Today the use of solar power is very limited.

Today we use very little

active solar heating. Though in the future many more homes will be
solar heated. More homes will have passive solar heating. Scientists
want to make a satellite that will orbit over one place. This satellite
would have giant wings made of solar power, this satellite would beam
electricity down to earth. This would allow the solar cells not to be
obstructed by clouds or buildings. Also ground solar power plants are
predicted to be used more frequently. Another thing predicted to be
popular is solar powered cars. The drawback of these cars is the fact that
you can only travel at high speeds for a short time and they dont work
on cloudy days
As discussed above that the solar powered vehicles are used not quite
widely because of the limitations or the drawbacks such as storage of
energy, the climatic conditions are another factor that could be stated.
We cannot predict how the nature would be in the next 24 hour window
which is why we are not able to use the solar energy more efficiently and
effectively. Similarly the issue of storage of solar energy is the most
prominent one, even if we get good climatic conditions we need to store
that absorbed energy into some mode most commonly used are high end
batteries that can store the energy in the form of electricity in them but
they also are not helping in more or to be precise much efficient usage of
the solar energy
The Frontier Research Center at UNC-Chapel Hill has built a system
that converts solar energy into fuel, so power can be used even after the
sun sets.
Instead of storing solar electricity in an expensive battery, researchers
use the sun's energy to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Two

of the Center's papers about the process were recently published in the
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
That means only one percent of the solar power that reaches the device
is currently used to convert water into fuel. Meyer says the process
wouldn't be viable on a commercial scale until technology reached about
10 percent efficiency, which could take a few decades.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power
(CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photovoltaic
effect.

Photovoltaics were initially, and still are, used to power small and
medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single
solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. They are an
important and relatively inexpensive source of electrical energy where
grid power is inconvenient, unreasonably expensive to connect, or
simply unavailable. However, as the cost of solar electricity is falling,

solar power is also increasingly being used even in grid-connected

situations as a way to feed low-carbon energy into the grid.
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to
concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower. Power towers are
more cost effective, offer higher efficiency and better energy storage
capability among CSP technologies. The PS10 Solar Power Plant and
PS20 solar power plant are examples of this technology.

Solar Photovoltaic (SPV)

SPV cells work by converting sunlight into electric current. An
SPV cell is a semi-conductor system made of silicon or similar
materials. The system generates electricity when it is exposed to
sunlight. Power is generated by connecting thousands of tiny solar
cells which forms modules.
There are different types of solar PV cells based on the choice of
materials used. Crystalline Silicon solar cells are of two types
polycrystalline and monocrystalline. Thin-film solar PV cells can
be made of Amorphous Silicon, CdTe or CIGS.

Reasons for Choosing Solar Energy

It is possible to use solar energy for different types of applications. It can

be used for both grid-connected and off-grid generation of power.
1. Solar energy for grid-connected electricity
Large scale grid-based solar energy is generated from CSP Plants
and photovoltaic (PV) cells. The reasons for choosing gridconnection include the following:

 Day is the time of peak load demand and solar energy is easily
available.
Because the equipments involved in solar energy conversion and
storage are relatively long-lasting and require lower maintenance,
the energy infrastructure lasts longer.
Lower cost of running and ROI on grid-tie up.
Relative to traditional thermal power, solar energy produces clean
energy without causing any pollution.
Availability of free solar power in every part of the world, and
can be used almost anywhere.
2. Solar energy for off-grid
Such systems may or may not have a power storage facility in the
form of batteries. Such remote power systems can be installed for
many reasons. This includes the following:
A desire to depend on renewable energy that is free from
pollution and is safe for the environment.
A desire to combine different available options of power to create
a hybrid source of power generation.
A desire for becoming independent from the inconsistent or fault
ridden grid connection.
Availability of power storage systems like batteries.
Absence of overhead wires elimination of power loss during
transmission.
For use in different products and purposes like heating, cooking,
lighting, communication equipments, pumping or in small scale
industry.
Applications
1. Architecture and urban planning

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of

architectural history.[20] Advanced solar architecture and urban
planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and
Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to
provide light and warmth.
2. Agriculture and horticulture
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of
solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants.
Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row
orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of
plant varieties can improve crop yields
3. Transport and reconnaissance
Development of a solar-powered car has been an engineering
goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge is a biannual
solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and
enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across
central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide.
4. Solar thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating,
space heating, space cooling and process heat generation.
5. Cooking
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and
pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories:
box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers.The simplest
solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure
in 1767.

Advantages

1. Solar energy is a clean and renewable energy source.

2. Once a solar panel is installed, solar energy can be produced free
of charge.
3. Solar energy will last forever whereas it is estimated that the
worlds oil reserves will last for 30 to 40 years.
4. Solar energy causes no pollution.
5. Solar cells make absolutely no noise at all. On the other hand, the
giant machines utilized for pumping oil are extremely noisy and
therefore very impractical.
6. Very little maintenance is needed to keep solar cells running. There
are no moving parts in a solar cell which makes it impossible to
really damage them.
7. In the long term, there can be a high return on investment due to
the amount of free energy a solar panel can produce, it is estimated
that the average household will see 50% of their energy coming in
from solar panels.

Disadvantages

1. Solar panels can be expensive to install resulting in a time-lag of

many years for savings on energy bills to match initial investments.
2. Electricity generation depends entirely on a countries exposure to
sunlight; this could be limited by a countries climate.
3. Solar power stations do not match the power output of similar
sized conventional power stations; they can also be very expensive
to build.

4. Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar powered

devices can be used at night. The batteries can often be large and
heavy, taking up space and needing to be replaced from time to
time.

: SOLAR PANEL
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic
effect its electrical characteristics, e.g. current, voltage, or resistance
vary when light is incident upon it and can generate and support an
electric current without being attached to any external voltage source.
Inverter 2 years all India support warranty, Solar panel 25 years process
warranty, Battery 3 Years manufactures warranty
Applications:
1) Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a
module.
Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up)
side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers
from abrasion and impact due to wind-driven debris, rain, hail, etc.
2) Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an
additive voltage.
3) Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current shadow effects
can shut down the weaker(less illuminated) parallel string (a number of
series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and even
damaging the weaker string because of the excessive reverse bias
applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners.

4) Practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is most

often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected
photovoltaic systems), in stand-alone systems, batteries are used to store
the energy that is not needed immediately.
5) Solar panels can be used to power or recharge portable devices.

Major types:
1. Crystalline silicon: a) mono-crystalline
b) poly-crystalline
c) mono-like-multi silicon
2. Amorphous silicon
3. Cadmium telluride
4. Copper indium selenide/sulfide
5. Gallium arsenide multi junction
Mono-crystalline: Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive,
and because they are cut from cylindrical ingots.
Poly-crystalline: made from cast square ingots large blocks of
molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified .Poly-Si cells are less
expensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells, but are less
efficient.

 Mono-like-multi silicon: uses existing polycrystalline casting

chambers with small "seeds" of mono material. The result is a bulk
mono-like material with poly around the outsides. It produces
mono-like cells at poly-like prices.
cadmium telluride: uses a cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film,
lowest quoted thin-film module price stands at US$0.84 per wattpeak, with the lowest crystalline silicon (c-Si) module at $1.06 per
watt-peak. The cadmium present in the cells would be toxic if
released. However, release is impossible during normal operation
of the cells and is unlikely during fires in residential roofs.
copper indium selenide: CIGS is a direct band gap material. It has
the highest efficiency (~20%) among thin film materials.
Gallium arsenide multi junction: GaAs based multi junction
devices are the most efficient solar cells to date. In October 15,
2012, triple junction metamorphic cell reached a record high of
44%.These multi junction cells consist of multiple thin films
produced using metal organic vapor phase epitaxial. E.g. A triplejunction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors:
GaAs, Ge, and GaInP2 .

Working:
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
1. The absorption of light by semiconductor materials (like silicon),
generating either electron-hole pairs or excitants.

2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

Efficiency:
Single pn junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the
theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33.7%.
Comparison between poly-crystalline and mono-crystalline:
1) Atomic arrangement:Mono-crystalline silicon (sc-Si) modules have
ordered atomic structure while Poly-crystalline silicon (mc-Si) has more
disordered atomic structure.
2) Efficiency:Mono-crystalline silicon (sc-Si) modules have higher
conversion efficiency about 14% to 20% while poly-crystalline silicon
(mc-Si) modules have lower efficiency about 11% to 15%.

3) Economic Cost:Poly-crystalline is less expensive than monocrystalline silicon.

4) Degradation:Poly-crystalline silicon are more resistant to degradation
(due to irradiation) while mono-crystalline are less.(The degradation rate
is about 2 percent per year for multiple crystalline technologies).

Note: (some beneficial points why to prefer crystalline silicon)

Due to their proven and reliable technology, long life times and
abundant primary resources. Their efficiency is expected to reach 21
percent in the long term.

