Ch05 Casting Processes

Temperature & Density for Castings
Cooling of liquid
Shrinkage of solid
Freezing
ends
B
A
Freezing
temperature
Cooling of
solid
Liquid
Liquid
+
solid
Solid
Specific density
Temperature
Freezing begins
Solidification
shrinkage
Shrinkage of liquid
Time
Time
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing
takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Two-Phased Alloys
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase
system, such as lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution of copper, and the particles are lead as a second
phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system, consisting of two sets of grains: dark and light. Dark and light grains have
their own compositions and properties.

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Phase Diagram for Nickel-Copper

Alloy composition
2651
1455
First solid
(36% Cu-64% Ni)
Liquid solution
Liquid
(50% Cu-50% Ni)
Liq
1249
1082
Temperature (F)
1313
1288
2395
2350
uid
us
lid L + S
us
So
Solid
(42% Cu-58% Ni)
Liquid
(58% Cu-42% Ni)
2280
Solid
solution
Solid solution
(50% Cu-50% Ni)
1980
0
100
1981
36 42
64 58
50 58
50 42
67
33
100 Copper (Cu)

0 Nickel (Ni)
Composition (% by weight)
CS
CO CL
0
1
Fraction liquid
FIGURE 5.3 Phase diagram for nickel-copper alloy system obtained by a low rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and pure
copper each have one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals; the second
circle shows the formation of dendrites; and the bottom circle shows the solidified alloy with grain boundaries.

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Irn-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

1100
! + liquid
1200
1148C
! (austenite)
2.11%
4.30%
! + cementite
912C
"+!
Detail view
727C
800
600
400
0
0.77%
0.022%
" (ferrite)
1
2000
1500
Temperature (C)
1394C
1000
2500
Temperature (C)
1000
Liquid
1400
2000
!
! !
900
! + Fe3C
1500
800
"+!
727C
700
"
Ferrite
600
" + cementite
Cementite (Fe3C)
2
3
4
5
Carbon (% by weight)
1000
6 6.67
(a)
1600
1538C
# (Ferrite)
1495C
Fe3C 1000
500
" + Fe3C
400
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Carbon (% by weight)
2.5
(b)
FIGURE 5.4 (a) The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. (b) Detailed view of the microstructures above and below the eutectoid
temperature of 727C (1341F). Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this diagram is one of the most
important phase diagrams.

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Texture in Castings
Chill zone
Columnar zone
(a)
Equiaxed zone
Equiaxed structure
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 5.5 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals,
with preferred texture at the cool mold wall. Note in the middle of the figure that only favorable oriented grains
grow away from the mold surface; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by heterogeneous nucleation
of grains.

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Alloy Solidification & Temperature

L iq
TL
uid
us
L+S
lid
Solid
TS
So
S

L
us
Temperature
Liquid
Solid
Liquid
Alloying element (%)

Mushy zone
Pure metal
Mold
wall
Solid
Liquid
Dendrites
FIGURE 5.6 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note
the formation of dendrites in the semi-solid (mushy) zone.
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Solidification Patterns for Gray Cast Iron

8
11
40
60
Minutes after pouring
90
102
(a)
0.050.10% C
Steel
Sand
Chill
mold
mold
0.250.30% C
Steel
Sand
Chill
mold
mold
15
2
Minutes after pouring
0.550.60% C
Steel
Sand
Chill
mold
mold
16
(b)
FIGURE 5.7 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed
dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: After D. Apelian.

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Cast Structures
Mold
Solid
wall
Liquid
(a)
Liquid
Solid
(b)
Solid
Liquid
FIGURE 5.8 Schematic illustration of three basic

types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic;
(b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed
nondendritic. Source: After D. Apelian.
(c)
FIGURE 5.9 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front,

single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: After D. Apelian.
Mold
Solid
wall
(a)

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Liquid
Liquid
(b)
Mold Features
Open riser
Pouring basin (cup)

Vent
Flask
Blind
riser
Cope
Sprue
Sand
Core
(sand)
Drag
Mold
cavity
Well
Runner
Gate
Parting
line
Sand
FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical sand mold showing various features.

