Course no: Physics 11

Course title:
Mechanics and Heat
Course description: (4, 3, 3)
This course covers the following topics.
All topics in
Course outline:
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :
Chapter :

mechanics and heat.

Introduction to Newtonian mechanics
Vector and Scalar
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Equilibrium and Forces
Kinematics
Newtons law of motion
Friction
Work, Energy, and Power
Simple Machine

Course reference:
* Modern Physics with Study Guide
By: Arthur Belset
* University Physics
By: Freedman, Young, and Zemanzky
* Textbook in Physics
By: Physics Committee
Course Grading System:
Major Exam
Assignment / Seatwork

90%

10%
100%

Course Regulation:
1. Get 50% on its equivalent in order to pass.
2. Incurred of 20% of the total no. of hours will automatically DROPPED.
3. Late 15 minutes before time consideredABSENT.
4. Wearing of uniform is strictly implemented.
5. Wearing of sandos, sandals, slippers are not allowed.
6. No earing for the boys.
7. Others see in students hand book.

Chapter : Introduction to Newtonian mechanics

Chapter Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, one should be able to:
1. Appreciate the relevance of physics.
2. Explain why Physics is an experimental science.
3. Show the proper presentation of magnitude by rounding off numbers.
4. Use one system of units to another system interchangeably.
5. Use prefixes multiples of SI units.
1.1Physics is the science of matter and energy. Its field is restricted to those
phenomena in which the nature of bodies is not changed. Physics is a precise
science and its natural language is mathematics.
1.2
Parts of Physics.Physics is classified into groups according to the
dominant form of energy involved. The divisions most frequently used are:
Mechanics, Heat, Sound, Magnetism, Electricity, Light, and Nuclear.
1.3 Physics as an Experiment Science.By experimental science we should an
arrangement of facts and law derived from those facts, and descriptive of
certain foiled of knowledge. Our understanding of the physical world has as
its foundation experimental measurements and observations, on these are
based our theories our facts and deepen our understanding of nature.
1.4
Scientific Method. The coupling of observations, reason and
experiment.
1.5
Measurement.Measurement essentially a comparison. To measure is
to compare a magnitude with another of the same unit to as certain how
many times the second is contained in the first.
1.6
Fundamental Concepts.
1.6.1 Matter. The main manifestation of a matter are: it occupies space, it
possesses inertia, is subjected to gravitation.
1.6.2 Mass. The quantity of matter that contains a body.
1.6.3 Force.Is a push or pull exerted on a body.
1.6.4 Motion. Is the change in position of a body with respect to another
body in time, or of some of its parts with respect to another.
1.7Fundamental Magnitudes. Fundamental magnitudes are those in terms of
which all other magnitudes can be expressed.
1.8Systems of Units. System of units set of standards for some or all the basic
units. In a system of units that evolved in English- speaking countries, the so
called English System, the units of length, mass and time are the foot, slug,
and second respectively. The modernized version of the metric system, based
on atomic standards is called the SI System, from the French SYSTEME
INTERNATIONAL d UNITS (international system of units).
1.9Unit conversions. Units are multiplied and divided just like ordinary symbols
and are treated in a equation in exactly the same way as algebraic quantities.
2.0 Significant Figures. If a mass is accurately recorded as 56.0 kg. It means
that the true mass lies between 55.95 and 56.05 kg. The accurate known digits,

plus one uncertain digit, are called significant figure. The 5 and 6 which are
accurate and the 0 which is uncertain.
2.1 Scientific Notation (Power of Ten Notation). When writing numbers
especially those involving many zeroes before or after the decimal point. It is
convenient to use the scientific notation using power. Example:
5,980,000,000,000,000,000,000,000kgs.

5.98 x

10

24

kgs.

