Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Research Methodology
and
investigation
in
some
field
of
knowledge
is
primarily
committed
to
establishing
Research comprises of
Defining and redefining problems.
Formulating hypothesis (basic idea)
Collecting
Organizing
Evaluating datas
Making decisions
Suggesting solutions
Reaching conclusions
Library Research:
analysis
of
historical
(2)
Field Research:
questionnaires,
Observation,
personal,
Group
or
telephonic
Laboratory Research:
Research Methodology:
Importance
of
Methodology:
knowing
the
subject
research
Research
adapted
should
process
certain
characteristics,
It must as far as possible be
1) Controlled
2) Rigorous
3) Systematic
4) Valid
5) Verifiable
6) Empirical
7) Critical
1. Controlled: The
research
problem
should
not
be
2. Rigorous:
The
process
of
investigation
must
be
Application
objective
Inquiry mode
1) Pure Research
1) Descriptive
1) Quantitative
2) Correlative
2) Qualitative
Research
2) Applied Research
Research
3) Exploratory
4) Explanatory
1) Pure Research:
2) Correlative Research:
Goes on to discover the existing
relationship or interdependence between
two or more aspects / variables.
Otherwise known as comparative study.
Investigates association between variables.
Eg: Sum of humour and job satisfaction,
(related variable)
Research problem is workers turnover
Analytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts / information already
existing and analyze these data to make a critical
evaluation.
Eg: document study / historical evidence.
Descriptive Vs Analytical Research:
Explanatory Research:
Attempts to clarify or explain why and how, any
particular research problem arises and can be solved.
4. Exploratory Research:
period.
Qualities of a Researcher
Top 10 qualities of a Researcher
1) Ananalytical mind:
Constant analysis on a
variety of factors.
2) A people person :
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10)
Systematic:
facts.
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problems
Research is
to
solve
this
problems,
carried on.
Investigation of
market
relating
to
purchase,
Relates
to
12
c) Motivational Research:
Helps
to
and
something
better
and
more
efficiently.
Social scientist gain their knowledge for their own sake
and for the development of the society.
1.
Formulating the Research problem:a) The formulation of a general topic into a specific
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7. Double check
The best way to understand the problem is to
discuss with his own colleague or guide.
Examine all available literatures to get himself
acquainted (get used to ) with the selected
problem.
Review two types of literature
Conceptual literature :
Concerning concepts & theories
Empirical Literature : Concerning
studies
made
earlier
14
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Step II
Extensive Literature Survey:
A brief summary of the problem should be written
down.
Make extensive literature survey
Sources of survey can be, journals, bio-graphics, Govt.
15
16
prepared
Type of Research Design :
4 types
with
the
17
18
in Research study.
Data can be collected in several ways either through
(1) Experiment (or) (2) through surveys.
In
experimental
conducts
means,
research,
when
some
researcher
quantitative
19
Unwanted
&
irrelevant
data
will
be
removed.
Tabulation:
20
constitutes
the
BLUE
for
collection,
Preparation of Report.
Research Design
21
2) Observational design:
variable
Continuous variable :
22
-----
Price (independent)
dependent
value
is
technically
known
as
Experimental Error
A research study or a Research design should always
be framed in such a manner that the influence of
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controlled
and
the
influence
of
the
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8. Treatments:
The different conditions to which the experimental &
control groups are subject to is known as treatments.
the
impact
in
block
to
comparison
with
another fact.
10. Experimental units
Pre-determined
which
different
25
26
Attain reliability
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
Posses the qualities of being flexible, suitable efficient
& economical.
Should minimize bias and maximize reliability of data
collection & Analysis.
No experimental error should be allowed
Should yield maximum information
Research problem should be viewed from different
angles or dimensions.
The choice of Research design depends on,
Nature of the Research problem
Objectives of the Research problem
Skills / ability of the Researcher
Methods of gathering information
Availability of monetary support
Time schedule
HYPOTHESIS
A Research hypothesis is a predictive statement, which
is capable of being tested using scientific methods, which
involves independent and dependent valuables. (eg) the
female students perform as well as the male students.
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solution
for
the
Research
problem).
The
28
Alternative Hypothesis:
u = 100
Ha
u > 100
Ha
u < 100
should
be
very
specific
(No
29
Decision Rule
The researcher should make a decision, if to accept or
Reject Ho.
The decision rule should be decided on the number of
items to be tested and the basic of which to accept or
reject.
4.
(i)
(ii)
5.
(i)
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(iii)
(iv)
Selection
of
random
sample
&
computing
an
Appropriate value
Selection of Random sample
Computing suitable value
Drawing a sample for furnishing Empirical data.
