MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

References:

Modern Control Engineering, K. Ogata, 4th ed., pp. 1-8

Modern Control Systems, R.C. Dorf, R.H. Bishop, 12th ed., pp. 1-48

Contents
Definitions........................................................................................... 2
Examples of Control Systems. 4
Automobile steering control system... 4
Manually controlled closed-loop system for regulating the level of fluid...... 4
Speed control system.....5
Temperature control system (Electric furnace)... 6
Temperature control of the passenger compartment of a car... 6
A three-axis control system......7

Control System Design....................................................................... 8

Design example: Turntable speed control 9
Design example: Insulin delivery control system.............10

MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Definitions
System. A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective. A system is not limited to physical ones. The concept of the system can be
applied to abstract, dynamic phenomena such as those encountered in economics. The
word system should, therefore, be interpreted to imply physical, biological, economic, and
the like, systems.
Plant. A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts functioning
together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. Any physical object to
be controlled (such as a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical reactor, or a
spacecraft) is a plant.
Process. A process is a progressively operation that consists of a series of controlled
actions or movements systematically directed toward a particular result or end. Any
operation to be controlled is a process. Examples are chemical, economic, and biological
processes.
Controlled Variable and Manipulated Variable. The controlled variable is the quantity or
condition that is measured and controlled. The manipulated variable is the quantity or
condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.
Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the system.
Control. Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system and
applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit deviation of the
measured value from a desired value. In studying control engineering, we need to define
additional terms that are necessary to describe control systems.
Disturbance. A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output
of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal, while an
external disturbance is generated outside the system and is an input.
Feedback Control. Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the presence of
disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system and some
reference input and does so on the basis of this difference. Here only unpredictable
disturbances are so specified, since predictable or known disturbances can always be
compensated for within the system.
Open-loop control. Open-loop control systems use an actuating device to control the
process directly without using feedback. Those systems in which the output has no effect
on the control action are called open-loop control system. In other words, the output is
neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input.
Desired output
response

output
Actuating device

process

One practical example is a washing machine. Soaking, washing, and rinsing in the washer
operate on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is, the
cleanliness of the clothes. In the open control system, the accuracy of the system depends
on calibration. In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not
perform the desired task. For instance, traffic control by means of signals operated on a
time basis is another example of open-loop control (also an electrical toaster).

MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Closed-loop control. Closed-loop control systems use a measurement of the output and
feedback of this signal to compare it with the desired output (reference or command).
Desired output
response
comparison
+

output

error
controller

process

measurement

A feedback control system often uses a function of a prescribed relationship between the
output and reference input to control the process. On the other hand, stability is a major
problem in the closed-loop control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors and thereby
can cause oscillations of constant or changing amplitude.
Closed-loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and/or
unpredictable variations in system components are present. But, the closed-loop control
system is generally higher in cost and power.
Feedback control systems are not limited to engineering. The human body, for instance, is a
highly advanced feedback control system. Both body temperature and blood pressure are kept
constant by means of physiological feedback. It makes the human body relatively insensitive
to external disturbances, thus enabling it to function properly in a changing environment.
Furthermore, as the systems become more complex, the interrelationship of many controlled
variables must be considered in the control scheme.
Desired
output
responses

comparison

controller

measurement

Output
variables

MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Examples of Control Systems

Automobile steering control system

Desired
direction
of travel

Actual
direction
of travel

Error

Steering
mechanism

Driver

Automobile

Measurement
(visual and tactile)

The desired direction is compared with a measurement of actual direction in order to generate
a measure of the error. This measurement is obtained by visual and tactile (body movement)
feedback. There is an additional feedback from the feel of the steering wheel by the hand
(sensor).

Input

(desired
output)

Actual
output

Error
Control
device

Actuator

Process

Sensor
Measured Output

Feedback

A negative feedback system block diagram depicting a basic closed-loop control system.