2.2Rounding of Data. When the number desired to be dropped is from 0 to 4,

drop the number and if from 6 to 9, add one to the preceding number. If it is exactly
5, the odd even rule should be followed, that is if the number that proceeds is
even, retain the number and add one if it is odd.
2.3 Fundamental Units. Fundamental units are the standards selected for each
of the fundamental magnitudes.
Basic Units of the SI System
Quantity
Unit Name
Unit Symbol
Length
meter
m
Mass
kilogram
Kg
Time
second
s
Electric Current
ampere
A
Temperature
degree kelvin
K
Amount of substance
mole
mol
Luminous intensity
candela
cd
SI Derived Units with Special Names
Quantity
Unit Name
Unit Symbol
1

Hz ( s

Frequency

hertz

Force

newton

Pressure

pascal

Energy, Work
Power
Electric Charge
Electric Potential
Capacitance
Electric Resistance
Magnetic Flux
Intensity (flux density)
Inductance

N(
Pa (

J (N.m)
W (J/s)

coulomb

C (As)
V (W/A)
F (C/V)
(V/A)

tesla

T (Web./ A)
H (Web./ A)

volt
farad
ohm

henry

Kg. m/s 2 )

N /m2 )

joule
watt

Prefixes

Prefixes for Multiple of SI Units

Symbol
Value
Prefixes
18

Symbol

Value
1

Exa

10

Deci

10

Peta

1015

Centi

102

Teta

1012

Milli

103

Giga

109

Micro

Mega

106

Nano

109

Kilo

10

Pico

10

Hector
Deka

10

h
1

10

da

Femto
Atto

106

14

15

10

f
18

10

Conversion Factors
1 mile = 1609.42 m.
1
1
1
1
1

1atm = 1.013 x

meter = 3.28 ft.

mile = 5280 ft.
inch = 2.54 cm.
foot = 12 inches
yard = 3 ft.

1 light year = 9.461 x

105

Pa

= 14.7 psi
1 calorie = 4.186 J
1 horse power = 146 watts
1 gallon = 3,785 liters
1 cubic meter = 1000 liters
15

10

1 hectare = 10,000 sq. m.

1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft.
1 kg = 2.2 lb. (at Sea level)

m.

1 radian = 57.30 degree

1 hour = 60 minutes
3,600 seconds

Example:
1. Express 27.5 ft./s in kph (km./hr).
2. Convert 15.5 mgd (million gallons per day) to liters.

Chapter :
(Vectors and Scalar)
Chapters Objectives
All the end of this chapter, one should be able to:
1. Distinguish whether a quantity is vector or scalar.
2. Resolve a vector into its components.
3. Represent the vector graphically.
4. Use trigonometric in solving vector problems.
2.1Vectors and Scalars. Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude
and direction. Vectors can be added and subtracted, not algebraically or
arithmetically but geometrically, according to the rules to be given in each
particular case.
Examples of Vector and Scalar Quantities:
Vector
Symbol
Name
Example
s

displacement

15 m, N30 E

velocity

60 m/s, east

force

45 newtons, 120

acceleration

5.0 m/ s

Name
distance
speed
time
energy

Example
15 m.
60 m/s
60 s
200 J

Scalar
Symbol
s
v
t
E

2.2Graphical Representation of a Vector. A vector quantity can be

represented graphically by means of directed straight line or arrows. The
length of the line representsthe magnitude of the vector. The geometrical
line is also the line of action and the arrow head of the line shows the
direction and the point of application.
2.3Resultant and Equivalent.Resultant is that single vector which would
have the same effect as several others combined. Equilibrant is a vector
equal to the resultant but opposite in direction and therefore capable of
neutralizing the common effect of several vectors.

2.4Resolution of Vectors. Resolution is the process of finding the

components of a vector which is given as a resultant.

2.5Component of vectors. A vector may be considered as the resultant of

its component vectors. Consider the displacement vector in Fig. 2.1 a
coordinate system has been drawn that has an x axis pointing east and
y axis pointing north. The component of F is a vector

Fx

that points

along the x axis and whose length equals the projection of A on that axis
as shown in Fig. 2.2.
The y component of A is the projection of A on the y axis and is
labeled

Fy

in Fig. 2.2.