Circuit diagram:
How to connect multiple solar panels:

fig.
9.h

As per our
battery
specification
we need approx 25Ah current rating and 4*12V voltage rating
so when charging the battery we connect 2-2 panels in series and
combination to parallel as shown in diagram,
Now we got approx 36.68V voltage and 10.9A current which can charge
our battery in approx 2 hrs 15 min
And when we have to run motor via panel we connect all the panels in
parallel that will give approx 21.8A current and 18.34V voltage that will
give 400W rating approx.
Specification:
Specification:

Model: SL100TU18P
Power: 100W
Voltage: 18.34V
Current: 5.45A
Efficiency: 14.12%
Power Tolerance: -3% to +3%
Operating Temperature: -40 to 85*C
Cost:
Quantity: 4 panels
Total cost: Rs 12280 INR approx
New Nanoparticles to Make Solar Panels More Efficient and Cheaper
A new class of nanoparticles is capable of converting sunlight more
efficiently into electricityeven when exposed to airThe researchers are
very confident that these solid, stable, light-sensitive nanoparticles will
help them create cheaper and more flexible solar cells. These
nanoparticles are called colloidal quantum dots. The nanoparticles have
a great potential to revolutionize the solar panel industry by offering
more cost-efficient solar panels for homes and businesses.
Colloidal quantum dots can be used to create less expensive infrared
light emitting diodes, infrared lasers, solar cellsand next-gen gas
sensors.The study, published in Nature Materials this week, was led by
Professor Ted Sargent and ZhijunNing.
"The field of colloidal quantum dot photovoltaics requires continued
improvement in absolute performance, or power conversion efficiency.
The field has moved fast, and keeps moving fast, but we need to work

toward bringing performance to commercially compelling levels", said

Sargent.
The colloidal quantum dots can be effectively used to collect sunlight.
All that is required to perform the task is two semiconductor types: ptypes and n-types. The researchers endeavoured to layer the enhanced ntype colloidal quantum dots with the p-type. This made solar power
conversion up to 8% more efficient.

Solar Panels : An eco-friendly electric generator.

Solar panels generate free power from the sun by converting sunlight to
electricity with no moving parts, zero emissions, and no maintenance.
The solar panel, the first component of a electric solar energy system, is
a collection of individual silicon cells that generate electricity from
sunlight. The photons (light particles) produce an electrical current as
they strike the surface of the thin silicon wafers. A single solar cell
produces only about 1/2 (.5) of a volt. However, a typical 12 volt panel
about 25 inches by 54 inches will contain 36 cells wired in series to
produce about 17 volts peak output. If the solar panel can be configured
for 24 volt output, there will be 72 cells so the two 12 volt groups of 36
each can be wired in series, usually with a jumper, allowing the solar
panel to output 24 volts. When under load (charging batteries for
example), this voltage drops to 12 to 14 volts (for a 12 volt
configuration) resulting in 75 to 100 watts for a panel of this size.
Multiple solar panels can be wired in parallel to increase current
capacity (more power) and wired in series to increase voltage for 24, 48,
or even higher voltage systems. The advantage of using a higher voltage
output at the solar panels is that smaller wire sizes can be used to
transfer the electric power from the solar panel array to the charge
controller & batteries. Since copper has gone up considerably in the last

few years, purchasing large copper wiring and cables is quite expensive.
(that's why pennies are made of mostly zinc today).

The 3 basic types of Solar Panels

Monocrystalline solar panels : The most efficient and expensive solar
panels are made with Monocrystalline cells. These solar cells use very
pure silicon and involve a complicated crystal growth process. Long
silicon rods are produced which are cut into slices of .2 to .4 mm thick
discs or wafers which are then processed into individual cells that are
wired together in the solar panel.
Polycrystalline solar panels : Often called Multi-crystalline, solar
panels made with Polycrystalline cells are a little less expensive &
slightly less efficient than Monocrystalline cells because the cells are not
grown in single crystals but in a large block of many crystals. This is
what gives them that striking shattered glass appearance. Like
Monocrystalline cells, they are also then sliced into wafers to produce
the individual cells that make up the solar panel.
Amorphous solar panels : These are not really crystals, but a thin layer
of silicon deposited on a base material such as metal or glass to create
the solar panel. These Amorphous solar panels are much cheaper, but
their energy efficiency is also much less so more square footage is
required to produce the same amount of power as the Monocrystalline or
Polycrystalline type of solar panel. Amorphous solar panels can even be
made into long sheets of roofing material to cover large areas of a south
facing roof surface.
Shading & Shadows on solar panels

When deciding on a location for your solar panels, make sure no

shadows will fall on the solar panel array during peak sunlight hours
(say, 9am to 4pm). Not only will shading of the solar panels
significantly reduce their output, but also could cause damage. Some
solar panel manufacturers advertise panels that can withstand shading
but they use internal diodes which in themselves reduce the power
somewhat. I recommend simply choosing a good location to start with,
even if it means cutting down a few trees or otherwise removing
obstacles.
Temperature & Wind loading
considerations
As previously discussed, you want to mount solar panels in a sunny and
non-shaded location to get maximum sun. But, heat build-up is also a
problem. Because the efficiency of solar panels decreases as temperature
increases, the solar panel mounting system should allow for spacing
around the individual solar panels for air circulation. The idea is to
allow air cooling in the hot sun to reduce the temperature of the solar
panels. Another consideration is wind loading. By allowing air to flow
around the solar panels, not only will they remain cooler, but also the
wind resistance of the entire array is less.
Types of Solar Panel Array Mountings :
Fixed, Adjustable, & Tracking
Fixed solar panel mounts : If you use the most
simple and least expensive type of solar panel
mounting system, it will be completely
stationary. The solar panels should always face
the equator. (due south in the northern
hemisphere). Don't forget that true south
varies from magnetic south. This can make a
huge difference. For example, true south in
eastern Washington state is 161 on a compass
instead of 180. The angle of inclination (tilt)

in degrees should be set to about your latitude.

Slightly more than your latitude will favor the
winter sun and slightly less will favor the
summer sun. (for a seasonal cabin for
example).
Adjustable solar panel mounts : The angle of
inclination (tilt) of an adjustable solar panel
mount can be changed 2 or more times during
the year to account for the lower angle of the
sun in winter as the earth orbits the sun
causing seasonal change. A good rule of
thumb is latitude + 15 degrees in the winter
and latitude - 15 degrees in the summer. This
will increase overall solar panel output by
approximately 25%. I adjust my solar panel
array 4 times per year. (Shown here in its
summer position). An easy approach that
works pretty good is to set the tilt for the
winter position in about mid October and back
to summer position in mid March.
Tracking solar panel mounts : Tracking solar panel mounts follow the
path of the sun during the day to maximize the solar radiation that the
solar panels receive. A single axis tracker tracks the sun east to west and
a two-axis tracker tracks the daily east to west movement of the sun and
the seasonal declination movement of the sun.
I must admit that a tracking type of solar panel mount is the most
efficient type. However, when I investigated the cost for these mounting
systems, I found that for the 20 to 30 percent gain in output they
provided I could buy 25% more panels cheaper and have the same
increase in power with no mechanical failures to worry about. Also,
you'll get far less extra gain in winter assuming it doesn't freeze up!
Therefore, I recommend that instead of 6 panels on a tracking mount

that costs $2000-$3000, just spend $700-$800 on 2 more solar panels

and gain a year round increase of 25 to 30%. Simple math, huh?
How much sunshine will I need?
For more detailed information on how many
solar panels you will need based on the
amount of sunshine available daily in your
area (of the United States) please check out
the advanced tutorial Solar Radiation. This
will give you a better idea of how many solar
panels you will need for your solar power
system.
Cost and expected LifeSpan of solar panels
At today's prices a single solar panel, rated at 75-85 watts sells for about
$375-$425 depending on brand. I have found that the brand does not
seem to be a huge factor. If your system uses several of these panels, this
would seem to be quite expensive. The good news is that today's solar
panels have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years or more. And just think,
they'll be making FREE electricity that whole time!
Summary
At today's prices, a typical 100 watt solar
panel will cost about $400 to $500 or about $4
to $5 per watt. With a total of only six 80 Watt
solar panels this Solar Home runs a
refrigerator, computer, 27 inch color tv,
microwave, various lights, misc devices, and
even an Air Conditioner in the summer. Only
for about 2 to 3 months in the winter (at 45
degrees north) is a generator used for 45 to 60
minutes per day to bulk charge the batteries.
Since some winter days are sunny, the
generator is not used every day.

