Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Rudolf Kolisch
The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 77, No. 1. (Spring, 1993), pp. 90-131.
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Sun Feb 24 07:09:03 2008
T e w o and Character
in Beethoven's Music
Rudolf Kolisch
Although there are many instances in which Beethoven clearly indicated tempo by means of metronome markings, the question of tempo
in Beethoven's music is still hotly debated. His markings have hardly
been accepted as fully valid expressions of his intentions, nor have
they been uniformly adopted in performance practice. O n the contrary, their existence has generally failed to enter the consciousness of
performing musicians, and they are lacking in most editions. Traditional performance practice deviates widely from the tempi denoted by
these metronome markings-and when musicians are brought face to
face with this fact, most of them immediately defend (often passionately) the conventional tempi as against those indicated by the composer. This strange situation deserves to be investigated.
The objections to the metronome markings come from all sides.
Sometimes their authenticity is challenged, while at other times it is
acknowledged, but the subjective validity of the markings put into
question: "Yes, the metronome markings are Beethoven's, but they do
not really convey his intentions." (In support of this argument, examples are cited of composers who are said to have given obviously
absurd metronomic indications-Schumann is most frequently mentioned.) From the perspective of musical technique it is claimed that
Beethoven's tempi are "unplayable," and that this fact alone suffices
to dispose of them. Opponents of the metronome will even go so far
as to make the unbelievably nonsensical assertion that our modem
metronome differs considerably from Beethoven's. (My answer: That
could be true only if the speed of the earth's rotation had changed in
the meantime.) Above these specific and practical objections there
hovers a general opposition of a spiritual and esthetic nature: metronomic markings are felt to be "inartistic." They are said to cramp the
freedom of the interpretive imagination; so delicately balanced and
highly developed an organism as a musical artwork cannot, it is said,
be forced onto the Procrustean bed of a mechanical apparatus.
91
the subject of Wellington's victory at Vittoria for Malzel's "Panharmonicon." Strangely enough, Beethoven not only agreed to do so, but
actually carried out a quite detailed plan drawn up by Malzel, who not
only wrote out the drum marches and trumpet calls of the French and
English armies, but also recommended the use of "Rule Britannia,"
"God save the King," and "Malbrouk s'en va-t-en guerre" as themes
for the piece. Beethoven's wholly uncharacteristic acquiesence was
probably due only to his not taking the piece seriously. Malzel, however, considered it important enough to feel that a concert performance of the "Battle Symphony" by a large orchestra would be even
more successful than one by the "Panharmonicon," and so persuaded
Beethoven to make an arrangement of it for symphony orchestra. The
first performance was to take place at a concert for the benefit of disabled soldiers, at which Beethoven's new Seventh Symphony was to
be performed for the first time, and further performances were to bring
in the needed amount. Beethoven complied with this wish too, and
thanks to Malzel, who demonstrated the full range of his publicity
skills (for example, he was able to enlist all the famous musicians who
were in Vienna at the time to collaborate in the performance, including Salieri, Meyerbeer, Hummel, Romberg, spohr, and Moscheles),
the concert, which took place on December 8, 1813, was one of the
greatest successes that Beethoven ever had. Malzel had also gauged
correctly the value of the "Battle Symphony" as a sensation: it proved
possible to repeat the work three more times-on December 12, 1813,
and on January 2 and February 27, 1814-on the last occasion with
the new Eighth Symphony. But the last two of these performances
took place without Malzel's participation, and because of his brother's
illness Beethoven had abandoned the plan of going to England. Thus
Malzel not only found himself deprived of a most effective work for
his "Panharmonicon," but also cheated of all the fruits of his efforts.
Believing in good faith that his property rights to the orchestrion
version extended also to the orchestral arrangement, Malzel sought to
recoup some of his losses through a performance of the "Battle Symphony" in Munich. Beethoven, however, insisted that he alone had
exclusive rights to the piece, and forbade the planned performance.
When negotiations in a lawyer's office proved futile, Malzel had a
copy of the "Battle Symphony" made using parts belonging to some of
the musicians who had participated in the performances; with this
material he produced the work in Munich. This drove Beethoven into
a furious rage, which vented itself in the form of extremely violent
insults and even led to the filing of a legal complaint against Malzel.
93
But he had already given concrete evidence of his esteem for the
metronome in 1817 by having S. A. Steiner in Vienna publish a pamphlet entitled Bestimmung des Musikalischen Zeitmajes nach M k Z E L ' s
Metronom. Erste Lieferung. Beethoven Sinfonien Nr. 1-8 und Septett
von dem Autor selbst bezeichnet ["Determination of Musical Tempo
According to MALZEL'S Metronome. First Installment. Beethoven
6.