To determine the magnitude of components, a brief review of trigonometry is

helpful. Consider the right triangle shown in figure 2.3. Recall the definitions of the
sine, cosine and tangent functions.

sin =
=

opposite side A
=
hypotenuse C

adjacent sise B
=
hypotenuse C
cos

tan =

opposite side A
=
adjacent side B

Pythagorean Theorem:

C =B + A

Chapter :
(Composition and Resolution of Forces)
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, one should be able to:
1. Distinguish between collinear and concurrent forces.
2. Determine the resultant of concurrent and collinear forces.
3. Use suitable scale in represent vectors.
4. Calculate the resultant of concurrent forces by analytical and graphical
methods.
Note: Operations with vectors will be facilitated if applied to a particular case such
as forces and whatever we say about forces may be applied to other kinds
ofvectors.
3.1 Resultant of Collinear Forces. Two or more forces are collinear if they have
the same line of action. The resultant will be equal to the algebraic sum of all the
forces each taken with is respective signs. Normally forces to the right and north
bound are given positive signs while their opposites the negative signs.

3.2Resultant of Concurrent Forces. Concurrent forces are forces whose lines of

action all pass through a common point.
3.2.1 Graphical Solution.
3.2.1.1Parallelogram Method. The forces are supposed to act
simultaneously. Construct the parallelogram by drawing the other two sides parallel
to the forces. The diagonal will then represent the resultant both in magnitude and
direction.

3.2.1.2 Polygon Method. The method consists in beginning at any

convenient point and drawing to scale each vector arrow in succession. The tail end
of each arrow is attached to the tip end of the preceding one. The resultant is the
arrow with its tale end at the origin and its tip end at the last vector added.

If the diagram is a closed polygon, the forces are in equilibrium.

3.2.2 Analytical Method.

F1F 2

3.2.2.1 Law of Cosines. If two sides

and the included angle , the third side

However,

F3

is not the resultant of

F1

F3

and

of a triangle are given

may be found by the law:

F2

if they are forces. To find the

vector sum, graph the forces in succession. The angle then is the supplement
of angle . Now the cosine of is equal but opposite in sign to that of angle

. Since cos

= - (cos ), then expression for the side opposite which

is the resultant, becomes:

3.2.2.2 By Components. Each vector is resolved into its x and y

components, with negatively directed components taken as negative. The algebraic
sum of all the x or horizontal components is the x - component of the resultant
. In similar fashion is the y component found. Knowing the components, the
magnitude of the resultant is given by:

FR

FR
The direction of

| |

tan

Fy
Fx

FR

F x2

F y2

is determined by the relation:

=tan 1

| |
Fy
Fx

Example:
1. Calculate the resultant of the three forces acting on a point as shown in
the figure.

Chapter :
(Equilibrium and Torque)
Chapters Objectives:
At the end of this chapter; one should be able to:

1. Determine whether an object is in stable, unstable or neutral equilibrium.

2. Draw the free body diagram that shows the forces acting on an object.
3. Discus the steps in solving problem in statics.
4. Determine the tension on the cords where a body is suspended.
5. Determine the center of gravity of an object.
4.1
Equilibrium. Equilibrium is a state or condition wherein there is no change in
the motion of a body.
4.1.1 Conditions for Equilibrium.
4.1.1.1 First Condition. No accelerated translation. The vector sum of all
forces acting on the body must be zero; therefore the vector diagram
must form a closed polygon.

F x = F y=0

4.1.1.2 Second Condition. No accelerated rotation. The algebraic sum of the

moments about a point taken either outside or inside the body must be
zero.
4.2
Types of Equilibrium. The equilibrium of a body may be stable, unstable or
neutral.
When a body returns to its original position after being slightly disturbed,
the equilibrium is stable. A body is in unstable equilibrium if it tends to get
as far as possible from its original position when disturbed. If a body
remains in any position in which it finds itself with no tendency to return to
its original position or to go still farther away from it is in neutral
equilibrium.