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Temperature Distribution
Temperature
Air
Mold
Solid
Liquid
Melting
point
Room
temperature
!T
at metalmold
interface
!T
at moldair
interface
Distance
FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-metal interface during solidification of metals in casting.

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Skin on Casting
B
A
5s
1 min
2 min
6 min
FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining

molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure.
Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a
process called slush casting, which is based on this principle.
Source: After H.F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M.C. Flemings.

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Chvorinovs Rule:
!
"n
Volume
Solidification time = C
Surface area
Shrinkage
Contraction (%)
Aluminum
7.1
Zinc
6.5
Al - 4.5% Cu
6.3
Gold
5.5
White iron
4-5.5
Copper
4.9
Brass (70-30)
4.5
Magnesium
4.2
90% Cu - 10% Al
4
Carbon steels
2.5-4
Al - 12% Si
3.8
Lead
3.2
Expansion
Bismuth
Silicon
Gray iron
(%)
3.3
2.9
2.5
TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or expansion

for various cast metals.

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(g)
40
30
20
10
800
(f)
70
(h)
60
20
10
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Nickel based
Copper based
Steel
Malleable iron
Nodular iron
Gray iron
Nickel based
(d)
6
Malleable iron
Copper based
50
10
Gray iron
150
12
Malleable iron
200
Nodular iron
Titanium
alloy
(b)
Titanium metal
200
Nodular iron
400
Magnesium based
600
Aluminum based
800
Yield strength (psi x 103)
1400
Steel
MPa
1600
Tensile strength/density ratio (in x 105)
Zinc based
Nickel based
1800
Zinc based
Nickel based
Magnesium based
Copper based
Aluminum based
Malleable iron
Gray iron
Nodular iron
Steel
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Steel
100
GPa
Cast steel
Malleable iron
Nodular iron
Magnesium based
Copper based
1000
Impact energy (ft-lb, Charpy V-notch)
Zinc based
Nickel based
Gray iron
Nickel based
Aluminum based
Malleable iron
Gray iron
Steel
Nodular iron
1200
Reduction of area (%)
Nickel based
Copper based
Copper based
Titanium alloys
Titanium metal
Zinc based
Aluminum based
Ultimate tensile strength (psi x 103)
2000
Gray iron
60
Magnesium based
100
Zinc based
50
Aluminum based
200
Magnesium based
300
Malleable iron
600
Copper
based
400
Aluminum based
500
Malleable iron
700
Gray iron
10
Nodular iron
15
Magnesium based
20
Gray iron
(e)
25
Steel
Modulus of elasticity (psi x 106)
(c)
30
Nodular iron
Brinell harbness (HB)
(a)
Steel
FIGURE 5.13 Mechanical properties for various

groups of cast alloys. Compare with various
tables of properties in Chapter 3. Source:
Courtesy of Steel Founders' Society of America.
Elongation (%)
Cast Material
Properties
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
50
30
70
800
600
400
200
Wrought
Cast
70
90
80
70
40
60
50
40
30
20
10
General Characteristics of Casting

Typical materials cast
Weight (kg):
minimum
maximum
Typ. surface finish (m Ra )
Porosity1
Shape complexity1
Dimensional accuracy1
Section thickness (mm):
minimum:
maximum:
Typ. dimensional tolerance
Cost1,2
Equipment
Pattern/die
Labor
Typical lead time2,3
Sand
All
Shell
All
Evaporative
pattern
All
Plaster
Nonferrous
(Al, Mg,
Zn, Cu)
Investment
All
Permanent
mold
All
0.01
No limit
5-25
3-5
1-2
3
0.01
100+
1-3
4-5
2-3
2
0.01
100+
5-25
3-5
1-2
3
0.01
50+
1-2
4-5
1-2
2
0.001
100+
0.3-2
5
1
1
3
No limit
1.6-4
(0.25 for
small)
0.003
0.005
0.010
3-5
3-5
1-3
Days
3
2-3
3
Weeks
2-3
2-3
3
weeks
3-5
3-5
1-2
Days
Die
Nonferrous
(Al, Mg,
Zn, Cu)
Centrifugal
All
0.1
300
2-6
2-3
2-3
1
< 0.01
50
1-2
1-3
3-4
1
0.01
5000+
2-10
1-2
3-4
3
1
75
0.005
2
50
0.015
0.5
12
0.001
0.005
2
100
0.015
3-5
2-3
1-2
Weeks
2
2
3
Weeks
1
1
5
Weeksmonths
2-200
10,000
1
1
5
Months
1-20
5-50
1-20
1-10
1-1000
5-50
1-1000
Typical production rate2,3
2,3
Minimum quantity
1
100
500
10
10
1000
10-10,000
Notes:
1. Relative rating, 1 best, 5 worst. For example, die casting has relatively low porosity, mid- to low shape complexity, high dimensional
accuracy, high equipment and die costs and low labor costs. These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur depending
on the manufacturing methods used.
2. Data taken from Schey, J.A., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 3rd ed, 2000.
3. Approximate values without the use of rapid prototyping technologies.
TABLE 5.2 General characteristics of casting processes.