Op. 112 (Meeresstilk und Gluckliche Fahrt). There are metronomic indications in Beethoven's own hand in the manuscript.
Op. 121b (Opferlied). There is the remark in the manuscript:
"M.M. J = 66 according to the composer's instructions."
Op. 125 (Ninth Symphony). The metronome specifications are
contained in a letter to Schott dated October 13, 1826:
I am using what remains of the fine weather to take a holiday here in the
country, since it was impossible for me to leave Vienna this summer. Meanwhile I have worked out the metronome markings for the whole symphony and
am enclosing the tempi . . . You may also have them engraved separately. Do
not forget what I told you about the second movement.
I will soon let you have the metronome markings for the Mass as
95
Thus we see that observing the proper tempo could, in Beethoven's opinion, determine the success of a new work!
O n the question of the extent to which tempo is an immutable
constituent of the musical idea, I would like to cite Beethoven's letter
to Hofrat von Mosel in 1817, which gives us profound insights into
his conception of the tempo question:
Noble Sir! I am heartily delighted that you share my own opinion concerning
the terns to indicate tempo, which still stem from the barbarous days of music;
for, to take only one example, what can be more nonsensical than allegro
which simply means merry, -how far away we often are from this notion of this
tempo, so that the music itself says the opposite of the indication. -As far as these
four principal tempi are concerned, which incidentally do not possess anywhere
near the truth or importance of the four principal winds, we would gladly do
without them. But the words that indicate the character of the piece are a different matter. These we cannot abandon, since the tempo is really more the
body of a piece, while these terms refer to its very spirit.-As far as I am concerned, I have long been thinking of abandoning these nonsensical terns alkgro, andante, adagio, presto, and Malzel's metronome gives us the best
97
even urge you strongly to do this for all the works you have composed; for I
have often observed great variations in the manner in which your music is performed, and in order to resolve the question and the differing opinions, what is
needed is your own word as to the tempi in which you wish all your compositions to be played. Malzel's metronome seems to me very valuable for this purpose.9
In light of all this, we may consider it demonstrated, in my opinion, that Beethoven was aware of the importance of tempo in his
music and considered it an integral element of its "characteru-that
category which he felt to be most essential to his music.
How, given all this, can the use of an apparatus for fixing tempo
still be called "inartistic"? This attitude on the part of amateurs and
"creative" interpreters is the result of a serious misunderstanding. The
violent opposition to the metronome stems from the widespread
assumption of an antithesis between mechanical apparatus and artistic
freedom. But this antithesis simply does not apply here! To be sure,
the metronome is a machine; but its only purpose here is to measure
exactly an absolute quantity-the relation of music to time. This is
not unlike the function of modem musical notation (itself no longer
modem) which gives the exact pitch, another departure from "the
barbarous days of music" when this was not the case. The enormous
differentiation of tempo and its close relation to "expression" has
made precise specification necessary; the metronome is no more "inartistic" than a well-tuned piano.
It seems to me that the opponents of the metronome misunderstand something crucial: they believe its use demands that a piece of
music be played from beginning to end according to the unvarying
beat of the metronome. That, however, would not only be inartistic;
it would destroy the meaning of the music. Except in special cases,
such as a perpetuum mobile or certain etudes and marches, there is
hardly a measure in music in which the beats have equal time-value.
The use of the metronome to establish a tempo does not involve using
it to compare the length of beats-it can be used for that, too, though
that is a question of rhythm-but simply to determine the basic
"speed." It affords the interpreter complete rhythmic freedom and
complete "artistic freedom" for the performance as a whole. It serves
only to establish objectively an objective category. But it removes this
category from the domain of subjective caprice, upon which it would
otherwise be helplessly dependent (and unfortunately still is).