4.3
Torque. Torque which is also called as the moment of the force is the
ability of a force to produce rotation. It is equal to the product of the force
by its moment arm the perpendicular distance from its line of action to the
fixed point.
Torque = (force) (moment arm)

=F l

In the SI system, the unit of torque is the newton meter (N.m).

4.4
Composition of Moments. Moments can be added algebraically, by
qualifying them with opposite signs, as they tend to rotate clockwise or
counter clockwise. The resultant of several moments is their algebraic sum.

4.5
Weight of an Object. Weight is the force with which gravity pulls
downward upon an object and it is not the same everywhere. Weight

becomes lesser as the object moves farther from the center of the
attracting body. Therefore, an object weighs lesser when it is on a mountain
top than when at sea level.
Weight = (mass) (acceleration of gravity)
w = mg
4.6
Center of Gravity. The center of gravity is the point at which the
whole mass of a body may be assumed to be concentrated without
changing the action of gravity on it.
The center of gravity may be outside the body.
4.7
Steps in Solving Problems in Statics.
4.7.1 Make an illustration of the whole structure being considered.Include
all of the known information bin the illustration and identify in
symbols unknown quantities you wish to determine.
4.7.2 Draw a free body diagram for one part or object of the structure.
The part of the structure chosen is usually one on which many of the
known forces and at least one of the unknown forces act. The
conditions of equilibrium must be satisfied by this object because it is
at rest.
4.7.3 Superimpose an x axis and y axis on the free body diagram.
These axes may be oriented in any direction. Once you decide on the
placement of the axes and the origin of the coordinates, all future
calculations must be consistent with that choice.
4.7.4 Satisfy the conditions of equilibrium. To do this, you must first resolve
the known force into their components. You will also have to include
in your equations symbols for the unknown components.
4.7.5 Substitute known information into the equations from step 4.7.4 and
perform the necessary algebraic manipulation to solve for the
unknowns.

Chapter :
(Kinematics)
Chapter Objectives:

At the end of this chapter; one should be able to:

1. Distinguish between distance and displacement and between speed and
velocity.
2. Discuss the steps in solving problems in kinematics.
3. Write the five basics motion equations for uniformly accelerated motion.
4. Derive the equations for problems involving free falli8ng bodies and
projectiles.
5. Apply the formula in problem solving.
5.1Kinematics. Kinematics is defined as the quantitative description of an
objects motion.
5.2Kind of Motion. Motion may be simple if it is due to a single force; or
compound, if it is combined effect of several forces.
5.3Uniform Motion. This motion is due to an instantaneous force. It is
characterized by a constant velocity, that is, that is, the moving body
will pass over equal distances per unit time.
S=

V t

Where:
S = total space or distanced travelled

= the constant velocity

t = time
5.3.1 Speed. Speed is the scalar value of velocity.
5.3.1.1

Average Speed. Average speed

is defined as

the distance travelled divided by the time required to

travel that distance.
5.3.2 Average Velocity. The average velocity

of an object

during some time period is the objects displacement (a vector)

divided by the time.
5.3.3 Instantaneous Velocity.Instantaneous velocity indicates how
fast an object moves at each instant of the time and the
direction of that motion.
5.4Uniformly Accelerated Motion. This motion is due to a constant force,
that is, a force acting continuously. The result of this continuously action
is acceleration.
5.4.1 Acceleration. Acceleration may be defined as the increase of
velocity (either in speed or in action) per unit time. If it were a
decrease, the result would be deceleration or negative
acceleration.
a=

changevelocity V f V i
=
tie taken
t

Where:

Vf

= final velocity

Vi

= initial velocity

t=

Time

Table:

1. S =

V t

2.

V +V i
V = f
2

3.

a=

4.

1
s=V i t+ at 2
2

5.

