may require longer delivery distances.
The main sources for woodchip within the UK are forestry and woodlands (e.g. whole trees, logging
residues, thinning and tree maintenance), wood processing (e.g. sawmill co-products like slab wood and
joinery residues) and recycled untreated timber from pallets and construction industry.
Woodchips can also be obtained from dedicated energy crops which are specifically grown for fuel purposes.
Figure 16: Woodchips

14. Community heating using new and renewable sources. The Energy Saving Trust.
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Woodchip boilers have higher capital costs than pellet boilers, although the fuel is cheaper and therefore
they are normally more cost-effective for large installations such as DH. Both pellets and woodchips can
be used by such boilers operating automatically.
A rich methane gas normally referred to as biogas can be obtained via the gasification of biomass15.
Biogas can be used in conventional gas boilers for DH heating applications but it could also potentially
be distributed to individual households via the conventional gas pipe network.
Vegetable oil crops can be harvested and converted into biofuel. Biodiesel is a variant that can also be
made from the processing of waste oil. However, these fuels are often diverted for use in helping to
meet the requirements of the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation.
Both biogas and biodiesel heating systems are not yet a common practice in the UK. And the carbon
intensity of biodiesel is uncertain, so the extent of carbon savings remains unclear.
Possible contribution of biomass heating boilers
Biomass boilers usually operate along with some type of top-up boiler to provide winter peak demands.
This approach allows the number of hours the boiler operates to be kept close to its optimal capacity,
increasing the seasonal boiler efficiency. It also offers the most cost effective approach. Wood-fired boilers
respond relatively slowly to changes in heat demand, so are not suitable to cope with peak demands.
Depending on the technology used, biomass boilers for DH residential schemes can be sized to meet
between 50-70% of the peak heat demand and can supply around 70-80% of the total heat
requirement. Higher levels of biomass penetration will require a greater amount of thermal storage to
smooth the heat demand. Using biomass boilers in district heating should therefore enable CSH4 to be
achieved. In order to achieve higher Code level requirements, some sort of renewable electricity
generation would be required. This could be done, for example, with photovoltaics or wind turbines
connected to the wider power distribution network, or biomass CHP.
Typical proportion of annual heat requirements
supplied by biomass boilers
100%
Top-up
Heat requirements
76243-09-08
Biomass
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Figure 17: Typical proportion of the annual heating

requirements supplied by heat only wood fired boilers
15. See section 4.3 on renewable CHP.
Page 20
It should be noted that under building

regulations, biomass is not classified as
a zero carbon fuel. To account for the
energy used in processing and
transportation, the fuel is assumed to
have a carbon content of 25gCO2/kWh,
roughly equivalent to an eighth of the
carbon content of natural gas. This
factor is allowed for in the analysis
presented above.
Note: The current version of SAP,

SAP2005, allows users to define dwellings
supplied with biomass DH schemes
using pellets, woodchips or biogas.
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4.2
Solar thermal
Although solar thermal DH development in the UK is negligible, it is an emerging technology in Nordic
countries, especially in Denmark. There are currently 12 district heating schemes in Denmark served in
part by solar thermal collector arrays. Given the comparable solar resource with other northern European
locations, solar district heating in the UK should be technically possible (although in most parts of the
country its solar resource is slightly less than Denmark).
Applications of solar thermal energy in DH schemes can range from large schemes serving large
developments to smaller schemes serving a block or group of dwellings (see figures below).
While small domestic solar thermal installations in the UK usually provide only DHW, solar thermal DH also
supplies part of the space heating requirement.
Larger solar DH schemes consist of ground-mounted collector fields whilst smaller applications could install
the collectors integrated with the building roof (see figure 19). The use of ground-mounted collectors has
the disadvantage and expense of significant land requirements. This could be overcome in built-up areas
with roof-mounted installations which are more suited to installation on low-rise blocks of flats.
Figure 18: Large Solar thermal DH for PassivHouses.