A new material for solar panels could make them cheaper, more efficient
A unique solar panel design made with a new ceramic material points
the way to potentially providing sustainable power cheaper, more
efficiently, and requiring less manufacturing time. It also reaches a fourdecade-old goal of discovering a bulk photovoltaic material that can
harness energy from visible and infrared light, not just ultraviolet light.
Scaling up this new design from its tablet-size prototype to a full-size
solar panel would be a large step toward making solar power affordable
compared with other means of producing electricity. It would also help
the nation toward its goal of creating a national power grid that receives
one-third of its power through wind and solar sources.
Part of the reason solar panels have low efficiency is that the particles
collected from the sun enter the solar cell and spread out in all
directions. Getting them all to flow one direction typically requires
layers of different channeling material. Each time the particles pass
between these layers some get lost, decreasing the energy efficiency of
the solar cell. The teams new design uses fewer layers to limit loss and
uses ferroelectric material to use up less energy channeling the particles.
It took more than five years to model and design a material with this
combination of properties. The material uses perovskite crystals made
with a combination of potassium niobate and barium nickel niobate. It
has shown significant improvement over todays classic ferroelectric
material. The new material can absorb six times more energy and

transfer a photocurrent 50 times denser. Further tuning of the materials

composition should expand efficiency, the scientists say.
By adjusting the percentages of component elements in this new
material, the research team demonstrated that they can reduce the
amount of energy needed to induce conduction, a level called bandgap.

The parent materials bandgap is in the UV range, Spanier said, but adding just 10
niobate moves the bandgap into the visible range and close to the desired value for e
conversion.
The first component needed is one or more Solar Panels. They
electricity and charge the batteries. A very small system could get
couple 80 watt panels but figure at least 4 to 8 for a small to medi
am currently using only 6 panels to completely power this Solar Ho

A Charge Controller. is needed to prevent overcharging of the batteri

damage and increase the life and performance of the batteries.

The Power Inverter is the heart of the system. It makes 120 volts AC from the 12
stored in the batteries. It can also charge the batteries if connected to a generator
line.

Last are the storage Batteries. They store the electrical

reaction. Without storage you would only have power w
generator was running.

Summary
To summarize, there are four basic components: the Solar Panels, a Charge Contr
Storage Batteries. You will of course need the proper wires & cables to connect ev
eye on things would be nice. Depending on system size, costs vary widely from a
more. Much more information is available in the remaining tutorials. For more
the Advanced Tutorial section. And don't miss our new interactive Design Tools.

This small energy efficient home uses six 80 watt solar p

controller, a Trace 2500 watt true sine wave inverter and fiftee
on the image for details and new updated pictures of Solar array

include the Solar Panels which generate the electricity, the Charge Controller to control battery
Inverter that makes 120 volts AC from the batteries to run your appliances, the storage batte

xcess power for use when the sun is weak or not available, and AC generators for back-up powe
ss the proper wire sizes used to connect the components together and meters & monitors to tra
ce and usage.

is an important parameter of PV modules. Module efficiency shows what part of the solar energ
odules surface is converted into electrical power.

module has its rated power or peak power, denoted in kWp.

power of the module however is not the real power the module can generate.

power output of the module is always less than the rated power, due to the following factors

ufacturer power tolerance

and dust
perature
e losses
rter efficiency
ing
urer power tolerance is the percentage within which the manufacturers guarantee that the real p
l be the same as the rated power output. Such percentage is never 100, the typical value is 95, sin
perate in an environment different than Standard Test Conditions.

dust cause losses when accumulated on the surface of a photovoltaic module. Dirt and dust partic
sunlight and thus reduce the power output. The content of dirt and dust in the air may vary with l
ally the highest in urban environment. Certainly in regions with heavy rainfall dirt losses tend to

fficiency denotes what part of the input DC power is converted into AC power. The percentage i
alues of inverter efficiency between 90% and 95% are widely assumed in practice.

must be avoided since even small shadows could severely reduce the performance of a PV modul

nsists of cells, and when gets shaded, any cell turns into a heat-dissipating resistor boosting dram
ature of the PV module. This results not only in unexpected reduction of the output voltage, but
the life cycle of cells and modules. When mounted on the roof, PV modules could easily underp
ding caused by trees, chimneys and other roof protrusions that can hard to eliminate.

ure is one of the most important factors to be considered when designing a PV system. Tempera
all the three main electrical parameters of a PV module voltage, current and power. When the
er, the output voltage goes down and visa versa when the weather gets colder, voltage goes up.
nt with power when temperature goes up, output power increases too.

ontrollers
d the Charge Controller tutorial to see why this device is necessary to protect the batteries
and supply them with the proper amount of energy to promote long battery life. The popul
ycle of PWM charge controllers is fully explained and shown visually on a multi-color chart. <

verters
r Inverter tutorial will cover the 3 basic types of power inverters so you can decide which one i
power inverter converts your storage battery power into the 120 volts AC that runs your applia
of your solar energy system. Unless you only run 12 volt DC appliances you will need a power
ur AC. <details>

atteries
torage Batteries to store energy you would only have power when the sun was shining or the
ng. Here we discuss 4 major categories of batteries for solar power systems. The batteries in yo
mportant. The care & feeding section of this tutorial is a must read to ensure long battery life
ce. <details>

rators
argest Solar Energy System would not have enough power for many consecutive days of no su
tutorial will tell you what size generator you'll need and the best techniques to use when char
nd/or supplying power to extra large appliances. <details>

Cables
t dangerous overheating or inefficient tranfer of power, the wires and cables in a solar power sy
y sized. This tutorial provides a convenient chart to determine wire size based on solar panel pow
stance between the solar panels and the batteries. For safety and good performance of your so
u will have to use the appropriate size wires when connecting the components of your system. <

Monitors
al explains the importance of monitoring your solar energy system. With the included voltage
determine the basic level of charge on your batteries using just a simple voltmeter. Taking prop
ries will ensure good system performance. <details>

Wiring Diagrams
w to use series and parallel wiring techniques to obtain exactly the power and voltage you want u
olt batteries. Series wiring, parallel wiring and using series/parallel combinations show you ho
ry bank into any configuration you need using simple pictorial diagrams. <details>

diation : Sunshine across the United States

al shows a color coded map of the United States that displays the daily average hours of solar
. This information will assist you in calculating the number of solar panels you will need for
tem. Also included in this tutorial is a short explanation of Watts, WattHours, and AmpHours and
<details>

all together
k at a simple animation of all these components working together. This will give you an overv
equipment needed for a solar alternative energy system. <details>

Design your system quickly with our Interactive Design Tools

(Note : These design tools require javascript to be turned on in your browser)
ut our easy point & click System Sizing Estimator to quickly & easily calculate the number of so
e batteries you'll need for a wide range of system sizes.
ery Bank Design Tool will take the confusion out of wiring up your battery bank. Use 2, 4, 6,
o build a system voltage of 12, 24, or 48 volts using series and parallel wiring with just 4 click
cities from 300 AmpHours to over 4000 AmpHours are displayed graphically so you can see ex
e batteries together.
re Size Calculator will allow you to quickly find the correct wire size in AWG (American Wi
he distance to your solar panel array & the amount of amperage your panels put out. No math req

Unless you plan on using battery power for everything, you will need a Power Inverter. S
modern conveniences all run on 120 volts AC, the Power Inverter will be the heart of your Sol
not only converts the low voltage DC to the 120 volts AC that runs most appliances, but
batteries if connected to the utility grid or a AC Generator as in the case of a totally independ
power system.

r inverters :
ensive and least desirable type. The square wave it produces is inefficient and is hard on many

sually fairly inexpensive, 500 watts or less, and use an automotive cigarette lighter plug-in. Don
wer inverters for a home system.

e power inverters :
most popular and economical type of power inverter. It produces an AC waveform somewhe
wave. Modified Sine Wave inverters, sometimes called Quasi-Sine Wave inverters are not real
ost demanding applications and even most computers work well with a Modified Sine Wave inv
e appliances that use motor speed controls or that use timers may not work quite right with a
more and more consumer products are using speed controls & timers, I would only recommend
ons such as a camping cabin.

wer inverters :
ower inverter produces the closest to a pure sine wave of all power inverters and in many ca
y company itself. It will run practically any type of AC equipment and is also the most expens
s are computer controlled and will automatically turn on and off as AC loads ask for service. I
I use a True Sine Wave power inverter myself and find that its automatic capabilities makes it se
e Xantrex 2500 watt power inverter I use has a search feature and checks every couple of seco
wers up automatically. You just flick on a light switch (or whatever) and it works. When you tur
for example, the power inverter shuts down to save battery power.
Sine Wave inverter (sometimes called a Quasi Sine Wave inverter) is nearly half the price o
recommend using a True Sine Wave inverter if you want to supply automatic power to a norma
evices. Also, most appliances run more efficiently and use less power with a True Sine Wave inv
power inverter.

erters
to normal Utility company power and just want to add some Free Sun Power electricity to red
a totally independent system, it is possible that a Grid Tie power inverter will suit your needs. W
ectricity that your solar panels produce will reduce the amount supplied by the utility compan
are producing more power than you are using, you can actually sell the extra power back to the
much smaller battery bank can be installed just to cover short term outages from a few minutes t
e frequent long term power outages and don't need back-up power, then you will not need any
mpany never fails? :)

uld I use a 12, 24, or 48 volt inverter?