2 a s=V f V i

V f V i
t

5.5Projectile. A projectile is an object that moves through space

under the influence of the earths gravitational force.
Projectile motion then is described in terms of motion in the
horizontal or x direction and independent by motion in the vertical
or y direction. If air resistance can be ignored, the projectiles
horizontal motion continues at constant velocity because its
horizontal acceleration is zero. The vertical motion, however, will
have acceleration due to gravity.

5.6Steps in solving problems in Kinematics.

5.6.1 Illustrate the situation described in the problem. Include in
the diagram a coordinate a coordinate axis or axes; the
values of known quantities represented in terms of
appropriate symbols; a symbol for the unknown quantity you
wish to determine.

5.6.2 Divided the problems into parts. Each part can often be
solved with relative ease even though the original problem
might have seemed impossibly complicated.
5.6.3 Find one of the equations listed earlier in which the only
unknown quantity in the equation is the one whose value
you wish to calculate.
5.6.4 Rearrange the equations so that the unknown appears alone
on the left and the known quantities on the right.
5.6.5 Substitute the values of the known quantities and calculate
the value of the unknown including its unit.
5.6.6 Check your work.
5.7 Gravitational Acceleration. Gravitational acceleration caused
the vertical motion of objects thrown into the air or of the objects
falling through the air. If not for the resistive force of the air on
these objects, this acceleration would be constant. This
acceleration is caused by the gravitational force on the earth
pulling down on the objects.
The magnitude of this acceleration has a value at the earths
surface of

9.8 s 2 .

m
g = 9.8 s 2
5.8Factors that Affect air Resistance.
5.8.1 The speed of the object. The faster the objects move, at
more air resitanc4e affects its acceleration.
5.8.2 The shape and surface area of an object.
5.8.3 Air resistance is much more important for a light object,
such as paper, than for a heavier object of the sane size
such as meatal sheet.
Equation for Bodies in free fall:

gt=

V f V i

1
h=V i t + g t 2
2
2 g h=V f 2V i2

Chapter :
(Newtons Law of Motion)
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, one should able to:
1. Discuss the Newtons law of motion.
2. Use the second law of motion to solve problems involving force, mass and
acceleration.
3. Difference mass and weight.
4. Discuss the applications of Newtons law of motion.
5. Determine the weight of an object with given mass at certain altitudes or
distances above earths surface or above sea level.
6.1 Newtons First Law: an object at rest will remain at rest; an object in
motion will continue with constant velocity unless forces acted upon it. This
also called as the LAW OF INERTIA.
6.2 Newtons Second Law: according to Newton, an object accelerates if
acted on by an unbalance force. This acceleration depends on two factors:
1. The resultant force on the object.
2. The mass or amount of matter of which the object is made.
The acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on
the objects mass. If a group of forces act on an object of mass (m). the
vector sum of these forces (

causes the object to have an

acceleration a, given by:

a=

F
m

or

F=ma

The direction of a is in the direction of the resultant force.

Newtons second law is often written as F=ma. The force F on the left
side of the equation, however, represents the net or resultant force acting on
the object.

6.2.1 Units for Newtons Second Law of motion. The unit of

acceleration in the SI system is the

meter
second 2

m
( s 2 ). For the mass is the

kilogram, and for the force is the Newton (N).

1 N = (1 kg) (1 s 2 )
6.3 Newtons Third Law. For every force exerted on one body, this is an
equal oppositely directed force acting on some other body. This is the often
called the LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION.
Newton indicated in this law that forces comes in pairs. The actions force
is the exerted by one object on another. The reaction force is the force
exerted by the other object on the first.
6.4 Tension on a String. Tension in a string is a particular case of
Newtons third law of motion. This is the back pulling or reaction exerted by a
mass on the string cause of its resistance to motion.

6.5 Law of Universal Gravitation. The gravitational force exerted by

amass

m1 on another mass

m2 is proportional to the product of their

masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation r.