Source: Ritter Solar / ESTIF
Figure 19: Collector field for DH, Eibiswald,

Austria. Source: S.O.L.I.D. / ESTIF
Figure 20: Solar DH plant, 20,000 m2.

Marstal, Denmark. Source: ARCON /
ESTIF
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Earlier solar DH installations used the solar heat to increase the temperature of the return cold pipe of the
DH system. This approach does not require thermal storage but needs a supplementary back-up heating source.
Other schemes combine diurnal thermal storage with a few days capacity. This approach has been used in
some Danish schemes supplying most of the DHW base load requirements. A back-up/top-up source
is required.
Modern applications of solar DH use seasonal thermal storage allowing the storage of heat from summer
to winter. This approach can increase the annual solar share (the percentage of total heating requirements
supplied by solar). Seasonal thermal storage is still in development, and although there are schemes that
have implemented this approach, it is not yet recommended for commercial applications.
In general, solar DH schemes will generally supply a small proportion of the heating requirements. However,
if used in very low heat-loss dwellings, solar thermal could contribute a greater proportion of the heating
requirements. As an example, roof-integrated solar collectors combined with an on-site 200m3 thermal
storage tank have been installed in a block of eight apartments in the town of Burgdorf in Switzerland16.
Possible contribution of solar thermal district heating
Solar assisted DH could be used together with biomass boilers. In summer, the biomass boiler could be
shut down, allowing for the solar field along with a smaller fossil fuel backup source to supply the
heating requirements.
Further research is recommended in order to establish the potential for solar thermal systems to serve
district heating in the UK. Close to our major towns and cities, land values are very high. However, if
spatial constraints could be overcome and adequate thermal storage is allowed for, solar thermal in DH
could contribute to reducing the carbon emissions at sites with an adequate solar resource. If the
experience in Denmark was replicated, solar DH schemes could enable CSH4 to be achieved.
Note: SAP2005 does not allow the user to define solar thermal aided district heating. This barrier needs to
be addressed, if the technology is to be adopted.
4.3
Renewable combined heat and power
New and emerging technologies also allow for the use of bioenergy systems in CHP. CHP can then be
referred to as biomass CHP and it can constitute a renewable solution if the biomass is sustainably
sourced. There are different fuels that can be used for biomass CHP.
A rich methane gas currently known as biogas can be obtained though the gasification of wood from
short-rotation coppice or forestry residues. The biogas can be directly used in internal reciprocating
engines, although significant cleaning and treatment of the gas is required beforehand.
Currently the use of wood gasification to obtain biogas is best applied to schemes of the order of at least
1MW electrical capacity. Under current building regulations, this would involve a development of at least
1,000 homes. Published figures17 indicate that only 9% of new build stock occurs in developments over
1,000 homes. So the technology needs to be developed further to be viable in smaller developments.
However, the issues associated with smaller CHP installations are not just technical, there are also
organisational and managerial issues associated with operating smaller schemes.
16. www.swissinfo.ch/eng/science_technology/detail/Sun_shines_on_one_of_a_kind_apartment_block.html?siteSect=511&sid=8159403&rss=
true&ty=st
17. The Role of onsite energy generation in delivering zero carbon homes. A report from the Renewable Advisory Board. November 2007.
www.renewables-advisory-board.org.uk
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Biomass CHP systems can use also solid wood. A boiler burning wood is used to generate steam that
drives a steam turbine to produce electricity. The low-pressure exhaust steam is then available for heating.
This is only used for very large industrial applications.
There is one manufacturer18 within the UK that offers a variant of this technology, but it is still in its early
stages. It claims that it can use wood chips, coppiced willow and miscanthus to drive a closed-loop
turbine. The plant under development generates about 200kW of electrical capacity, which would allow
its implementation in smaller developments.
Biodiesel CHP uses diesel-based reciprocating engines running on fuel that can be obtained from
vegetable oil and from the processing of waste oil for instance.
Because of the higher viscosity of liquid fuels like biodiesel, liquid engine systems tend to wear quicker
and hence have higher maintenance requirements and shorter lifetime expectancy. As a result, CHP
suppliers in the UK have tended to concentrate on gas-fired CHP systems.
Possible contribution of biomass combined heat and power
It should be noted that SAP2005 includes a cap that limits the contribution of CHP in achieving carbon
reductions in new dwellings. The original purpose of the cap was to curb the carbon savings achieved by
over-reliance on those natural gas-fired CHP systems that have high electrical efficiencies. It appears that
the same cap may result in the carbon savings from biomass CHP being severely underestimated, as the
electricity from biomass CHP is assumed to have the same carbon content as the grid (and the full carbon
savings are not allowed to be carried through on the heating side).
This issue has been brought to the attention of those responsible for SAP and, it is understood and will be
reviewed as part of the wider review of SAP following the launch of the Code for Sustainable Homes. It is
essential that this issue is resolved, otherwise one of the main routes to helping to achieve Code levels 5
and 6 will be unnecessarily restricted.
Figure 21: Energy centre for a biomass gasification plant. Wick