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Typical Applications & Characteristics

Type of Alloy
Aluminum
Copper
Gray Iron
Magnesium
Malleable iron
Nickel
Nodular iron
Steel
(carbon
and low alloy)
Steel (high alloy)
White
iron
(Fe3 C)
Zinc
Application
Castability Weldability
Pistons, clutch housings, intake maniG-E
F*
folds, engine blocks, heads, cross members, valve bodies, oil pans, suspension
components
Pumps, valves, gear blanks, marine proF-G
F
pellers
Engine blocks, gears, brake disks and
E
D
drums, machine bases
Crankcase,
transmission
housings,
G-E
G
portable computer housings, toys
Farm and construction machinery, heavyG
D
duty bearings, railroad rolling stock
Gas turbine blades, pump and valve comF
F
ponents for chemical plants
Crankshafts, heavy-duty gears
G
D
Die blocks, heavy-duty gear blanks, airF
E
craft undercarriage members, railroad
wheels
Gas turbine housings, pump and valve
F
E
components, rock crusher jaws
Mill liners, shot blasting nozzles, railroad
G
VP
brake shoes, crushers and pulverizers
Door handles, radiator grills
E
D
E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; VP, very poor; D, difficult.
Machinability
G-E
TABLE 5.3 Typical applications for castings and casting characteristics.

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G-E
G
E
G
F
G
F-G
F
VP
E
Properties & Applications of Cast Iron

Cast
Iron
Gray
Malleable
Type
Ferritic
Pearlitic
Martensitic
Ferritic
Pearlitic
Tempered
Martensite
Ferritic
White
Pearlitic
Tempered
Pearlitic
Ductile
(Nodular)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
170
275
550
415
550
825
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
140
240
550
275
380
620
Elongation in
50 mm (%)
0.4
0.4
0
18
6
2
365
240
18
450
700
275
310
550
275
10
2
0
Typical Applications
Pipe, sanitary ware
Engine blocks, machine tools
Wear surfaces
Pipe, general service
Crankshafts, highly stressed parts
High-strength machine parts, wear
resistance
Hardware, pipe fittings, general
engineering service
Couplings
Gears, connecting rods
Wear resistance, mill rolls
TABLE 5.4 Properties and typical applications of cast irons.

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Nonferrous Alloys
Casting
Method
Alloy
Condition
Aluminum
357
T6
S
380
F
D
390
F
D
Magnesium
AZ63A
T4
S, P
AZ91A
F
D
QE22A
T6
S
Copper
Brass C83600
S
Bronze C86500
S
Bronze C93700
P
Zinc
No. 3
D
No. 5
D
ZA27
S, sand; D, die; P, permanent mold.
UTS
(MPa)
Yield Strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm (%)
Hardness
(HB)
345
331
279
296
165
241
2.0
3.0
1.0
90
80
120
275
230
275
95
150
205
12
3
4
255
490
240
177
193
124
30
30
20
60
98
60
283
331
425
365
10
7
1
82
91
115
TABLE 5.5 Typical properties of nonferrous casting alloys.

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Microstructure for Cast Irons
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 5.14 Microstructure for cast irons. (a) ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes; (b) ferritic nodular iron, (ductile iron) with
graphite in nodular form; and (c) ferritic malleable iron. This cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as
cementite (Fe3C), and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon.