G m1 m2

F=

r2

Where:
G = is a constant called the universal gravitational constant.
G = 6.67 x

11

10

Nm /kg

Planetary Constants:
Planet
Equation
Mean Distance
Radius
from the Sum

Mercury
Venus

Planet

Mean

mass

1024 kg )

(km)

(x

2,439
6,052

0.329
4.874

Density

kg
( m3 )

(x 10

5440
5240

.5834
1.0771

11

m )

Earth
Mars
Jupiter
7.7792
Saturn
14.2718
Uranus
28.7232
Neptune
44.8800
Pluto

6,378
3,397
71,398

5.980
0.642
1901.000

60,000

569.100

27,900

87.069

24,300

CHAPTER ;

5497
3900
1300

700
1000

87.069
-

1.4960
2.2739

1700
-

58.9424

FRICTION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter one should be able to;
1. Discuss the concept of friction.
2. Discuss the methods in reducing friction.
3. Explain the situation wherein friction is an advantage.
4. Determine the minimum force necessary to move an object resting on a surface wherein
friction is
5. Compute problems on moving objects, subject to friction.
7.1 FRICTION. A friction force opposes the motion of an object across a surface on which the
object rest or slides and is directed parallel to the surface of contact.
Friction can never be eliminated completely, although it can be reduced to exceedingly
small values in certain circumstances.
Friction forces on objects always act in a direction opposite to the direction of motion.
7.1.1 CONCEPTS ON FRICTION.
7.1.1.1 Friction is independent of the velocity (below certain limits) between two sliding
bodies.
7.1.1.2 If the normal force (force perpendicular to the surface) remains the same,friction is
independent on the area of the rubbing surfaces.
7.1.1.3 The forces of friction is proportional to the total force pressing the surface against
another.
7.1.1.4 The force of friction is slightly greater at the start that after the motion has begun.

7.2 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION.

7.2.1 Coefficient of static friction. The coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of
the force necessary to start motion to the force pressing the bodies together, that is,
the normal force.
7.2.2
Coefficient of kinetic friction. The coefficient of kinetic friction is the ratio of the force
necessary to move the body uniformly, to the normal force.

s =

F
N

K=

TABLE 9
Surfaces
Rubber on concrete, dry
Rubber on concrete, damp
Steel on steel, dry
Steel on steel, lubricated
Steel on ice
Steel on Teflon
Giass on glass
Wood on wood
Bone on bone, dry
Bone on bone, lubricated

F
N

k
0.7-1.0

0.7
0.8

0.70
0.5
0.4

0.15
0.10
0.04
0.94
0.50
-

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.4
0.25
0.30

0.003

7.3 ANGLE OF REPOSE. The angle of repose may be defined as the angle at which the body just
begin to slide.
7.4 ROLLING FRICTION. The friction of a solid rolling on a surface is less than the friction of a solid
sliding over a surface.
7.5 METHODS TO REDUCE FRICTION.
7.5.1 Substitute rolling to sliding friction.
7.5.2 Make the rubbing surfaces as smooth as possible.
7.5.3 Make rubbing surfaces of different material so that the depressions or irregularities of
one would not fit into the other.
7.5.4 Use proper lubricants to prevent direct contact between surfaces.
7.6 ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION. Friction is not always a disadvantage. Screw and nails hold their
position in the objects in which they are driven by means of friction.
CHAPTER :
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter one should be able to:
1. Determine the work done by a force that moves an object through a certain displacement.
2. Determine the work done when an object is raise to a certain height.
3. Determine the power output and give the units as watt, ft.lb/s or hp interchangeably.
4. Determine potential, kinetic and resultants of energy.
5. Compute and solve problems that involved moving objects using the principle of conservation of
energy.
8.1 CONCEPT OF WORK. In physics, work is done when a force act on an object moves from one
place to another.
8.2 COMPUTATION OF WORK. The value of work done by a force is the product of the force by distance
through which its point of application moves in the direction of a force.