18. www.talbotts.co.uk/bgen.htm
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4.4
Other technologies
Other technologies can be used to supply heat to district heating schemes.
The use of geothermal energy has been exploited successfully at one location in the UK. This is the case
in the Southampton city wide geothermal district heating scheme19. Hot water at 74C is pumped up
from 1.7km beneath the city. At the surface, heat exchangers are used to supply heat to the wider city
DH scheme.
Waste heat from industrial processes can also be used to supply heat to DH distribution, from a nearby
distillery for instance. In addition, burning municipal solid waste offers opportunities for heat recovery
and this is used in Sheffield, Nottingham and Lerwick.
Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) can also be used to supply district heating networks. However, in
most situations, this would involve the installation of two separate distribution networks: one for the
space heating and another one for the DHW. This would severely increase the cost of an already capitalintensive technology.
4.5
Technology integration
Traditionally, radiator heating systems in the UK have operated at a supply water temperature of 82C
and at a return temperature of 71C. Existing DH schemes therefore ideally need to be able to operate
to this temperature regime. New schemes can however be designed for different operating temperatures.
Underfloor heating systems, for example, typically operate 50C with a return temperature of 43C. This
favours the use of technologies such as solar thermal and condensing boilers.
Lower temperatures can enable DH systems to make direct use of low-temperature heat sources. Heat
pump performance is best at lower supply temperatures. In DH schemes they need to be integrated in
low temperature heating networks and ideally combined with underfloor heating systems. Providing the
65C required for DHW is still a problem for this technology.
Gas-fired CHP and other renewable technologies can initially be integrated to offer a low-carbon source
of heating. There are, however, compatibility issues which need to be taken into account. These are
shown in table 4.
19. Urban district heating and cooling: the Southampton district energy scheme. IEA DHC. http://www.ieadhc.org/download/KN1640%20Southampton%20v2.pdf
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Table 4: The compatibility of renewable heat technologies supplying standard operating temperatures20 in
DH schemes
Technology
Physical ability to raise the return

temperature of the DH
Other issues
Biomass
(wood) boilers
No issue. Boilers are capable of providing

heat at the required temperature.
Biomass fuel supply.
Biogas boilers
No issue.
Biogas can be obtained from different

biomass processes. The gasification of
wood is one of them but this
technology is not yet proven in longterm operation in the UK.
Biofuel boilers
No issue.
Unlike other fuels, the carbon intensity

of biofuels is uncertain and hence the
carbon savings are unclear.
Solar thermal
Not achieved in any UK scheme. Some

Danish schemes operate with very low
temperature DH and have integrated
solar thermal.
Ground source
heat pumps
Only with poor performance. Although