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Continuous-Casting
Electric furnace
Tundish
Platform; 20 m (701 ft)
above ground level
Oil
Argon
Cooling water
X-ray receiver
(controls pouring rate)
X-ray transmitter
Molten metal
Solidified metal
Top belt (carbon steel)
Air gap
Catch basin
Tundish
Back-up rolls
High-velocity
cooling water jets
Tension
pulley
Pinch rolls
Nip pulley
Synchronized
pinch rolls
Water nozzle
Oxygen lance
(for cutting)
Starting dummy
Edge dam blocks
Bottom
Water gutters
belt
(a)

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(b)
FIGURE 5.15 (a) The continuous-casting

process for steel. Note that the platform is
about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level.
Source: American Foundrymen's Society. (b)
Continuous strip casting of nonferrous
metal strip. Source: Courtesy of Hazelett
Strip-Casting Corp.
Core prints
Core prints
Gate
Mechanical drawing of part
Cope pattern plate
Drag pattern plate
Core boxes
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sand
Casting
Sprue
Risers
Flask
Core halves
pasted together
Cope ready for sand
Cope after ramming

with sand and
removing pattern,
sprue, and risers
(e)
(f)
(g)
Drag ready
for sand
Drag after
removing pattern
(h)
(i)
Cope
Drag
Drag with core

set in place
(j)
Closing
pins
Cope and drag assembled
and ready for pouring
(k)
Casting as removed
from mold; heat treated
Casting ready
for shipment
(l)
(m)
FIGURE 5.16 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations in sand casting. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part, used to
create patterns. (b-c) Patterns mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to
hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the
hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask
with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts
are removed. (h) The drag half is produced in a similar manner. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is
closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and securing the assembly with pins. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is
removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated
(when necessary). Source: Courtesy of Steel Founders' Society of America.
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Shell-Molding Process
Pattern
Coated
sand
Coated sand
Investment
Pattern
Dump box
Coated
sand
2. Pattern and dump

box rotated
1. Pattern rotated
and clamped to dump box
3. Pattern and dump box

in position for the investment
Flask
Shell
Shells
Excess
coated sand
4. Pattern and shell
removed from dump box
Adhesive
Sand or
Clamps metal beads
5. Mold halves joined together
6. Mold placed in flask

and metal poured
FIGURE 5.17 Schematic illustration of the shell-molding process, also called the dump-box technique.

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Caramic Mold Manufacture

Transfer bowl
Green
mold
Torch
Ceramic slurry
Pattern
Pattern
Plate
Flask
Flask
1. Pouring slurry
Mold
2. Stripping green mold
FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

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3. Burn-off
Vacuum-Casting Process
Vacuum
Mold
Gate
Casting
Molten metal
Induction furnace
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom gate.
(a) before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: After R. Blackburn.

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Evaporative Pattern Casting
1. Pattern molding
2. Cluster assembly
3. Coating
Cluster
Parts
4. Compacted in sand
5. Casting
6. Shakeout
FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting process, also known as lostfoam or evaporative-pattern casting.
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Investment Casting
Mold to make pattern
Wax
pattern
1. Injection wax or
plastic pattern
3. Pattern
assembly (tree)
2. Ejecting
pattern
Autoclaved
Heat
4. Slurry coating
5. Stucco coating
Molten
metal
Heat
Casting
Molten wax
or plastic
6. Completed mold
7. Pattern meltout
8. Pouring
9. Shakeout
10. Pattern
FIGURE 5.21 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax process). Castings by this method
can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders' Society of
America.
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Rotor Microstructure
FIGURE 5.22 Microstructure of a rotor that has been investment cast (top) and
conventionally cast (bottom). Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 25.
ASM International.

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Pressure & Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Railroad wheel
Graphite mold
Nozzle
Hydraulic shot
cylinder
Plunger rod
Die cavity
Air pressure
Gooseneck
Plunger
Ejector die
Molten metal
Pot
Cover die
Airtight
chamber
Molten metal
Furnace
Ladle
Refractory tube
FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting process,

utilizing graphite molds for the production
of steel railroad wheels. Source: Griffin
Wheel Division of Amsted Industries
Incorporated.