Attempts to reduce the fixing of tempi ad absurdum are frequently made by pointing out the inaccuracy of composers' own conceptions of tempo. Composers have often changed or disavowed their
99
101
= 88-100. In a Alkgro
instance, J = 152-168; in the latter
where the tempo unit embraces three smaller metric units,
= 104-1 12. In Allegro alla breve and in meter, the tempo unit
coincides with the metric unit, just as in f meter. But since an alla
breve or 2 measure contains only two tempo units, the tempo is considerably slower, i.e. = 112-132 in &, J = 120-132 in :, J = 144176 in f .l 2 This principle is observed consistently. The following
table, which contains the tempi occurring in Beethoven's works
arranged according to meter signatures and tempo categories, illustrates the systematic nature of their notation:
hhh
&
d = 30-33
Largo
Marcia funebre C
Adagio sostenuto
Adagio cantabile
(no tempo marking)
Adagio cantabile
Molto Adagio C = 60
Adagio un poco mosso
Adagio molto e cantabile C J = 60
No. 1. Adagio ma non troppo e molto
espressivo
Canzona di ringraziamento. Molto adagio
103
,-
Op. 30/1I
Adagio cantabile
Op. 59/11
Molto Adagio
Op. 7.3
Op. 125
Adagio molto e cantabile
op. 1 3 1
Adagio m a non troppo e m~)ltoespressiso
Op, 132
;Llolto Adagio
I
I
105
In the Adagio movements notated in i meter, the problem consists in finding out whether the indication "Adagio" applies to the
quarter-notes, resulting in a true i, or to the eighth-notes, which
would produce a i meter. Beethoven, however, never used a i signature. Thus the notation by itself again does not give us sufficient
information; we must seek it in the music.
2) Adagio
J = 32-40
Adagio
Adagio
Adagio con espressione C
Adagio molto
Adagio cantabile
Adagio
Adagio molto espressivo
Marcia funebre. Adagio assai
Adagio
Adagio espressivo
80
Adagio
Op. 91111
Adagio con espressione
Op. 1011
Adagio ~nolto
Op. 13
Adagio cantabile
Op. 55
Marcia funebre. Adagio assai
Op. Xlh
Adagio
107
Op 96
Adagio espre\si\o
3 ) Adagio
(Q)
.?
= 40-50
Adagio
Adagio, ma non troppo = 80
Adagio molto e mesto = 88
Largo assai ed espressivo
Adagio
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
,h
Figurations such as those contained in op. 5911 or op. 7011 demonstrate that in these works the Adagio applies to the eighth-notes as
is, in fact, clear from the physiognomy of the themes.
Adagio
Op. 18NI
Adagio. ma non troppo
Op. 59/l
Adagio molto e mesto
o p . 7011
Largo assai ed espressivo
0
o p . 102111
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
4) Adagio
s,
12
1. = 24-30
12
In
quarter.
o p . 10fl11
Op. 106
Adagio sostenuto
Op. 135
Lento assai. cantante e tranauillo
Op. 117
Adagio, ma nc~ntroppo e molto cantabile
I
5) Adagio
J = 36-44
Adagio cantabile
Adagio
Largo appassionato
Largo, con gran espressione
Adagio
Adagio
Adagio con molta espressione
Adagio cantabile = 72
Adagio
Adagio molto espressivo
Adagio con espressione
Adagio molto espressivo
Adagio
Adagio = 84
Adagio cantabile
Cavatina. Adagio molto espressivo
.h
.h
109
The f Adagio is by far the most common type among the Adagios; in it the tempo indications always refer to the quarters.
op. 12/111
Adagio con molta espressione
Op. 18/11
Adagio cantabile
Op. 24
Op. 60
Adagio
r ,,r,ri~ll,l,
'Op. 130
6) Adagio
:,
111
J. = 40-46; h. = 50
Op. 911
Adagio. ma non tanto. e cantabile
op.
In/!
Adagio affetuoso ed appassionato
op. 20
Adagio cantabile
op. 1 1 1
Arietta. Adagio n~oltosernplice e cantabile
Largo
Largo
h = 72
op. 37
Op. 56
Largo
113
Op. 74
Adagio ma non troppo
8) Andante C
J = 60-63
Larghetto
The Larghetto of the Violin Concerto is probably the piece that has
undergone the most extensive distortion in performance: it is played
nearly twice as slowly as intended. It is treated as if it were an Adagio
with the tempo referring to the quarter notes, and is articulated (and
"beaten" by the conductor) in eighth notes at a tempo of h. = 71-74.
As a result, this light, spirited, gracious Andante movement is made
into a solemn, devotional hymn. To me it is inconceivable how this
misunderstanding could arise, and even more inconceivable that it
could persist for so long. The incoherence of such an interpretation
should have been evident immediately from the sixteenth-note arabesques encircling the theme [at the violin's first entrance] which must
now be played with a solemn profundity weighted down by a cantabile
espressivo. But this conception becomes completely absurd in the contrasting middle section where the melodic progression is articulated in
half notes. When the Adagio diction settles on two trills in whole
measures, all the virtuosi steeped in tradition run out of breath and
abbreviate this resting point considerably.