GSHPs might be physically capable of
raising the return temperature of the DH
above 65C, the drop in the coefficient of
performance (CoP) at such temperatures
means there will not be a significant
carbon benefit over gas fired boilers. Very
low temperature heating presents fewer
obstacles.
20. 90C supply flow temperature and 71C return.
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Summary
Pellets and woodchip boilers are the two most common technologies for DH biomass schemes.
Biomass (wood-fired) boilers are not suited to cope with peak demands.
Biomass district heating boilers can help to achieve up to CSH4.
The applications of solar thermal energy in district heating schemes can range from large district
heating schemes serving large developments to smaller schemes serving a block or group of dwellings.
Larger solar DH schemes consist of ground-mounted collector field, whilst smaller applications could
make use of collectors integrated in the buildings roofs.
While smaller solar thermal installations aim to only provide DHW, the use of solar thermal DH also
allows part of the space heating requirement to be supplied.
If used in very low heat loss dwellings, solar thermal could contribute to a greater proportion of the
heating requirements.
The use of solar thermal technology in DH requires further research in the UK.
Current and short-term applications of biomass CHP are likely to be limited to developments of at
least 1,000 homes.
The current version of SAP does not adequately account for the full carbon benefits of biomass CHP.
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Table 5: Applicability of renewable energy sources for district heating schemes in the UK
2013
(Code level 4)
2016
(Code level 6, zero carbon homes)
Gas fired CHP
Potential to achieve CSH4.

Proven technology.
Biomass heating
Subject to fuel supply issues.

Proven technology.
Solar thermal
Highly dependent on technology

development.
High solar fraction required to achieve
CSH4.
Biomass CHP
Potential to achieve CSH6.

Technology development is likely to
be achieved in the UK within the
medium term.
Likely to be applicable only in major
developments.
Subject to fuel supply issues.
Likely to incur heat dumping for only
domestic developments.
Fuel cells
Highly dependent on technology

development.
Hydrogen obtained from renewable
sources will be required.
Waste heat from

industrial processes
or municipal waste
Proven technology.
Already used in DH schemes.
CO2 savings dependent on the waste
heat source.
Geothermal
Applicability limited to the availability

of suitable underground water
temperatures.
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5. Implementation of district heating

5.1
Energy services companies
An Energy Services Company (ESCO) is an entity that is set up to provide an energy service, including
energy efficiency, energy savings and/or sustainable provision of energy. ESCOs can follow different
business models21.
Fully driven by the public sector with no private-sector involvement.