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FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber

die-casting process.
Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cavity Stationary platen
Ejector platen
(Moves)
Ladle
Hydraulic
cylinder
Ejector
die half
Ejector box
Stationary
die half
Shot
Plunger
sleeve rod
Pouring hole
Plunger
Plunger rod
FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the coldchamber die-casting process. These machines are large
compared to the size of the casting, because high
forces are required to keep the two halves of the die
closed under pressure.
Closing
cylinder
Ejector Cover
box
disc
Metal
sleeve

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Shot
cylinder
Properties of Die-Casting Alloys

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
320
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
160
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
2.5
Aluminum 13
(12 Si)
300
150
2.5
Brass 858 (60 Cu)
380
200
15
Magnesium
AZ91B (9 Al - 0.7 Zn)
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al)
230
160
280
10
Zinc No. 5 (4 Al - 1 Cu)
320
Alloy
Aluminum 380
(3.5 Cu-8.5 Si)
Applications
Appliances, automotive
components, electrical motor
frames and housings, engine
blocks.
Complex shapes with thin
walls, parts requiring strength at
elevated temperatures
Plumbing fixtures, lock hardware, bushings, ornamental castings
Power tools, automotive
parts, sporting goods
Automotive parts, office equipment, household utensils, building hardware, toys
Appliances, automotive parts,
building hardware,
business
equipment
Source: The North American Die Casting Association
TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common die-casting alloys.

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Centrifugal Casting
Mold
Mold
Molten metal
Ladle
Drive roller
Free roller
Spout
Drive shaft
Rollers
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.26 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and
similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process.

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Semicentrifugal Casting
Casting
Pouring basin
and gate
Molten metal
Cope
Mold
Casting
Flasks
Holding
fixture
Drag
Revolving
table
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by
this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the
machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Squeeze-Casting
Die
Finished
casting
Cavity
Ejector
pin
1. Melt metal
2. Pour molten
metal into die
3. Close die and

apply pressure
4. Eject squeeze casting,

charge melt stock,
repeat cycle
FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Turbine Blade Casting

Radiant
heat
Heat
baffles
Radiant
heat
Columnar
crystals
Columnar
crystals
Chill plate
Chill plate
(a)
Constriction
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 5.29 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce a
single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached. Source: (a)
and (b) After B.H. Kear, (c) Courtesy of ASM International.

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Seed
Polycrystalline
feed
Induction
coil
Liquid
(a)
Single
crystal
~1 rev/s
20 m/s
10 m/s
Crystal Growing
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 5.30 Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling (Czochralski process) and (b) floating-zone
method. Crystal growing is especially important in the semiconductor industry. (c) A single-crystal silicon ingot
produced by the Czochralski process. Source: Courtesy of Intel Corp.

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Melt-Spinning Process
Gas
Crucible
Induction coil
Melt
Strip
Copper disk
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the melt-spinning process to produce thin strips of
amorphous metal. (b) Photograph of nickel-alloy production through melt-spinning. Source: Courtesy
of Siemens AG.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
100
75
25
600C
50
650
675
50
25
75
10
Time (s)
Austenite (%)
Pearlite (%)
Austenite-Pearlite Transformation
100
103
102
10
102 103
Time (s)
Austenite
Eutectoid
temperature 1400
1200
600
50% Completion curve
500
Completion curve
(~100% pearlite)
Begin curve
(~0% pearlite)
102 103
Time (s)
(b)
1000
800
104
105
pearlite
1000
500
400
Critical
300 cooling
rate
800
C/s
Temperature (C)
1200
600
Pearlite
10
700
100
105
Austenite
(unstable)
1400
Eutectoid temperature
35
700
104
800
600
M (start)
200
100
Martensite
+ pearlite
Martensite
0
10-1
400
200
Pearlite
10
102 103
Time (s)
(c)
104
105
Austenite (stable)
400

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Transformation
begins
50
Temperature (C)
Transformation
ends
Austenite (%)
50
Transformation
temperature
675C
/s
140C
FIGURE 5.32
(a) Austenite to pearlite
transformation of iron-carbon alloys as a function
of time and temperature. (b) Isothermal
transformation diagram obtained from (a) for a
transformation temperature of 675C (1247F). (c)
Microstructures obtained for a eutectoid ironcarbon alloy as a function of cooling rate. Source:
Courtest of ASM International.
100
Percent of austenite
transformed to pearlite
(a)
Phase Diagram for Aluminum-Copper

1300
700
Liquid
1100
500
900
200
400
Temperature (C)
K
K + liquid
Temperature
600
Xsolid solution
XAquenched, solid solution retained
ABage-hardened, precipitation starts
(submicroscopic)
ACover-aging, precipitate
agglomerates
K+!
70
20
A
100
0
95
5
90
10
Aluminum (Al)
Copper (Cu)
Time
Composition (% by weight)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.33 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various
microstructures obtained during the age-hardening process.