Manually controlled closed-loop system for regulating the level of fluid in a

tank

The input is a reference level of fluid that the operator is instructed to maintain. (This
reference is memorized by the operator.) The power amplifier is the operator, and the sensor
is visual. The operator compares the actual level with the desired level and opens or closes the
valve (actuator), adjusting the fluid flow out, to maintain the desired level.
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MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Reference
level of
fluid
(input)

Error

Introduction to Automatic Control

Controller
(operator)

Actuator
(valve)

Process
(tank)

Actual level
of fluid
(output)

Measurement
(visual)

Speed control system

The amount of fuel admitted to engine is adjusted according to the difference between the
desired and the actual engine speeds.

Reference
engine
speed
(input)

Error

Controller
(the speed
governor)

Actuator
(valve)

Process
(engine)

Actual
engine speed
(output)

Measurement (the
piston-cylinder
mechanism)

The sequence of actions may be stated as follows: The speed governor is adjusted such that, at
the desired speed, no pressured oil will flow into either side of the power cylinder. If the
actual speed drops below the desired value due to disturbance, then the decrease in the
centrifugal force of the speed governor causes the control valve to move downward,
supplying more fuel, and the speed of the engine increases until the desired value is reached.
On the other hand, if the speed of the engine increases above the desired value, then the
increase in the centrifugal force of the governor causes the control valve to move upward.
This decreases the supply of fuel, and the speed of the engine decreases until the desired value
is reached.
In this speed control system, the plant (controlled system) is the engine. The difference
between the desired speed and the actual speed is the error signal. The control signal (the
amount of fuel) to be applied to the plant (engine) is the actuating signal. The controlled
variable is the speed of the engine. The external input to disturb the controlled variable is the
disturbance. An unexpected change in the load is a disturbance.
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MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Temperature control system (Electric Furnace)

Program
input
A/D
Converter

Electric
Furnace

Interface

Computer

Relay

Amplifier

Interface

Heater

The temperature in the electric furnace is measured by a thermometer, which is analog device.
The analog temperature is converted to a digital temperature by an A/D converter. The digital
temperature is fed to a controller through an interface. This digital temperature is compared
with the programmed input temperature, and if there is any discrepancy (error), the controller
sends out a signal to the heater, through an interface, amplifier, and relay, to bring the furnace
temperature to a desired value.

Reference
temperature
(input)

Error

Controller
(the computer)

Process
(electric
furnace)

Actuator
(relay)

Actual
temperature
(output)

Measurement
(the thermometer)

Temperature control of the passenger compartment of a car

Ambient
temperature
Sensor

Sun
Radiation
heat sensor
Desired
temperature
Controller
(input)

Heater of air
conditioner

(output)
Sensor

Passenger
compartment

Passenger
compartment
temperature

MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

The desired temperature (converted to a voltage) is input to the controller. The actual
temperature of the passenger compartment must be converted to a voltage through a sensor
and fed back to controller for comparison with input. Note that the ambient temperature and
radiation heat transfer from the sun, which are not constant while the car is driven, act as
disturbances.
The controller receives the input signal, output signal, and signals from sensors from
disturbance sources. The controller sends out an optimal control signal to the air conditioner
or heater to control the amount of cooling air or warm air so that the passenger compartment
temperature is about the desired temperature.
Reference
temperature
(input)

Error

Controller

Actuator
(air-conditioner
or heater)

(the computer)

Process
(passenger
compartment)

Measurement
(the sensors)

A three-axis control system for inspecting individual semiconductor wafers

with a highly sensitive camera

This system uses a specific motor to drive each axis to the desired position in the x-y-z-axis,
respectively. The goal is to achieve smooth, accurate movement in each axis. This control
system is an important one for the semiconductor manufacturing industry.

Reference
temperature
(input)

Error

Controller
(the computer)

Actuator
(relay)

Measurement
(the thermometer)

Process
(electric
furnace)

Actual
temperature
(output)

MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Control System Design

1. Establish control goals
2. Identify the variables to control

3. Write the
variables

specifications

for

the

4. Establish the system configuration

5. Obtain a model of the process, the
actuator, and the sensor
6. Describe a controller and select key
parameters to be adjusted
7. Optimize the parameters and analyze
the performance
If the performance does not meet the
specifications, then iterate the configuration

If the performance meets the

specifications, then finalize the design.