Public-sector driven with private sector involvement in design and build.
Public-sector driven and operated by the private sector.
Private-sector driven with or without public sector encouragement.
CLG statistics22 show that for the year 2005, around 82% of dwelling stock was in the private sector. If
new build stock follows the same trends this means that the involvement of ESCOs in purely private
developments will be increasingly be a model to follow for the implementation of DH schemes. This is
already occurring in London where planning policy requires all new major developments to either connect
to existing DH schemes or to set up new DH networks.
In a hypothetical model, the ESCO could be used to design, build and operate the system. The developer
could contribute to all or part of the capital investment.
The capital contribution of the ESCO will depend on the business model implemented. The ESCO will
recover the contribution to the capital cost by selling heat and electricity if CHP schemes are used.
The application of DH in low heat density developments, as has been seen in the previous section, will
unavoidably incur higher capital costs per unit of heat sold. This can be reflected as either (or both):
An increase in the capital costs of the scheme.
Increase in the costs of the heat delivered (where part of the capital cost is included in the heat charge).
From a developers point of view, connection costs could be compensated in part by avoiding the capital
costs of individual boilers and gas connection. In addition DH frees up space thanks to the removal of
the boiler.
DH offers an alternative way of achieving CSH6 dwellings and therefore it is important to bear in mind
that its costs will need to be compared against alternative solutions.
From a residents point of view, DH avoids the need for boiler maintenance and replacement, minimises
the risk of fires and/or carbon monoxide poisoning, offers instant access to DHW at high pressure suitable
for showers and increases the living space.
The ESCO would be in charge of billing the dwelling occupant. While in social housing flat rates are
sometimes offered, heat meters will be required in private homes and the occupant will be charged for
the amount of heat used.
On a wider scale, an ESCO can be a Multi Utility Service Company (MUSCO). A MUSCO could be formed
to deliver heat, electricity, water and communications. It is expected that there could be cost benefits
arising as the heat mains can be installed in service ducts at the same time as other services, such as
communications are provided.
21. Making ESCOs work. Guidance and advice in setting up and delivering an ESCO. February 2007.
22. Department of Communities and Local Governments Housing Statistics 2006.
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5.2
Capacity for delivering district heating in the UK
The UK DH industry is small compared to Scandinavia. Only a few consultancies have experience of
analysing and designing district heating schemes. This includes a couple of very small firms that have been
operating in the field for over 30 years.
Due to a push for DH within the planning system, a larger number of consultancies are starting to analyse
district heating, but they do this from a very low experience base and risk repeating some of the mistakes
of the past.
There is also only a small number of ESCOs with experience of installing and successfully operating district
heating in the UK. And a small number of companies have experience in particular areas, e.g. pipe
installation and heat metering.
Overall, the UK industry is small in capacity and may struggle to cope with a large expansion in the use
of DH.
It may be help to seek involvement from companies based in European neighbour countries where
penetration of DH is high. These companies have state-of-the-art knowledge of all aspects of the
technology, are accustomed to working in other countries, and know the best way to develop emerging
schemes.
The UK has been a member of the IEA District Heating & Cooling programme. The programme carries out
research on a range of associated issues including network optimisation, integration of CHP, better pipe
installation techniques and district cooling. Renewed participation in this programme could be explored
as a good option for assisting overall effective scheme design and operation.
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6. Conclusions and recommendations

for further work
A combination of demand reduction and district heating with heat-only biomass would meet the building
regulations requirements of 2013, i.e. CSH4.
In order to achieve zero carbon dwellings, renewable CHP technologies are likely to be required,
particularly for high density development. However SAP needs to be modified to fully recognise the
carbon savings of the technology.
Heat requirements of new dwellings in the future will be reduced due to constraints set by the HLP.
Heating requirements in dwellings will therefore be increasingly driven by DHW requirements. For a given
dwelling density this means that the heat density will be smaller and that the life cycle costs of the heat
delivered per dwelling will increase. This phenomenon will be more significant in those areas where the
housing density is already lower e.g. groups of detached houses.
The role of DH in providing low and zero carbon homes will depend on the ability to deliver cost
reductions in the district heating distribution network, which in turn is linked to dwelling density.
Heat distribution losses for DH applications in low-density areas can be significant. This issue needs to be
addressed before considering DH schemes for such applications and should be object of further research.
More research will be required if DH is to play a significant role in the governments zero carbon homes
objective. Work should focus on gaining experience in implementing solar thermal and renewable CHP
and it should also look at how to reduce the costs of the heat distribution network. Much can be learned
from the Scandinavian DH experience.
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Appendix A Opportunities for cost

reduction in the heat distribution pipe
work: the Scandinavian research
This appendix summarises some of the research undertaken in Sweden regarding the implementation of
district heating in low heat density developments. Main references used are:
IEA DHC Annex VIII. District heating distribution in areas with low heat demand density.
Nilsson S.F. et al., Sparse district heating in Sweden, Appl Energ (2007), doi :10.1016/j.apenergy.207.07.011.
Person, Tommy (2005). District heating for residential areas with single family housing with special
emphasis on domestic hot water comfort. June, 2005. Doctoral thesis. Lung Institute of Technology.
Lund university, Sweden.
Local district heating system using flexible plastic pipes. March 1996. CADDET brochure number R 247.
For other IEA DHC reports, dealing with better pipe installation techniques and materials,
see www.iea-dhc.org.
Heat distribution network costs can be broken down as follows:
Capital costs of the distribution system.