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Outline of Heat Treating

Process
Carburizing
Metals
hardened
Low-carbon
steel
(0.2%
C), alloy steels
(0.08-0.2% C)
Element
added to
surface
C
Procedure
Heat steel at 870-950
(1600-1750 F) in an atmosphere of carboaceous
gases (gas carburizing) or
carbon-containing
solids
(pack carburizing).
Then
quench.
Heat steel at 700-800 C
(1300-1600 F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gas
and ammonia. Then quench
in oil.
Heat steel at 760-845 C
(1400-1550 F) in a molten
bath of solutions of cyanide
(e.g., 30% sodium cyanide)
and other salts.
Heat steel at 500-600 C (9251100 F) in an atmosphere of
ammonia gas or mixtures of
molten cyanide salts. No further treatment.
Carbonitriding
Low-carbon
steel
C and N
Cyaniding
Low-carbon
steel
(0.2%
C), alloy steels
(0.08-0.2% C)
C and N
Nitriding
Boronizing
Steels (1% Al,

1.5% Cr, 0.3%
Mo), alloy steels
(Cr, Mo), stainless steels, highspeed steels
Steels
Part is heated using boroncontaining gas or solid in contact with part.
Flame
hardening
Medium-carbon
steels, cast irons
None
Surface is heated with an

oxyacetylene torch, then
quenched with water spray
or other quenching methods.
Induction
hardening
Same as above
None
Metal part is placed in copper induction coils and is

heated by high frequency current, then quenched
General
characteristics
A hard, high-carbon surface
is produced. Hardness 5565 HRC. Case depth <0.51.5 mm (<0.020 to 0.060 in.).
Some distortion of part during heat treatment.
Typical
applications
Gears,
cams,
shafts, bearings,
piston
pins,
sprockets, clutch
plates
Surface hardness 55-62 HRC.

Case depth 0.07-0.5 mm
(0.003-0.020 in.). Less distortion than in carburizing.
Bolts,
gears.
nuts,
Surface hardness up to 65
HRC. Case depth 0.025-0.25
mm (0.001-0.010 in.). Some
distortion.
Bolts,
screws,
gears.
nuts,
small
Surface hardness up to 1100

HV. Case depth 0.1-0.6 mm
(0.005-0.030 in.) and 0.020.07 mm (0.001-0.003 in.) for
high speed steel.
Geards, shafts,
sprockets,
valves, cutters,
boring bars
Extremely hard and wearresistance surface.

Case
depth
0.025-0.075
mm
(0.001-0.003 in.).
Surface hardness 50-60 HRC.
Case depth 0.7-6 mm (0.0300.25 in.). Little distortion.
Tool and
steels.
Same as above

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
die
Axles,
crankshafts,
piston
rods,
lathe beds, and
centers.
Same as above
TABLE 5.7 Outline of heat

treatment processes for
surface hardening.
Heat Treatment Temperature Ranges

1800
900
Normalizing
1400
738C
700
600
A1
1600
Full
annealing
A3
800
Acm
0.2
Temperature (C)
1000
Spheroidizing
0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Composition (% C)
1.4
1200
1.6
FIGURE 5.34 Temperature ranges for heat treating plain-carbon steels, as indicated
on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Casting Processes Comparison