on when deciding on the input voltage (from your battery bank) of your Inverter is the distanc
battery bank. The higher the voltage, the lower the current and the smaller the (expensive) c
cide on a system voltage, the Solar Panels, Inverter, and Battery Bank all need to use the same vo
ge & current is explained in the tutorial on Power & Watts.
hich voltage to use, check out our Wire Size Calculator which can tell you what size wire is n
equipment area. You can try all 3 different voltages to see the change that it can make in wire size

Using multiple inverters.

e installed in a configuration known as stacking that can provide more power or higher voltag
in series you can double the output voltage. This would be the technique to use to provide 120/2
nfigure them in parallel, you can double your power. Two 4000 watt inverters in parallel would

siderations
s connected directly to the batteries and the main AC breaker panel to supply power from the
out Wires & Cables for more info on the necessary wire size for installing one or use our new W
onverts the low voltage DC to 120 volts AC. Power Inverters are available for use on 12, 24, or
Power Inverters can also charge the batteries if connected to the AC line. Alternatively, the AC
ator in the case of a stand-alone solar power system. When using a AC Generator to charge the
AC Generator power to the loads via a relay. This way the AC Generator not only charges t
wer while it is running. If your Generator is at least 5000 watts, you can charge your batterie
me.

e how many solar panels and batteries I'll need?

how much electricity you are going to need and how many days you plan to be able to run o
To assist you in determining the size system you will need, our System Sizing Estimator will h
ls you'll need and what size battery bank is required. We also provide a Battery Bank Designer t
bank for a 12, 24, or 48 volt system.

or cables will I need to hook all this stuff together?

tutorial covers this question and provides a handy chart to calculate the required wire sizes bas

distances between components. Also, our new Wire Size Calculator tool will calculate wires size

Summary

on a budget, a 2000 to 3000 watt Modified Sine Wave power inverter will do the job for aroun
$1000 more for a True Sine Wave power inverter if you want to be able to run anything and
her quality Power Inverters are computer controlled and once set-up, can control your 120
uto-start compatible AC Generators; all automatically.

vide real home power, A True Sine Wave inverter is really your best choice. The extra cost, in th
mance and reliability. For a small seasonal use cabin, a Modified Sine Wave inverter would prob

harge Controller is necessary

Since the brighter the sunlight, the more voltage the solar cells produce, the excessive vol
damage the batteries. A charge controller is used to maintain the proper charging volta
batteries. As the input voltage from the solar arrayrises, the charge controller regulates the
the batteries preventing any over charging.

multi-stage charge controllers

ity charge controller units have what is known as a 3 stage charge cycle that goes like this :

ULK : During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually rises to the Bulk l
ally 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw maximum current. When Bulk level voltag
hed the absorption stage begins.

BSORPTION : During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk voltage level for a spec
(usually an hour) while the current gradually tapers off as the batteries charge up.

LOAT : After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level (usually 13.4 to
s) and the batteries draw a small maintenance current until the next cycle.

onship between the current and the voltage during the 3 phases of the charge cycle can be show
ph below.

aximum Power Point Tracking

i-stage charge controllers are Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) types. I would recommend using
design. The newer Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controllers are even better. They
he solar panels to the battery voltage to insure maximum charge (amps). For example: even th
l is rated at 100 watts, you won't get the full 100 watts unless the battery is at optimum vo
tts is always equal to Volts times Amps or P=E*I (see Ohm's law for more info). With a regu
if your batteries are low at say 12.4 volts, then your 100 watt solar panel rated at 6 amps at 16
s 16.5 volts = 100 watts) will only charge at 6 amps times 12.4 volts or just 75 watts. You just lo
city! The MPPT controller compensates for the lower battery voltage by delivering closer to 8
olt battery maintaining the full power of the 100 watt solar panel! 100 watts = 12.4 volts times
*I).

ge Controller is installed between the Solar Panel array and the Batteries where it automatically
on the batteries using the 3 stage charge cycle just decribed. The Power Inverter can also c

it is connected to the AC utility grid or in the case of a stand alone system, your own AC Gener

Summary
using four 75 to 80 Watt solar panels, your charge controller should be rated up to 40 amps. Ev
anels don't normally produce that much current, there is an 'edge of cloud effect'. Due to this ph
n my four 6 amp panels (4*6=24) pump out over 32 amps. This is well over their rated 24 amps m
stage 40 amp Charge Controller will run about $140 to $225 depending on features like LCD dis
o 80 watt solar panels you would need two 40 amp Charge Controllers to handle the power or
our system voltage to 24 volts and still use just one 40 amp Charge Controller. Check out Batte
for details on how to set-up your system voltage and see the actual wiring diagrams you
y Bank Designer which will display the required wiring with just 4 clicks!".

wire sizes are essential

t the components of a Solar Energy System, you will need to use correct wire sizes to ensure lo
d to prevent overheating and possible damage or even fire. Below is a chart showing the required
engths to connect the solar panels to theCharge Controller. Use these numbers for a 12 volt
3% or less voltage drop.

The top row represents the Wire gauge size, the left column the number of amps the solar
rated at, and the grid cells show the distances in feet between the Solar Panels and th
Controller.

ple: If you have 3 solar panels rated at 6 amps each, mounted 30 feet from the Charge Controller
ve down the chart to 18 amps (3 panels * 6 amps), and across to 32.5 (closest to 30), and then up
would need at least #4 gauge wire (awg) to move 18 amps 30 feet with a minimum voltage drop
ceptable loss.

't find the exact numbers, choose either a larger gauge wire (smaller number) or select a distan
actual distance.

rt for connecting 12 Volt solar panels to the Charge Controller

shows wire distances for a 3% voltage drop or less. These distances are calculated for a 12 vo

istances by 2 for a 24 volt system. Multiply distances by 4 for a 48 volt system.

his chart is an approximate distance reference and is a little conservative. For a much more acc
e our new Wire Size Calculator tool. It can calculate wire size using 3%, 4%, or 5% losses plu
24, or 48 volt systems.
#12

#10

#8

#6

#4

#3

#2

#1

#1/0

22.7

36.3

57.8

91.6

146

184

232

292

369

15.2

24.2

38.6

61.1

97.4

122

155

195

246

11.4

18.2

28.9

45.8

73.1

91.8

116

146

184

9.1

14.5

23.1

36.7

58.4

73.5

92.8

117

148

7.6

12.1

19.3

30.6

48.7

61.2

77.3

97.4

123

6.5

10.4

16.5

26.2

41.7

52.5

66.3

83.5

105

5.7

9.1

14.5

22.9

36.5

45.9

58.0

73.0

92.0

5.1

8.1

12.9

20.4

32.5

40.8

51.6

64.9

81.9

4.6

7.3

11.6

18.3

29.2

36.7

46.4

58.4

73.8

3.6

5.8

9.3

14.7

23.4

29.4

37.1

46.8

59.1

3.1

4.8

7.7

12.2

19.5

24.5

30.9

38.9

49.2

2.6

4.2

6.6

10.5

16.7

20.9

26.5

33.4

42.2

2.3

3.6

5.8

9.2

14.6

18.4

23.2

29.2

36.9

ng the Charge Controller

connect the Solar Panels to the input terminals of the Charge Controller using the above chart
me size wire to connect the Charge Controller output to the batteries since these wires will carry
an the solar panel wires and will probably be located pretty close to the batteries anyway.

ng the Power Inverter

r Inverter is next. Both the Power Inverter and the Batteries require the largest wires in th
eration, the AC produced by the Power Inverter draws considerable amps from the batteries. No
wires required, but they should not exceed 6 feet in length to reach the batteries. These wires a
ery cables in cars. Use the largest size possible. An AC appliance drawing 10 amps (like a micr
leaner) will require 100 amps at 12 volts DC. Even large cables will get warm. Don't skimp here.

ng the Batteries

ies are last. They will also require very large cables like the large battery cables
he full current to the loads and also the full charging current flow thru the entire
ank. Connect all the batteries with large high quality cables. Check out
y Wiring Diagrams tutorial for examples of Series and Parallel wiring
s that allow the use of battery voltages of 2, 4, 6, or 12 volts. Our newBattery
igner tool will show you how to connect the batteries for these various voltage

What is the Cost of Using Solar Energy

MARCH 15, 2014 BY SOLAR GUY /

English: solar PV Second largest Array in UK (Photo credit:

Wikipedia)
A techno-economic assessment will prove the economic feasibility and
sense of buying a solar electric system.

First, lets consider grid-tied systems.