Distribution losses due to the heat losses in the distribution network.
Distribution cost due to pumping losses.
System maintenance costs.
A.1 Capital costs influence in the heat delivered costs

The capital expenditure per unit of heat delivered by a district heating network is dependent on the costs
associated with the installation of the distribution system, the pipe diameter and the line heat density
amount of heat delivered per pipe length (figure A.1).
cost
cost
Heating delivered costs due to capital costs
48%
48%
12%
14%
15%
12%
14%
15%
costs of the distribution network and pipe diameter
line heat density (heat delivered per pipe length)
Figure A.1: Heat delivered costs due to capital investment
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In order to reduce the heat production costs due to the initial capital investment one could:
Reduce costs due to the installation of the distribution network.
Use a smaller pipe diameter.
Increase the heat density.
A.2 Opportunities to reduce installation costs of the distribution network

Design stage decisions
Opportunities to reduce the capital costs of installation of the distribution network need to be first
identified at the design stage. Some of the issues to be considered are:
The use of twin pipes have been shown to reduce heat distribution losses compared with single pipes.
They can also be installed in narrower trenches although may require more complicated welding works.
The use of plastic pipes23 in contrast to steel pipes can reduce the pipe work capital cost. Flexible pipes
can facilitate alternative pipe layouts and reduce the number of pipe bends. The possibility of using
plastic pipes will ultimately be related to the operating temperatures and pressures of the distribution
heating system.
Backfilling works can be reduced if the pipes are laid down in open areas such parks and gardens.
The storage of the excavated materials on-site and its use for backfilling will also reduce the
installation costs.
The contractual arrangements for the installation of the pipes will also influence the end installation
costs.
Pipework diameter
The impact of reducing pipe diameter on the costs of the distribution network is reflected in figure A.2.
According to the Swedish experience, pipe material is responsible for about 25% of the total network
costs. The rest is taken up by labour works for the trenching, laying pipes and refilling works.
It is common practise to oversize the distribution network pipe diameter to provide the network with the
ability to cope with future increases in the heat demand.
The reduction in the heating requirement of new dwellings in the future means that the design heating
load will be significantly reduced. This can offer opportunities for material cost reductions.
On the one hand, smaller pipes reduce the heat losses in the system, which will be especially important in
low heat density application. On the other hand it will increase the system pumping requirements and
associated costs.
Optimum pipe sizing should carefully account for all the issues mentioned above.
23. Extended practice in Denmark.
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Costs of distribution pipe work for CH schemes
25%
Labour works for
trenching and refilling
Pipe materials
75%
Figure A.2: Distribution heating pipe work costs (Swedish experience)
Heat density
Historically, densities above 50 dwellings per hectare, e.g. a development of flats, have been used to
determine when a district heating scheme should be implemented, based on economic parameters.
However, the requirement for zero carbon homes require a step change in carbon savings. So district
heating schemes may need to be applied at lower densities, e.g. houses, than traditionally has been
the case, even though there will be higher costs involved and heat demands will be lower due to
improved HLPs.
Where market requirements or design criteria signify lower density developments, it will be fundamental
to maximise the amount of heat delivered for a given length of pipe. With this in mind it will be crucial
that the connection rate to the DH scheme within the development is maximised.
A.3 Running cost influence in the heat delivered cost