Process
Sand
Shell mold
Expendable pattern
Plaster mold
Ceramic mold
Investment
Permanent mold
Die
Centrifugal
Advantages
Almost any metal is cast; no limit to
size, shape or weight; low tooling cost.
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish; high production rate.
Most metals cast with no limit to size;
complex shapes
Intricate shapes; good dimensional
accuracy and finish; low porosity.
Intricate shapes; close tolerance
parts; good surface finish.
Intricate shapes; excellent surface finish and accuracy; almost any metal
cast.
Good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy; low porosity; high production rate.
Excellent dimensional accuracy and
surface finish; high production rate.
Large cylindrical parts with good
quality; high production rate.
Limitations
Some finishing required; somewhat
coarse finish; wide tolerances.
Part size limited; expensive patterns
and equipment required.
Patterns have low strength and can
be costly for low quantities.
Limited to nonferrous metals; limited
size and volume of production; mold
making time relatively long.
Limited size.
Part size limited; expensive patterns,
molds, and labor.
High mold cost; limited shape and intricacy; not suitable for high-meltingpoint metals.
Die cost is high; part size limited; usually limited to nonferrous metals; long
lead time.
Equipment is expensive; part shape
limited.
TABLE 5.8 Casting Processes, and their Advantages and Limitations.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chills
(a)
Sand
Casting
Chill
Sand
(b)
Chill
Porosity
(c)
Casting
Boss
Chill
FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in castings to
eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metal, as
shown in (c).
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Hydrogen solubility
Hydrogen Solubility in Aluminum

id
u
Liq
Fusion
Solid
Melting point
FIGURE 5.36 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Elimination of Porosity in Castings

Shrinkage
cavity
Poor
Poor
Poor
Good
Good
(a)
(b)
(c)
Good
(d)
FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners are
avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining
uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.

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Design Modifications
Poor
Good
Use radii or fillets to avoid corners

and provide uniform cross-section.
Poor
Core in
cover half
Deep cavities should be on one

side of the casting where possible.
Poor
Poor
Poor
Ribs and/or fillets improve bosses.
Good
Poor
Sloping bosses can be designed for

straight die parting to simplify die design.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Good
Good
Wall sections should be uniform.
FIGURE 5.38
Suggested
design modifications to avoid
defects in castings. Source:
Courtesy of
The North
American Die Casting
Association.
Good
Core in
ejector half
Good
Side cores can be eliminated

with this hole design.
Economics of Casting
Cost per piece (relative)
8
7
Die cast
Plaster cast
6
5
4
Sand cast
3
2
1
0
100
Permanent-mold
casting
101
102 103 104 105

Number of pieces
106
FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes. Note that because of the high cost of
equipment, die casting is economical mainly for large production runs. Source: The North American Die Casting Association.

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Lost-Foam Casting of Engine Blocks
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 5.40 (a) An engine block for a 60-hp 3-cylinder marine engine, produced by the lost-foam casting
process; (b) a robot pouring molten aluminum into a flask containing a polystyrene pattern. In the pressurized
lost-foam process, the flask is then pressurized to 150 psi (1000 kPa). Source: Courtesy of Mercury Marine

Kalpakjian Schmid
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Ch05 Casting Processes

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Temperature & Density for Castings

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Phase Diagram for Nickel-Copper

100 Copper (Cu)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Irn-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Alloy Solidification & Temperature

Alloying element (%)

Solidification Patterns for Gray Cast Iron

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.8 Schematic illustration of three basic

FIGURE 5.9 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front,

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Pouring basin (cup)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or expansion

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Yield strength (psi x 103)

Tensile strength/density ratio (in x 105)

Impact energy (ft-lb, Charpy V-notch)

Reduction of area (%)

Ultimate tensile strength (psi x 103)

Modulus of elasticity (psi x 106)

Brinell harbness (HB)

FIGURE 5.13 Mechanical properties for various

General Characteristics of Casting

TABLE 5.2 General characteristics of casting processes.

Typical Applications & Characteristics

E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; VP, very poor; D, difficult.

TABLE 5.3 Typical applications for castings and casting characteristics.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Properties & Applications of Cast Iron

TABLE 5.4 Properties and typical applications of cast irons.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

S, sand; D, die; P, permanent mold.

TABLE 5.5 Typical properties of nonferrous casting alloys.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Microstructure for Cast Irons

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Edge dam blocks

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.15 (a) The continuous-casting

Mechanical drawing of part

Cope pattern plate

Drag pattern plate

Cope ready for sand

Cope after ramming

Drag with core

2. Pattern and dump

3. Pattern and dump box

5. Mold halves joined together

6. Mold placed in flask

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Caramic Mold Manufacture

2. Stripping green mold

FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.