If you are planning to buy, build yourself or have built a grid-tied
system, such an evaluation should by all means take into account
expected future price of grid electricity over the period of the guaranteed
solar system lifecycle, along with any potential income from other
existing investment options.
The evaluation of a grid-tied system will provide you with enough data
to compare the overall net income of your investment in solar PV system
with other existing alternative options to invest your money taking into
account:
price of solar hardware
installation costs
annual operational expenses
generated free solar energy offsetting these expenses.
By assessing how much money you can save from solar electricity you
can take an informed decision whether it is worth investing in solar
electricity or your money would be better invested in other financial
instruments, i.e. bank accounts or other possible investment options you
can find at your disposal.
First of all, by performing a techno-economic assessment, you are going
to find out:

What is the cost of using solar energy

How to calculate total solar power you need to use and install
How to determine how much area you need to install your PV
modules and which type of PV modules to choose taking into
account:

Your solar installation area

Various types of modules available on the market

Your budget

Once you have chosen your type of PV module, you will find out how to
calculate how many PV modules you need to install and the overall cost
of your solar system.
Then you are going to find out:
How to calculate your solar energy production costs
How much you can save by a PV system over its guaranteed life
cycle
The payback period of your system.
If your stand-alone system contains an inverter, it should be replaced
after 12-15 years of operation. So, if a stand-alone system has a lifespan
of 25 years, the cost for inverter replacement should be included in the
maintenance cost.

If we assume inverter cost of $1 per watt, based on the needed inverter

with 840 W rated continuous power, the inverter will cost:
840 W x $1/W = $840.
Such a price distributed over 25 years of operation will result in average
inverter maintenance costs per year as follows:
$840 ? 25 years = $33.6 or about $34.
More important however are battery maintenance costs.
A lead-acid battery is to be replaced after every 5 years of operation. At
the moment a typical battery price is $1 per Ah.
So, the task is to calculate the costs for batteries during the stand-alone
systems lifecycle.

We assume that the battery cost for the first 5 years is included in the
system cost.
If battery cost of $1 per Ah is assumed, for the next 25 year of the
system lifecycle the costs for a battery bank of 470 Ah would be:
470 Ah x (25 years x 5) x $1/Ah = $2,350.
Such a cost distributed over 25 years of operation will result in the
following average battery maintenance costs per year:
$2,350 x 25 years = $94.
Furthermore we could assume an MPPT charge controller with
estimated price of $700.
MPPT charge controllers come with a typical warranty of 5 years. We
could assume that you would need at least one additional charge
controller for replacement.
Hence, the price of the additional MPPT charge controller average
annual maintenance costs would be:
$700 x 25 years = $28
The total average annual maintenance cost of an off-grid system
comprising a battery, an inverter and a MPPT charge controller would
be:
Total average annual maintenance costs =
= Average annual inverter maintenance costs + Average annual charge
controller maintenance cost + Average annual battery maintenance
costs = $34 + $94 + $28 = $156

Solar panels are the main building units of solar electric systems. To
find out whether solar panels would save you money means to estimate
your investment in a solar electric system.
Such a task starts with calculating solar electricity production costs.
It is important to calculate the cost of electricity produced by your PV
system. After estimating the cost you can decide whether it is worth
purchasing a solar system or not.
You could arrive at approximate estimate of hardware cost of your
equipment by taking available prices on solar power equipment on
internet.
No one however could tell you the exact prices of installation cost
except your potential local installer. Have in mind that installation cost
are about up to 30-50 % of overall system cost and one varies by
location.
How to evaluate your system correctly with included installation cost?
The best approach is:
Step 1: Decide what type of system you are going to buy /grid-tied,
grid-tied with battery backup, etc.).
Step 2: Contact your potential installers and to ask them for expected
overall cost per Watt for the system type you have chosen.
Step 3: Multiply expected overall cost per Watt installed ($/Wp) by
system size in Watt installed (Wp). Thus you calculate total system cost
without operational expenses for the systems period of operation
(system lifespan).

Example:You want to buy a 4.5 kWp grid-tied system without battery

backup. An installer has informed you that the expected price is $5 per
Watt-peak. The final price is: $5 x 4,500Wp = $22,500.
Step 4: Add the operational costs to the already calculated system cost.
If a solar system contains an inverter (every grid-tied system contains an
inverter), you should consider its replacement after every 12-15 years of
operation. In such a case, add $3,000 to the sum.
Step 5: Calculate solar electricity production.
Step 6: Use the formula given below to estimate solar electricity
production costs over solar system lifespan.
Solar electricity production costs =
[Solar system initial cost + (System lifespan * Operating costs per
year)] /(Annual solar electricity production *System lifespan)
Solar system initial cost, a.k.a. CapEx, is the costs for
implementing the whole system, including site survey, system
design, construction works, obtaining permits, equipment delivery
and installation, and system commissioning.
System lifespan is assumed 25 years.
Operating costs, a.k.a. OpEx per year, are system maintenance
costs. The most essential part of the operating costs is related to
inverter replacement. During a 25-year lifecycle the inverter should
be replaced at least once. If the inverter costs $3,000, for a period of
25 years average annual maintenance costs would be
$3,000 / 25 years = $120 per year.

If the annual energy target is 7,000 kWh, then the daily energy target is:

7,000 kWh /365 days = 19.2 kWh

Upon daily average annual value of PSH is 5.5, and system efficiency is
0.7, the required installed solar power on the roof is:
Installed solar power in kWp =
= Daily energy target in kWh /(PSH * System efficiency) =
= 19.2 /( 5.5 * 0.7) = 5.0 kWp = 5,000 Wp
If system implementation cost is estimated $5 per Wp and the installed
solar power is 5 kWp, initial system cost is:
$5/Wp x 5,000 Wp = $25,000
Furthermore if:
System lifespan is 25 years,
Yearly generated energy is 7,000 kWh under existing
environmental conditions, and
OpEx is $120 per year (inverter is planned to be replaced once
during the system lifecycle, assumed cost for replacement is $3,000,
and distributing this amount over a 25-year period gives $3,000 /25
years = $120 per year),
then solar electricity production costs over the total operational period of
PV system [German Energy Society, 2008, pp. 333-334] are calculated
as follows:

Solar electricity production costs =

= [Solar system initial cost + (System lifespan * Operating costs per

year)] / (Annual solar electricity production * System
lifespan) = [$25,000 + (25 years * $120)] /(7,000 kWh *25 years) =
= $0.16/kWh
So, 16 cents is the average price of electricity produced by this grid-tied
PV system for a period of 25 years. These $0.16/kWh result into annual
costs incurred by solar electricity generated by PV system as follows:
Annual costs incurred by solar generated electricity=
= Annual solar electricity production * Solar electricity production
costs = 365 x 19.2 kWh * $0.16/kWh =$1,121.28
If grid electricity price is $0.07/kWh, and we assume 5% increase of the
electricity price per year (average increase rate during the last 30 years
in the USA), the average electricity price you would pay for the same
amount of power to obtain from the electricity grid over 25 years will be
$0.14/kWh, or a total of $24,500 payable to the grid:
Annual energy output * Period of system operation *Average grid
electricity price within system operation period = 7,000 kWh * 25 *
0.14 $/kWh = $24,500 spent on grid electricity
In this case, after comparing the amount of $24,500 spent for electricity
bill over a period of 25 years to the PV system initial cost of $25,000,
buying a solar system is obviously not a good investment!
However if current electricity price is $0.10/kWh, under the very same
conditions the average electricity price over a period of 25 years is
calculated $0.20/kWh which translates into $36,750 to be paid by you to
the grid.

If you compare this $36,750 to the initial investment of $25,000, the

situation looks different, even taking into account the amount of $3,000
for inverter replacement in the twelfth year of system operation.
You should also mind that it is possible the price of the chosen type of
inverter after 12-15 years of operation to be way less than the price at
the moment of system launch.
Lets go on with a more specific example.
If current electricity price is 20 cents per kWh (the price in the city of
Los Angeles), the corresponding results are:
$0.40/kWh average electricity price for 25 year period
$0.68/kWh electricity price at the end of 25 year period
$2,803.2 paid annually to the grid if you would stay connected to
grid (that is 365 x 19.2 kWh x $0.40 = $2,803.2). These are annual
grid electricity cost savings, which are actually potential expenses
payable to the grid if you did not have a solar electric system.
$70,080 paid by you to the grid over 25 year period upon 5%
annual increase rate of the grid electricity price
You save on electricity bills a total of:
$70,080 (total money paid) $25,000 (initial system cost)

3,000 (System life span x Operating costs per year) = $42,080

The payback period of the system considering the forecast grid
electricity price rise within a 25 year period would be:
[PV system initial cost + (System life span x Operating costs per
year)] * Annual grid electricity cost savings =

= [$25,000 + (25 years x $120)] * $2,803.2 = 10 years

In such a case buying a solar system is a very good investment, provided
you do not have a better option to invest your $25,000.
Investing in a grid-tied PV system could save you more money than
putting $25,000 in a bank for 25 years at 3.1% annually compound
interest rate you get as much as $28,629 additionally from interest rate
over 25 years!
As a homeowner however, you are eligible to receive 30% off the total
cost of your photovoltaic system from the federal government in the
form of a Federal Solar Tax Credit. So actually you will pay for this
system not $25,000 but $17,500 instead.
If you put this $17,500 in a bank, all you can get upon 3.1% of annual
compound interest rate for 25 years is even less $20,040!
You have noticed that no Feed-In Tariffs are included and discussed
here. With Feed-In Tariffs things become even more attractive.
To learn about Feed-In Tariffs and other financial incentives, read on!
To have Feed-In Tariffs included in calculations, you should use our
Gold Package calculator. Click Here to Learn More about our Solar
Packages and Solar Gold Package Calculator.
If the provided here method for estimating feasibility of your investment
in solar energy looks kind of cumbersome, you can use our handy,
simple and fast Gold Package calculator for advanced evaluation of gridtied solar systems without power backup.Click Here to Learn More
How Many Solar Panels Do I Need?