(v)
Calculation of Probability:
The diverged results from the expected results,
when Ho is true.
(vi)
making
comparison
with
the
assumed
significance level.
If the value is less than or equal to Ho, in case of
one-tailed test, Ho is rejected. Here type I error is
committed.
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SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling Design:
An art of obtaining a sample from a given population.
The technique or procedure the researcher adopts for
selecting items for the sample from the population or
universe.
Steps in sampling Design
Type of Universe:
1) The first step in sampling design, is to clearly define
the total number of items / cases to be studied, which
is technically known as UNIVERSE
Finite
Universe
Infinite
Finite Universe:
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Eg:
Infinite Universe:
2) Sampling Unit:
A geographical area like a state, district or
village.
Family, religious community or a school.
Individual (Researcher can select one or two such
units).
3) Source List:
Otherwise
known
as
Sampling
Frame
Consists of names of all items of a universe.
If not available the researcher has to prepare a
Source list.
It must be reliable, comprehensive, correct and
appropriate.
It
should
be
the
representative
of
the
population / universe.
4) Size of sample:
Refers to the number of items to be chosen
from the universe.
Size of sample must be optimum. An optimum
sample may defined as the one that satisfies.
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34
35
(1)
36
Eg:
(2)
groups)
(i.e.
the
sub
population
being
homogenous).
-
Eg:
Cluster sampling:
37
Systematic sampling:
Selecting every nth element for the study.
1st, 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th .
(5)
Stage level
District level
Towns
Villages
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II.
1)
Convenience sampling:
-
Choosing
of the
Researcher.
Eg:
Quota sampling
The researcher simply assume quotas, with certain
Caste basic
less expensive, very convenient
sampling)
Researcher employs his own Expert judgment about
who to include in the sample frame.
Disadvantages of sampling:
1) Inadequacy of samples
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2) Chances of bias
3) Problems of accuracy
4) Difficulty of getting the representative sample.
5) Untrained Manpower.
6) Absence of Informants
7) Chances of committing errors.
Sampling Error:
Primary Data
from
conferences
meetings,
Secondary Data:
Refers to the data that have already been collected
and used earlier by somebody or some agency.
Example: Online database, Historical books etc.
Example: Taking census (total population) of Government
of India Primary Data.
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41
42
errors
may
be
committed
by
collecting
The
data
from
other
published
sources.
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CENSUS
Total
No.
of
SAMPLE
items,
100% Selected
Representations,
Accuracy
attained,
Time 100%
consuming,
Expensive
Labour.
Accuracy
cannot
Response
is
encouraging
when
personally
contacted.
(ii)
Information
are
more
accurate
(if
not
found
be
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(iii)
Provides
hope
for
getting
supplementary
(v)
Demerits:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Interviewer
should
be
thoroughly
trained
&
Conclusion:
The
present
day
of
extreme
advancement
in
45
The
investigator
contact
third
party
called
adopted
when
the
information
to
be
(ii)
(iii)
Conclusion:
(i) Let more care should be taken in the selection of
Witness because it is on their views, the final conclusion is
reached.
3. Information From Correspondents:
The
investigator
correspondents
in
appoints
local
different
places
agents
to
or
collect
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47
Non-disguised Structured.
(ii)
Non-disguised Non-structured.
(iii)
Disguised Structured.
(iv)
Disguised Non-Structured.
(2)
Uncertainty
of
the
Respondents
lacks
co-
operation.
(3)
be correct.
Guideline to make this method more Effective:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
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(iv)
Schedules
through
enumerators
or
interviewers.
The enumerators contacts the informants, gets replied
to the questions contained in the schedule and fill
them in their own handwriting.
Here the questions are asked face to face and the
response is papered.
Merits:
(1)
(2)
Very
little
scope
for
Non-response,
as
the
enumerators go personally.
(3)
Demerits:
(1)
Expensive
Since
enumerators
are
paid
personals.
(2)
enumerators.
(3)
(4)
variations.
Secondary Data:
Are those data which have already been collected and
analyzed by some earlier agency for its own use and later
the same data is used by a different agency.
Sources of Secondary Data:
(1)
Published Sources.
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(2)
Unpublished Sources.
1. Published Sources:
The Government, Inter National and local agencies
publish statistical data.
Chief Among them,
(i) Inter National Publications:Inter
National
Institutions
&
bodies
like
I.M.J.
Official
Publications
of
Central
&
State
and
State
Governments:
Several
departments
of
the
Central
(b)
Census of India.