Distribution heat losses costs
The cost of heat losses due to distribution will depend on:
Heat density heat losses, among other factors, are proportional to the length of the distribution pipe.
Therefore, low-density developments will incur higher heat losses as the pipe length for a certain
amount of heat delivered is longer than in higher-density applications.
Pipe diameter see A.2
Pipe insulation the benefits delivered by better insulated pipes will depend on the relation between
their ability to reduce heat losses and the increased capital cost of the insulating material.
Low cost heat-generating technologies will reduce the costs associated to the distribution heat losses.
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48%
12%
14%
15%
cost of the heat delivered

due to distribution losses
3/4/09
cost of the heat delivered

due to distribution losses
76243-09-08
line heat density (heat delivered per pipe length)
48%
12%
14%
15%
heat generation cost (pipe diameter) (insulation value)
Figure A.3: Line heat density, heat generation cost, pipe diameter pipe insulation influence in the cost of
the heat delivered by a district heating scheme
Pumping and maintenance costs

The cost related to the pumping of the water in a DH network will depend on the pipe diameter and the
length of the pipe work. In a typical Swedish scheme the energy required for pumping represents about
1% of the total energy delivered.
Cost due to the system maintenance represents about 1% of the total investment in the distribution pipes
and about 10-15% of the total distribution cost. These figures, however, depend on the specific scheme.
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CE299
Energy Saving Trust, 21 Dartmouth Street, London SW1H 9BP Tel 0845 120 7799 Fax 0845 120 7789
bestpractice@est.org.uk www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing
CE299 Energy Saving Trust September 2008. E&OE
This publication (including any drawings forming part of it) is intended for general guidance only and not as a substitute for the application of professional expertise. Any figures used are indicative
only. The Energy Saving Trust gives no guarantee as to reduction of carbon emissions, energy savings or otherwise. Anyone using this publication (including any drawings forming part of it) must
make their own assessment of the suitability of its content (whether for their own purposes or those of any client or customer), and the Energy Saving Trust cannot accept responsibility for any loss,
damage or other liability resulting from such use.
So far as the Energy Saving Trust is aware, the information presented in this publication was correct and current at the time of the last revision. To ensure you have the most up to date version,
please visit our website: www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing The contents of this publication may be superseded by statutory requirements or technical advances which arise after the date of
publication. It is your responsibility to check latest developments.

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76243-09-08

1. UK district heating and building stock

2. The energy requirements for new dwellings in the future

3. The implications of low heat demand for district heating networks

District heating systems

4. Low carbon and renewable supply technologies for district heating

Biomass only heating

5. Implementation of district heating

Energy services companies

6. Conclusions and recommendations for further work

Appendix A Opportunities for cost reduction in the heat

Unless otherwise indicated, images are BRE

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

1. UK district heating and

Figure 1: Seaton state district heating scheme, Aberdeen

Proportion of flats and houses served by community

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Figure 3: UK new housing built by type of dwelling

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

2. The energy requirements for new

Code level 6 (zero carbon home) definition

Code level 6 further criteria

Heat loss parameter equal to 0.8 W/m2K.

Onsite renewable/low carbon is defined as:

Net zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

Green tariffs not allowed for.

Achievement of Code level 5.

No connection to main gas*.

Source: Code for Sustainable Homes.

Technical Guide. October 2007.

2007. HM Revenue and Customs

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

CO2 reduction beyond 2006

Uncertain: HLP given by the Part ADL1 acceptable

Uncertain: HLP given by the Part ADL1 acceptable

Uncertain: HLP given by the Part ADL1 acceptable

100% + appliances and cooking

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Heat losses for a 2006 compliant dwelling

Figure 4: Heat losses for a 2006 Building Regulation

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Revised Building Regulations

Detached house (104m2)

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Detached house (104m2)

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Heat and electricity requirements

Heating and electricity energy requirement

Detached house (104m2)

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Table 3: Annual heat to electricity requirements ratio

2006 Building Regulations

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

3. The implications of low heat

District heating systems

Figure 9: Schematic of a district heating system

Aberdeen City Council

Figure 10: City-wide district heating pipe works

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

Figure 11: Detail of a domestic heat exchanger

The applicability of district heating for new dwellings

25 units waste heat