MAY 18, 2013 BY SOLAR GUY /

A photovoltaic (PV) module that is composed of multiple PV cells. Two

or more interconnected PV modules create an array. (Photo credit:
Wikipedia)
How many solar panels do I need is one of the most frequently asked
questions by solar enthusiast. Lets go straight to the point.
First, you should calculate your daily energy target.
You have to decide what percentage of your annual electricity bill you
want to offset to your grid tied system.
Lets say your annual energy usage is 7,000 kWh. You want to offset
40% of it to a grid-tied system.
This means that energy target is:
7,000 kWh x 0.40 = 2,800 kWh
Since there are 365 days in a year, your daily energy target is:
2,800 / 365 = 7.7 kWh

If you know your daily energy target and the average annual PSH
(Perfect Sun Hours) value for your area, you can calculate the amount of
peak power you need to install on your roof:
Installed peak solar power = Daily energy target/(SLF*PSH)
SLF is the System Losses Factor, a.k.a system efficiency ,which takes
into account system losses or system inefficiency. For a grid-tied system
system efficiency is assessed usually between 70% and 80%. This
means that we lose (20-30)% of the energy in the system and our panels
must have higher installed peak power so as to compensate for those
loses.For an off-grid system the system efficiency is somewhere
between (50-60)%.
If your daily energy target is in Wh, then you obtain the peak solar
power in Wp (watts-peak). If daily energy target is in kWh, you obtain
the peak solar power in kWp (kilowatts-peak).
PSH is abbreviated from Perfect Sun Hours and refers to the number of
hours per day during which the solar irradiance equals 1,000 W/m2. PSH
are measured in kW/m2/day and it can be found by using solar maps.

If your daily energy target offset is 7.7 kWh, the area you live has an
average annual PSH = 4.5 hours, and you assume system efficiency =
75% 0r SLF= 0.75, then the needed total peak installed power is:
7.7 kWh / (4.5 hours x 0.75) = 2.28 kWp or
This is the installed peak solar power needed to generate the required
energy target.
At this stage it is important to assess how much area you need to install
the solar array. Based on your energy needs, you can determine whether

the area of your roof would be enough to fit all the panels needed. Here
we dont talk about a specific panel model but rather about solar panel
type monocrystalline, polycrystalline or thin-film.
The area required for installing the solar array, so that your PV system
would meet the energy offset target, depends on:
Peak power installed on the roof (in kWp or Wp)
The kind of modules you use (monocrystalline, polycrystalline,
thin-film).
To estimate the area you need to install the required peak power, you
should use the following table:

How to estimate the area you need to install the required solar peak
power
The required roof area is calculated by the formula:
Total area needed =
= Installed solar power in kWp x Area needed for 1 kWp
a) If your target peak power is 2.28 kWp, and you decide to
use monocrystalline solar modules, the area you need is:
2.28 kWp x 7 m2 = 15.96 m2 or 2.28 kWp x 75 ft2 = 171 ft2
b) In case you prefer to use polycrystalline solar modules, the area you
need is:
2.28 kWp x 8 m2 = 18.24 m2 or 2.28 kWp x 86 ft2 = 196.08 ft2

c) Should you decide to buy thin-film solar modules, the area you need
is:
2.28 kWp x 15 m2 = 33.87 m2 or 2.28 kWp x 161 ft2 = 367.08 ft2
Finally, to find out how many solar panels you need, you should
divide the total installed power by the rated power of a single panel you
are going to buy, and round the result up to the nearest integer.
For example, if you have chosen to buy panels of 160 Wp rated power
each, the number of panels required is:
2,280 Wp / 160 = 14.25, which should be rounded up to 15.
Please, have in mind that such a number is reasonably exact for
budgeting purposes only.
The reason is that solar panel output power changes with temperature
and solar energy deviation. Such power output deviation forms the
operating window of a solar panel.

Apart from the installation, nearly no maintenance is required for the

solar panels as here are no moving parts involved and solar cells never
expire. Experts from the industry state that functional lifetime of solar
panels are more than thirty years. The solar panels are manufactured in
such a way that they can easily withstand the various elements of nature
like rain, snow or hail. Therefore, unless there is some extreme weather
condition these panels work just fine without any problem at all.

What are Solar Panels Made From?

Solar Panels are made using crystalline silicon and gallium arsenide.
While silicon is popularly used in making microprocessors, gallium
arsenide is an expensive substance used in make solar cells. In addition,
solar panels are also made using alloy of amorphous silicon, where a
regular roll-to-roll procedure is used. Solar cells made from this
procedure are known as Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells. The solar panels
made through this method are highly efficient, durable and also thin
compared to those made from crystalline silicon.
Solar Panels for Space Probes
When, it comes to making Solar Panels for space probes that depend
upon solar energy, the solar cells are made using gallium arsenide
through the process of molecular beam epitaxy. These solar cells have
many p-n junction diodes, which are highly efficient in absorbing
specific parts to the solar spectrum. Even though the efficiency of this
type of solar panels is very high, the materials and processes make it
highly expensive for them to be used for household use.
The latest solar panel technology is based upon quantum and molecular
level. They are made through the implantation of quantum dots or
carbon nanotubes into treated plastic. Contrary to solar panels made
from crystalline silicon, these solar panels are not made in clean rooms,
thus reducing the costs of production.
Cost of Solar Panels in India
At its initial level of introduction in India, Solar Panels are quite
expensive. The price of A grade Monocrystalline Silicon solar panels in
the country falls somewhere within the range of Rs. 90 to Rs. 130 per
watt. Then, there are other manufactures who can supply you the panels
at prices ranging between Rs. 72 to Rs. 92 per watt. The warranty
offered by most of the manufacturers ranges between 10 to 15 years.
Manufacturers of Solar Panels in India
As of 2010, Solar Semiconductor Pvt. Ltd. was the leading manufacturer
of Solar Panels in India. The company, using monocrystalline and
polycrystalline technology for panel making sold over 160 MWp of

solar panels in 2010. The second leading manufacturer is XL Telecom &

Energy Ltd. that uses polycrystalline technology to make solar panels. It
had also sold approximately 160 MWp of solar panels in the same year.
The next leading producers of solar panels in the country are Tata BP
Solar India and Titan Energy Systems Ltd., both making 100 MWp of
panels and both use Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline technology.
Moser Baer Photo Voltaic using both the technologies is the fifth leading
manufacturer of solar panels in India, having made 65 MWp of panels in
2010.
Installation of Solar Panels
Solar Panels are mainly installed on various types of roofs. They could
be mounted as tilted up or as flushed up. If it is possible, it would be
ideal to install the panel mounts whenever your home is undergoing areroofing. When solar mounts are flashed when re-roofing, it is going to
eliminate any chances of the developing any leaks in the roof. In
addition, it is convenient to point out the rafters when the roof is not
installed.
It is important that the mounts should be secured in place using lag bolts
made from stainless steel, to be bolted right into the rafters. One of the
best things to do is to keep the points of the structural attachment
flashed-in. This is going to help avoid the removal and re-installing costs
of the panels for decades. The easiest roofs to install Solar Panels are the
composition shingle roofs. However, it can be a challenge to install the
panels on tile roofs.
Even though the initial cost of purchasing and installing Solar Panels can
be an expensive deal, but in the long run, the future of solar power
technology is promising and it is going to grow like anything.

f energy production domestically. It thus makes it highly important for

households to switch to this form of energy as soon as possible.