(e)
(b)
(c)Indian
Agricultural
Statistics
Research
(I.A.S.R.I.)
Publish the findings of their research programs.
Institute
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not
be
accepted
as
such
because
the
51
Secondary
data
is
simple
but
the
data
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
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The
editor
should
see
that
each
schedule
or
reliability
of
conclusions
depends
on
the
correctness of in formations.
If the information is wrong, the conclusion can never
be valid.
Editor should see that the in formations are accurate
in all respects.
Arithmetic errors can be detected easily & corrected.
If the error is due to fault information supplied, it may
be difficult to verify.
3. Editing For Consistency:
Editor should see that the answer to questions are not
contradictory in nature.
Example: Are you a student? No which class do you study?
X
The answers are contradictory and such answers
should be classified.
4. Editing For Homogeneity:
Understand the questions in the same sense.
Check uniform interpretation and make sure the
information supplied by the various informants are
homogenous & uniform.
Example: Income (Yearly, Monthly, Weekly, Daily)
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published
organizations
and
data
by
research
Government,
agencies,
Private
periodicals
magazines etc.,
In fact, primary data are collected only if there do not
exist any secondary data.
In some cases both Primary & Secondary data may be
used.
QUESTIONNAIRE
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be
meaning),
Easy,
Non
Brief,
offending,
Unambiguous(Clear
courteous
in
in
tone,
55
Questions
should
be
Comprehensive(Includes
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(c) Occasionally
of
the
in
formations
given
by
the
respondents.
10. Pre-Testing the Questionnaire:
Try out the Questionnaire on a small scale before using
in a large scale.
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SAMPLING
A carefully designed sample may actually be better
than a poorly planned and executed census.
Merits:
1. It saves time:
Saves time because fewer items are collected and
processed.
2. It Reduces Cost:
Since only few items are studied, there is reduction in
cost & reduction in man power.
3. More Reliable Results can be Obtained:
Sampling is more Reliable because
(i) fewer chance of sampling error.
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7. More Scientific:
Results can be tested since more scientific.
Shortcomings (or) Demerits
1. Illusory (False) Conclusion:
If sampling is not carefully planned & executed, the
conclusions may be false.
2. Sample Not Representative:
If the sample taken from the population is not the right
representative, the result may be false or misleading.
3. Lack of Experts:
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2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples should be homogenous with the
samples & the universe.
3. Adequate Samples:
A good number of items should be included for the
study.
4. Optimization:
A proper size of sample should be maintained to have
optimized results in terms of cost & efficiency.
Statistical Laws:
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Induction:
The logical process of drawing a general conclusion
from the study of representative items is called Induction.
Sampling is based on two fundamental principles of
Statistics theory
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity
(ii) The Law of Inertia of Large Numbers.
The Law of Statistical:
Regularity: (Mathematical Theory of Probability), States,
A moderately large number of items chosen at
random from a very large group are almost sure to have the
characteristics of the large group.
Proof:
1. Average income of 1,000 people is to be found out,
2. We take a sample of 100 people & find the average.
3. Another person takes 100 people & find the average.
The Average income found by both the persons will
have least difference.
If the average income of the same 1000 people is
found out by census, the result will be more or less the
same.
2. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers:
It States, Other Using being equal, as the sample size
increases, the results tend to be more accurate & reliable.
Sampling Error:
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Faulty
Demarcation
(Demographic
limit)
of
sampling Unit:
In case of Area sampling the sampling units at the
borders should be decided if to take it or reject it.
4. Faulty estimation techniques:
Wrong selection of sampling techniques.
caused
due
to
the
Normal
Course
of
investigation.
Reducing Sampling Error:
Sampling Error can be reduced by increasing the size
of the sample.
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--------
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment is the process of examining the truth of a
statistical Hypothesis related to some research problem.
Experiments are of two types,
1. Absolute Experiment.
2. Comparative Experiment.
Absolute Experiment:
When a researcher wants to determine the impact of a
fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of Absolute
Experiment.
Comparative Experiment:
When a researcher wants to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, it will be called as Comparative Experiment.
Research Design are of three types,
1. Research design in case of descriptive & diagnostic
studies.
2. Research design in case of exploratory Research studies.
3. Research design in case of Hypothesis Testing Research
Studies.
Research
Design
Research Studies:
In
case
of
Hypothesis
Testing
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64
No Principle of Replication is
Field
rrrrr
rrrrr
rr
rrrrr
rrrrr
rr
rrrrr
the two parts.r
rrrrr
r
Part I
Treatment
Part I
Compare the yield of
One variety
Another
of Paddy
Variety of Paddy.