WORK=force x displacement
8.3. ENERGY. The energy of a body is its ability to do work, and the work it can do is the measure of
its energy.
8.4. KINDS OF ENERGY.
8.4.1 Potential Energy. Potential energy is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position
with respect to other bodies.
PE=Weight x height
8.4.1.1 Elastic Potential Energy. The energy stored in a stretch or compressed elastic material.
PE=(average force) x distance
8.4.2 Kinetic Energy. Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion.
By transforming work W=Fs from previous discussion,
F=ma
s=

/2a

substituting, we have
2

KE=(ma) (

KE=1/2 m

v2

/2a) or

8.5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. Energy is never created nor destroy. The sum total of energy
of the universe remains constant.
8.6 POWER. Power is defined as the ratio of the work done W and the time t required to do
that work.
Power=P=

w
t

8.6.1 Units of Power.

8.6.1.1 Watt or Joule per second
8.6.1.2 Horsepower which is equivalent to 746 watts.

EXAMPLE;
A 5 kg block from rest at pt. A and slides along a plane that is inclined 30

to the

horizontal. At the 3].0 m position the speed of the block is 3.0 m/s. What is the
coefficient of friction between the block and the plane?

CHAPTER

: SIMPLE MACHINE

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter , one should be able to ;
1. Discuss the principle of work in relation to machines.
2. Explain the actual and ideal mechanical advantage.
3. Enumerate and discuss each of the simple machines.
4. Determine the efficiency of machines.
9.1 Simple Machines. A machine is a device by which magnitude, direction or
method of application of a force is changed for the sake of gaining some practical
advantage.
9.2 Principle of Work. In an ideal or frictionless machine, the work done by machine
(output) is equal t the work done upon the machine or the energy applied to it
(input).
Work Input = useful work + friction work
9.3 Efficiency. Efficiency is the ratio of the output to the input.
Efficiency =

work output power output

=
x 100
work input
power input

9.4 Actual Mechanical Advantage. The AMA of a machine is

force used
AMA = force ratio = force exerted by machine on load operate machine

9.5 Ideal Mechanical Advantage. T he IMA of a machine is

IMA= distance ratio=

distance moved by input force

distance moved by load

9.6 Kinds of a Simple Machines.

9.6.1 The Lever. The Lever is a rigid bar, straight or curved, which rotates
about the a fixed point called the fulcrum.

 Class 1 Lever. The fulcrum lies between the effort and the resistance. I.e.
scissors
Class 2 Lever. The resistance lies between the fulcrum and the effort. i.e.
the wheel barrow
Class 3 Lever. The efforts is applied between the fulcrum and the
resistance. i.e. the pincers.
9.6.2 The Wheel and Axle. It consists of a large and a small wheel rigidly
joined to the same axle. The rope to which the effort is applied is wound around the
large wheel while the rope that carries the weight is wound around the smaller, but
in opposite sense, so that unwinding to the first results in the winding of the second.

CHAPTER 10;
CHAPTER 11: CIRCULAR MOTION
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES;
At the end of this chapter, one should be able to;
1. Explain how the mass, speed and radius of orbit affect the centripetal force.
2. Convert radians to degree and vice versa.
3. Find the maximum velocity that a car can attain without skidding or
overturning.
4. Compute for the period of the planets and satellites given their radius of
orbits.
5. Determine the required banking of road for given speed.
11.1 Uniform Circular Motion. Circular motion is the result of a central constant
force and an instantaneous tangential force. The actions are at the every instant
perpendicular to each other while their directions in space are changing
continuously.
11.2 Centripetal Acceleration. We can derive an expression for this acceleration
by considering a circle with radius r and center at 0. On the circumference mark
a point A and draw a tangent that will represent vertically the velocity due to the
instantaneous force. Going over the arc of length mark a second point B and
again draw a tangent which at velocity of the same magnitude as V but with
different direction.