1. Solar electricity might not be economically beneficial for

everyone
Our comment on this disadvantage of solar power:
Although prices of photovoltaics / solar panels are steadily going down
and electricity prices rise gradually in the USA on average with 5% per
year (in other countries with highest percentage), the cost effectiveness
of solar systems installation depends not only on solar panels prices but
also on current electricity price at your location and hardware
installation cost. The cost of a PV system can be further reduced by solar
rebates and other incentives.
Therefore each case is different and needs careful evaluation. Replacing
even partially your utility grid with a solar system however can be
beneficial for you.
2. Variability of solar radiation
Our comment on this drawback:
Unfortunately the sun does not deliver the same amount of energy over
different locations and different seasons.
In winter season energy generated by a PV system could not be enough
to meet daily energy needs. This imposes use of either a large battery
bank or additional power source, which brings certain drawbacks and
higher costs.
3. Specific orientation of solar panels
Our comment on this drawback:

To provide maximum energy yield, roofs where solar systems are

installed should face South (or North, if you live in Australia or New
Zealand), and a certain elevation angle is recommended for mounting
the PV panels.
Otherwise the system will not perform well and the whole investment
gets pointless.
4. Site must not be shaded
Our comment:
Every shade has a negative impact on solar panels and as a consequence
solar systems performance drops dramatically. Shades and solar systems
cannot coexist together.
While some manufacturers claim that their panels are shade tolerant, do
have in mind that if only 1/4 of the panel cell area is shaded, the
generated electrical power will be virtually nil.
5. A solar panel system produces energy in daytime only
Our comment:
Solar panels only produce energy during daytime and the amount of
energy provided is different during that period. What is more a solar
system can generate excessive energy during given hours when you do
not need it.
The solution to such a problem is using an energy storage system
(battery bank).
The solar array can be mounted on a roof. Another option which is
becoming increasingly popular is building-integrated mounting where a

PV array can actually be a physical replacement of the roof covering (on

modern office buildings). Very often a PV array can be mounted on the
top of a pole rack as is the case of solar lamps in parks.
The PV array mounting type is selected by carefully considering:
Orientation towards the sun
Site shading
Weather at the location
Roof material and bearing capacity (in case of roof mounting)
Soil type and condition (in case of ground-mounting)
Regarding solar panel mounting mind the following:
Not every mounting construction is suitable for any kind of
module. Furthermore certain kinds of modules are intended for a
specific mounting type.
To ensure sufficient cooling of the PV modules, which leads to
higher system efficiency, enough room is to be provided beneath
them.
A design visa and a build permit are usually required.
All the necessary applicable construction regulations are to be
complied with.
When designing a solar system it is very important to mount the solar
array properly so that it would receive as much sunlight as possible.

As a rule solar arrays are recommended to install on roofs facing True

South (for North America USA, Canada and Europe) or True North
if you live in the Southern hemisphere, e.g. Australia, New Zealand.
Installation on roofs facing North (or South if you live in the Southern
hemisphere) isnot recommended.
Solar arrays should be installed at a location which is not in shade.

Direct shadows can dramatically bring down the power yield of any PV
system. Often however and this is valid especially if you live in an
urban area it is not possible to find an unshaded place around your
house.
There are two main types of solar electric systems grid-tied and offgrid. More info about these main solar system types you can find
by Clicking Here.
Here are the limitations of grid-tied systems:
Can generate electricity as long as your utility is on. In case of
power outage, a grid-tied system cannot generate electricity
regardless of whether the sun is shining or not.
A grid-tied system (unless its provided with a battery backup) can
only generate electricity in daylight. A grid-tied system with battery
backup however is always related with higher both initial and
maintenance costs.
A grid-tied electric system must match various rules, regulations
and standards for solar power installations. Such rules and
regulations are specific for the region and the country where you
live.
Launching a grid-tied system is always related to applying for
permits and preparing lots of mandatory documents in order to meet
the necessary objectives. What is more, you are dependent on your
local utility grid about electricity sell/buy prices and net-metering.
Here is a list of the limitations of off-grid systems:

Unless your building is located too far from utility grid, it is not
cost-effective to replace the utility grid with a stand-alone PV
system.
Due to solar radiation variability a PV system does not deliver
maximum performance all the year round. In winter months it is

often more cost-effective to buy a hybrid system than to spend a

fortune on a battery bank, relying solely on your solar system.
The electricity produced by the PV array can be stored in batteries
for limited period only.
Making your home energy efficient is a must before buying a
stand-alone system.
The battery banks used in most stand-alone systems require a
separate, well-ventilated room, as well as certain maintenance.
What you should mind if you decide to buy an off-grid system:
During cloudy days the energy needs are to be met by the battery
bank, since PV array generates insignificant amount of power.
The greater the energy consumption to be met, the larger battery
required. Larger means expensive, bulky and challenging to
maintain.
In winter energy consumption is greater than in summer. In winter
however, available solar radiation is much less than in summer.
If the PV system is designed to meet all the energy needs in winter
(by throwing a fortune on a battery bank), the energy surplus will
remain unused throughout the rest of the year. This makes the
system quite uneconomical.
The longer payback period is aggravated not only by the costly
battery bank, but also due to the fact that while the battery bank
provides the energy required, the PV array is not operational.
A large battery bank is not well acceptable from an ecological
point of view.
Click Here to find out how to evaluate whether solar power is good for
your specific case.

Concentrated solar power

See also: Concentrated solar power
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The
concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power
plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most
developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel
reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques
are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems
a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used
for power generation or energy storage.[77]
A solar photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. This
crystalline-silicon module comprises 4 solar cells and has
an aluminiumframe and glass on the front.
Recycling
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of
certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.[10]Some private companies and nonprofit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and recycling
operations for end-of-life modules.[11]
Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the
modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminium frames and junction boxes are

dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is
then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated - glass,
plastics and metals.[12] It is possible to recover more than 80% of the
incoming weight.[13] This process can be performed by flat glass
recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is
similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive
industry. The recovered glass for example is readily accepted by the
glass foam and glass insulation industry.

CHARGE YOUR ELECTRIC CAR WITH

SOLAR PANELS ON YOUR GARAGE
Sales of electric and hybrid cars are rising quickly in the UK, with over
1,000 new vehicles registered in the third quarter of 2013. People are
switching to using electric cars because they are the environmentally
friendly option, and less polluting than diesel or petrol cars. There are
also many other incentives such as low levels of car tax, and being
exempt from congestion charges. Up until recently the problem for many
electric car owners has been finding somewhere to charge up their car
during the working day or at night, and even though many towns and
cities are introducing charging points, these are still few and far
between.
Electric car technology is developing constantly, and one of the new
branches of research is looking into converting power generated from
your solar panels into power to charge the batteries of your electric
vehicle.

Image credit
CAR PORTS AND GARAGES
One of the most effective and simple ways of using solar power to
charge up your electric car is to install solar panels on the roof of your
garage, or to build a special car port with panels installed on the roof.
This means that any electricity generated by those solar panels goes
straight into powering the car rather than being drawn off to be used in
other areas of the house instead. Assuming you have the space, building
a car port is very quick as most of them come in modular kits which are
simply slotted together. This option is ideal for someone who works
through the day and then wants to charge their car overnight, but perhaps

not a good choice for people who work shifts, or who need to use their
car more in the evenings than during the day.

Image credit
One of the major advantages in using solar power, whether generated
from panels on the houses roof or on the garage, is the huge cost
savings. When you plug your electric car into the National Grid to
charge it up at night, the electricity costs on average 3 every time you
charge it. Cost for charging it from solar energy you have generated
yourself is nothing. Charging up your electric car isnt completely free
though, as you have to factor in both the cost of building your new car
port or installing the solar panels on your roof, then installing the special
kit needed to turn your home into a charging point, which costs around
1,500. If you happen to live near a supermarket or other charging
location, or if your employer provides one at work, it probably isnt
worth the added investment required to have a charging point at home
too. As with all new technologies, prices are dropping all of the time
though so it is always important to work through the figures thoroughly
before making any buying decision.

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO CHARGE?

Most solar charging systems are designed to work overnight, for a period
of at least 6 or 8 hours, which is fine if you do not need to use your car
in the evenings. This is quite slow compared with the rapid charge
points which can power your battery up to 80% charge within 30
minutes, but the same as the standard points which take the same length
of time.

Again, the decision will come down to whether you have any charging
points close to home or work, how convenient they are to use, and how
often you will need to charge your car. There are lots of electric car
websites which allow you to enter your postcode and see what facilities
are available in the local area. Rapid charging points are few and far
between, but are bound to increase as the number of electric cars on the
road starts to rise. If you live in a very rural area, you may have to wait
some time though.
Once your cars battery is fully charged up, the car will be able to do
between 80 and 100 miles before needing charged again. New research
into lithium batteries is well underway in the US, and early indications
are that a new generation of batteries may soon be able to extend this
range to 200 or more miles between charges.

COST

Each 1,000 watts of PV solar panel produces about 1,000 kilowatt hours
of electricity per year. The typical home in Western Washington uses 900
to 1,000 kilowatt hours per month, Wade said. To be completely net zero
that home would need an array that produced 10 to 12 kilowatts. The
median size of a solar system for a PSE customer is 4 to 5 kilowatts, he
said.

How frequently should I clean my solar panels?