The design of control systems is a specific example of engineering design. The first step in the
design process consists of establishing the system goals. For example, our goal is to control
the velocity of a motor accurately.
The second step is to identify the variables that we desire to control. For example, the
velocity of the motor.
The third step is to write the specifications in terms of the accuracy we must attain. This
required accuracy of control will then lead to the identification of a sensor to measure the
controlled variable.
The next step consists of identifying an actuator. This will depend on the process. For
example, if we wish to control the speed of a rotating flywheel, we will select a motor as the
actuator. The sensor, in this case, will need to be capable of accurately measuring the speed.
The next step is the selection of a controller, which often consists of a summing amplifier that
will compare the desired response and the actual response.
The final step in the design process is the adjustment of the parameters of the system in order
to achieve the desired performance. If we can achieve the desired performance by adjusting
the parameters, we will finalize the design and proceed to document the results. If not, we will
need to establish an improved system configuration and perhaps select an enhanced actuator
and sensor. Then we will repeat the design steps until we are able to meet the specifications.
The performance specifications will describe how the closed-loop system should perform and
will include (1) good regulation against disturbances, (2) desirable responses to commands,
(3) realistic actuator signals, (4) low sensitivities, and (5) robustness.
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MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

Design example: Turntable Speed Control

Many modern devices use a turntable to rotate a disk at a constant speed. For example, a CD
player, a computer disk drive, and a phonograph record player all require a constant speed of
rotation in spite of motor wear and variation and other component changes.
Our goal is to design a system for turntable speed control that will ensure that the actual speed
of rotation is within a specified percentage of the desired speed. We will consider a system
without feedback and a system with feedback.
To obtain disk rotation, we will select a DC motor as the actuator because it provides a speed
proportional to the applied motor voltage. For the input voltage to the motor, we will select an
amplifier that can provide the required power.
The open-loop system (without feedback) is shown in Figure (a). This system uses a battery
source to provide a voltage that is proportional to the desired speed. This voltage is amplified
and applied to the motor. The block diagram of the open-loop system identifying control
device, actuator, and process is shown in Figure (b).

Desired
speed
(voltage)

Control device
Amplifier

Actuator
DC motor

Process
Turntable

(b)

Actual
speed

To obtain a feedback system, we need to select a sensor. One useful sensor is a tachometer
that provides an output voltage proportional to the speed of its shaft. Thus the closed-loop
feedback system takes the form shown in Fig. (a). The block diagram model of the feedback
system is shown in Fig. (b). The error voltage is generated by the difference between the input
voltage and the tachometer voltage.

Desired
+
speed
(voltage)

Error

Control device
Amplifier

Actuator
DC motor

Measured speed
(voltage)

Sensor
Tachometer
(b)
9

Process
Turntable

Actual
speed

MAK331E System Dynamics & Control

Introduction to Automatic Control

The feedback system is superior to the open-loop system, because the feedback system will
respond to error and work to reduce them.

Design example: Insulin Delivery Control System

Our goal is (step 1) to design a system to regulate the blood sugar concentration of a diabetic.
The blood glucose and insulin concentrations for healthy person are shown in Figure. The
system must provide the insulin from a reservoir implanted within the diabetic person.

Thus the variable we wish to control (step 2) is the blood glucose concentration. The
specification for the control system (step 3) is to provide a blood glucose level for the diabetic
that closely approximates (tracks) the glucose level of a healthy person.
In step 4, we propose a preliminary system configuration. An open-loop system would use a
preprogrammed signal generator and miniature motor pump to regulate the insulin delivery
rate as shown in Figure (a). The feedback control system would use a sensor to measure the
actual glucose level and compare that level with the desired level, thus turning the motor
pump on when it is required, as shown in Figure (b).
Programmed
signal generator

v(t)
Motor
voltage

Motor,
pump,
and valve

I(t)

Human body,
blood, and
pancreas

(a)

Desired
+
glucose
level

v(t)
Amplifier

Motor,
pump,
and valve

Sensor
Measured glucose level
(b)

10

Insulin
delivery
rate

Human body,
blood, and
pancreas