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
rr
Treated
Conclusion drawn.
Parts
2. The Principle of Randomization:
65
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
rr
rr r
66
When treated
Conclusion
drawn is more
accurate.
(Can protect Effects of Extraneous
Variables)
or
67
Treatment
Level
68
Introduced
Before Treatment (X)
After Treatment
(Y)
Effect of the Treatment = (Y) (X)
Demerit:
With the passage of time, several extraneous variable
may be there in the treatment effect.
(2) After only with control Design:
Step.1: Two Areas are selected, the control Area & the test
area.
Step.2: The treatment is introduced in the test area alone.
Step.3: The dependent variable in both the areas are
measured, at the same time.
Step.4: Treatment Effect is calculated by subtracting the
value of the dependent variable in the control area from its
value in the test area.
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Treatment: 1
Effect = Value of dependent variable in the
control Area Value of Dependent Variable in the test area.
Test Area
Phenomenon (Y)
Control Area
Phenomenon (Z)
Treatment Introduced
No
Level of
Level of
Treatment
(3) Before And After with Control Design:
Step.1: In this design, two areas are selected and the
dependent variables in both the areas are measured for an
identical time period before treatment.
Step.2: Treatment is introduced only in the test area.
Step 3 : The dependent valuable is measured on both the
areas (control
area & test area) for an identical time period.
Setp4 :
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71
2. Randomizes
Block Design:-
72
II
III
IV
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Conclusion :
The field is divided into several blocks (I, II, III, IV & V) and
there are variety of fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5).
But each fertilizer is used in each block only once.
73
a two way ANOVA technique.
4. Factorial Design :
Are used in experiments where the effect of the depended
variable, when affected by more than one variable is to be
determined.
Used in social & economic studies where usually large no of
factors affect a particular problem.
Factorial design are of two types:
I . Simple Factorial design
II. Complex Factorial designs.
Simple Factorial Design :
When the effect of the dependent variable is affect by only
two factors, it is simple factorial designs.
Otherwise known as TWO factors Factorial Design.
Complex Factorial Design :
This design is used when more than two factors at a time
affects the dependent variable.
Or the design considers three or more independent variable.
The greater the no of independent variable, the higher the
order of interaction, analysis possible.
Advantage :
Accuracy
74
Can determine the effects of more variable in a single
experiment.
OBSERVATION
Observation is defined as a planned method of watching
that involves constraints (steps) to improve accuracy.
Characteristics of Observation :
i. Observation are direct
ii. takes place in natural situations
iii. Less Structured.
iv. Makes only quantitative study.
Applicable in :
1. Life styles
2. Encounters / Settlement.
3. Relationships
4. Groups / Organization.
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Observation Technique
No such controls
Few Controls.
Not Always
Observation is natural
conducted in large unit. Fewer
subjects are watched for long
period .Study is directed
towards sensitizing the
observer / events.
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
77
78
79
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Notations:
Binomial Experiment.
n - The no of trail in the binomial experiment.
80
= (x2+2x+1) (x+1)
= x3 + x2 +2x2 +2x +x+1
= x3 + 3x2 +3x +1
The Coefficient is
= 1. 3 .3 1
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2 1
1 4
(x+1)2
1
(x+1)3
4 1
(x+1)4
1 5 10 10 5 1
(x+1) 5
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(x+1)6
1 7
21 35 35 21 7 1
(x+1)7
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2. POSSION DISTRIBUTION:
When P is very small (Success rate is extremely small) and
n is very large (total no of trail items of events is large) then
POISSON distribution is used.
P O (Successes approach zero) (np = m is finite)
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84
------------------------------1x2x3
= (0.13534) (8)/6
= 0.180
Normal Equation:
The value of the random variable Y is - (x u) /2
1
Y=
C (Coefficient)
is constant (3.14159)
e is constant (2.71828)
85
Standard Deviation:
Represented by it means how much variance
(difference) or dispersion exist from the average.
Example:
taken.
= 1 ( 4 5) = (-1) =1 (7 5) = 2 = 4
(5 5) = (0) = 0
Rate of 9+1+1+1+0+0+4+16 38
---------------------------- = = 4/8
8
Example: An average light bulb manufactured by Acme
Corporation lasts 300days with a standard deviation of 50 days.
Assuming that the bull life is normally distributed what is the
probability that an Acme light bulb will last at most 365 days?
86
1
=
50 x 6013 x 2.71828/100 = 1/306.5 x 271 = 884//
Y = .88 or 88%
Hence there is an 88% chance that the bulb will last most
365 days.
87