A: As a rule you dont need to regularly clean your solar panels because
its not necessary. Yes, solar panels do get soiled by dust, bird droppings,
etc. but wind and rainfall act as natural cleaners, so that generated
electricity remains near its optimum. You have to clean your panels upon

a heavier drop in electricity production (10-15%) occurring in very

special situations, such as a forest fire in your area
What maintenance will my solar system need?
A:As a rule solar electric system need little maintenance since they do
not have any moving parts. During solar system lifespan (which is
expected to last between 25 and 30 years) the following components
have to be replaced:
Inverter and/or charge controller (if any) every 10-15 years of
operation
Batteries every 5 years of operation.
Our Silver and Gold Package calculators estimate annual maintenance
cost of the three main types of solar systems: grid-tied without backup,
grid-tied with backup and off-grid.

The Gold Package calculator of grid-tied systems without backup offers

you profits and loss estimated both with and without maintenance costs
included. Thus you can easily check whether a solar installer has
accidentally forgotten to include system maintenance costs in an offer
to make it more attractive.
: How can I start my own photovoltaic business?
A: We cannot provide you with any publications dealing with this topic.
A smart idea however is to get in touch with the marketing department
of manufacturers of solar components and systems.
We recommend you our highly informational Solar Gold Package to
get the essential technical info and knowledge necessary for your
solar business, with details revealed in an easy-to-read manner. No
technical background is required. What is more the information,
problems, possible questions and solutions are presented from a

customers point of view. Knowing the customers point of view,

his/her internal objections, hesitations and doubts towards solar
energy and the way to address them, would give you a huge
advantage over your competition.
For more information about any tax credits, grants and other
incentives available in your area, check the national Database of State
Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE). DSIRE is a searchable
online renewable energy database that includes state financial incentives,
programs and regulatory policies, utility programs and incentives, local
government and community incentives, programs and policies that
support renewable energy production.
: What happens when it snows?
A: Immediately after solar panels get covered with thick snow they do
not produce electricity. However since snow easily slides off panel
surface after getting melted and your panels will be again exposed to
sunlight relatively soon. Furthermore power production might even
boost due to the sunlight reflection in the white snow around.
: Is solar electricity produced in bright sunny days only?
A: No. The best weather for producing solar power is surely the sunny
day. This does not mean that solar electricity can be generated during
sunny days only. Solar electricity is produced even in fog or rainy day
although in such days energy yield is just 25-30 % of the one at best
weather
Do solar panels need to be tilted at an angle?
A: Ideally yes. To achieve maximum performance of your solar system,
solar panels need to be tilted at a certain angle. Moreover different tilts
are recommended to optimize solar system performance in summer, in

winter and all the year round. It should be noted however that for system
performance tilt angle is less critical than orientation.
In our Solar Silver Package ebook Save Money On Electricity: Solar
Panels And Solar Power Systems Basics Exposed you can find all the
details you need about tilt angles of a solar panel array.
Back to top
Q: How many solar panels do I need?
A: As mentioned above, the area needed to install solar panels depends
on:
Your energy needs, i.e your daily energy target
Available solar energy at your location
Type of solar panels used (that is, solar panels efficiency)
The number of solar panels depends on the needed area and on panel
size. You can easily get the number of panels required by dividing the
area by the typical panel size which is 16 square feet (or 1.5 square
meters).
Our Silver and Gold Package calculators estimate the area (both in
square meters and square feet) you need for installing solar panel array
generating your daily energy needs for the three main types of solar
systems grid-tied without backup, grid-tied with backup and off-grid.
In summary by the Solar Gold Package you can estimate:

How much solar energy is available at your location

How much electric energy you can get
How much a solar energy system will cost
How much you will save on utility bills

 What type of solar system best suits your needs

How many solar panels do you need
: How will the solar panels be mounted?
A: Roof is not the only possible place to mount solar panels. There are
four types of mounting used in solar systems:
Sloped roof mounting
Flat roof mounting
Roof-integrated mounting
Ground mounting
Fa?ade mounting
Each one of these mounting types has its benefits and drawbacks. It
should be noted that not every mounting construction is suitable for
every panel type. Furthermore certain types of solar panels are designed
for a specific mounting type only.
What roof type is best suited for a solar system?
A: The roofs suitable for installing solar panels should:
Be unshaded, at least between 9 a.m. and 3 a.m. every day
Face South (or North if you live in the Southern Hemisphere, e.g.
Australia, New Zealand or South Africa), within maximum 30
degrees of deviation
Have easy access to and be not too steep
Have enough free space for panel installation
Be made of composite
Can local Homeowners Association (HOA) stop me from
installing a solar power system on my building?
A: This is unlikely to happen. Your HOA may try, but in many
states this is not allowed like, for example, in California. You
should mind however that your HOA may ask you to modify the

system design and/or placement for aesthetic reasons. In a case like

that such changes are not supposed to significantly impact solar
electricity production (a decrease greater than 10%) or cost more
than $2,000.
nowadays the cost of solar produced electricity is still higher than
the cost of electricity supplied by local utility grid. However, you
must take into account constantly rising prices of electric energy
4-5% on average per year in the USA and higher rates in other
parts of the world, which in turn may reverse this situation very
soon. Moreover due to fast economic growth of Asian economy
(China, India, etc.), the prices of energy are expected to be higher
than forecasted.
Buying a solar system however in a remote area where utility grid
is lacking may be the more cost-effective option than paying a
fortune on getting connected to the utility grid. Furthermore it
should be noted that if a purely photovoltaic system is not the costeffective solution in a given case, a hybrid system comprising also
an alternative power generator (wind or fuel one, in addition to the
solar array) might be the beneficial option.
Although prices of photovoltaics are steadily going down and
electricity prices rise gradually in the USA with 5% per year on
average (in other countries the rate is even higher), the cost
effectiveness of solar systems installation depends not only on
solar panels prices but also on current electricity price at your
location and cost of hardware installation. The cost of a PV system
can be further reduced by solar rebates and other financial
incentives. It should be also noted that the number of increasing
solar installation is one of the factors that drives solar system
prices down.
:How much does a solar energy system cost, and how much will I
save on utility bills?

A: There is not a simple answer to this question. A solar system cost

depends on a variety of factors, such as:
Whether the system is connected to the grid or is a stand-alone
one;
Whether it is battery based or not
Whether solar panels are installed on the roof or integrated therein
The system size (depending on your electricity consumption)
Solar system rebate and other incentives reducing the price
The particular components used
The particular solar vendor/installer.
Your savings from a solar electric system would come from:

Systems initial cost

Solar system rebate(s) available
Systems annual maintenance cost
Costs for getting connected to local utility grid (if you are not
connected to it)
Feed-it tariffs
Grid electricity price
Grid electricity price annual increase rate
You can use our solar packages to estimate how much a solar energy
system will cost and how much you will save on utility bills.

By our Silver Package calculators you can size, evaluate and estimate
the cost of your solar system. Those calculators evaluate the three main
types of solar systems: grid-tied without backup, grid-tied with backup
and off-grid one.
By using our Gold Package calculators you can also make a technoeconomic forecast about the financial profitability of your solar
system and all the possible savings related to it. Furthermore the Solar
Gold Package helps you get prepared for solar vendor selection, solar

installers visit to your home, and also be warned against some common
tricks of solar vendors/installers, thus saving you any unpleasant
surprises
Charge controllers important battery managers
Charge controller is a device preventing batteries from overcharging
and overdischarging. One of the most common problems of batteries is
that they cannot be discharged excessively or recharged too often. A
charge controller controls the charge by managing properly the battery
voltage and current.
Charge controllers are intended to protect the battery and to deliver it
as longer life as possible, while keeping the photovoltaic system
efficiency. It should be noted that charge controllers only control DC
loads. AC loads are to be controlled (and disconnected, if needed) by an
inverter.
The key functions of charge controllers are:
Protecting the battery from overcharging by limiting the charging
voltage
Protecting the battery from deep and/or unwanted discharging. The
charge controller automatically disconnects the loads from the
battery when battery voltage falls below a certain depth of discharge
value
Preventing the reverse current through PV modules at night
Providing information about battery state of charge
The main charge controller types available today are PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) and MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) ones. MPPT
charge controllers are more expensive but they can boost the
performance of the solar array. PWM charge controllers are less
expensive but they can extend battery banks lifecycle at the expense of

solar panels performing lower than in case of MPPT controller. Similar

to inverters, charge controllers have a lifespan of about 15 years.
A charge controller costs between $500 and $1,000. This is not a fortune
but not choosing the proper charge controller for your system might
results in series of problems. Your solar system might either
underperform or not work at all. The worst however is that other system
components might get damaged. Therefore selecting charge controller
should not be underestimated. What kind of charge controller to choose
depends on the specific case and is a tradeoff between getting more
power from solar panels and extending battery life. To get an idea what
controller you need for your system you need neither dig into heavy
science nor be a solar guru. You just have to know some basic info such
as:
- Which type of charge controller is recommended for a given solar
system type
- What maintenance a charge controller needs and how much are its
annual maintenance costs
- When you need a couple of charge controllers rather than a single
one
-

Which charge controller type is recommended for hot climates

What controller to select for a small solar system

- What controller you need to connect a 48V-solar array to a 24Vbattery bank