The unusual marking Larghetto may have contributed to the gross
misunderstanding of this piece; it appears only one other time, in the
second movement of the Second Symphony where Beethoven establishes it as equivalent to Andante by marking it .h = 92. Though the
Violin Concerto has no metronome markings from Beethoven's own
hand, we still have proof that he conceived the piece as an Andante
(despite the precious term Larghetto-whose diminutive form was perhaps supposed to indicate its light character): Beethoven marked the
Op. 130
Andante con mot0 ma non troppo. Poco scherzoso
9) Andante
'82
J.
50
115
Op. 68
10) Andante
&
d = 46-50
Andante
Andante
Op. 2711
Andante
11) Andante
116
Op. l l l l l
Andante cantabile
Op. 1211
Op. I XIV
Andante cantabile
I
Op. 2 0
Andante
Op. 37
Andante
1
Op. 57
Andante con moto
Op. 131
i,li// i
12) Andante
:(i)
Lil
LL
h = 72-88
Andante cantabile
Andante espressivo
Op. 81a
Andante espressivo
I n gehrnder Brwegung, doch mlt v ~ eAu\druch
l
117
13) Andante
J. = 50-60
J.
56
Allegretto J . = 60
I
o p . 59/111
14) Andante
The
op. 109.
J = 60-76
Tempo di Minuetto ma molto moderato e
grazioso
Andante cantabile
Op. 30/111
Tempo di Minuetto
Op. 97
,
Andante cantahile
Op. 109
(;esang\oll, mit innipster I.:nipfindung
I
o p . I I0
119
15) Andante
J. = 50
Andante
op. 7')
Andante
16) Andante
58
h = 1 2 0 ; h = 92
Andante
Andante cantabile con mot0
h = 120
Op. 3 and op. 21 are borderline cases which tend in two directions: conceived in whole measures (J. = 40), they belong to the
realm of the Adagio; but the articulation in eighth-notes relegates
them to the domain of the Allegretto. They represent Mozart's
"Andantino"-a term Beethoven did not use.
PP
Op. 26
Andante
121
-.
Op. 36
On. 67
I
woo 57
h:
17) Allegretto C
J = 100-120
Rondo. Grazioso
Rondo. Moderato
Allegretto
basic character of the Grazioso in duple meter, which leads us to designate this group the "Grazioso-type."
op. 2/11
.
Op. I I
Allegretto
18) Allegretto
J = 66-76; J = 60
Sonata,
Sonata,
Sonata,
Sonata,
op.
op.
op.
op.
7
22
53
54
Allegretto
Andante, pih tosto Allegretto
Andante scherzoso, pih Allegretto
Andante
Allegretto
Allegretto = 76
Allegretto ma non troppo J = 66
123
op. 95, which exhibits the same march character as op. 92, and in
the dolce Maggiore section of the latter, which in turn shows clear
kinship in character with the theme of op. 95. Also interesting is the
similarity in the structure of the development, which in both cases
adds a sixteenth-note counterpoint to afugal theme derived from the
primary material.
The anomalous notation of op. 53 (doubled note values!) makes
this piece a meter; this is apparent by comparison with op. 7.
Op. 23
Andante scherzoso, pi8 Allegretto
I
Op. 70A1
Op. 92
Alleeretto
top. 95
I
o p . 95
5
,!,<::<,,,,<,'
Op. 92
o p . 95
op. 7
Poco Allegretto e grazioso
op. 22
Allegretto
/
o p . 53
Allegretto moderato
op. 7
Poco Allegretto e gra~ioso
op. 53
125
19) Allegretto
(t)
.h = 88-92
Andante con mot0 h. = 92
Andante
Allegretto scherzandoh. = 88
127
Op. 28
o p . 93
Allegretto scherzandc,
20) Allegretto
J.
6s
= 72
Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Empfindung. Allegretto, ma non troppo
The fact that here there exists only one instance of the Allegretto type which was so common in Mozart's work-and that even
this instance is not of true Allegretto character-is certainly remarkable, and illustrates the transformation in the vocabulary of the
Vienna classic composers.
op. 101
Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Empfindung
Allegrsllo.
111:~111111
Iroppo
I
21) Allegretto
"Polonaise"
Serenade, op. 8
Triple Concerto, op. 56
Polonaise for Piano, op. 89
J = 100
Allegretto alla Polacca
Rondo alla Polacca
Alla Polacca, vivace
Op. 89
Alla Polacca, vivace
22) Allegretto
h.
= 168
129
op. 59n
Allegretto vivace e sempre scherzando
88
J. = 88
Allegretto quasi Allegro J. = 88
Allegretto
Cp. 18NI
Allegretto quasi Allegro
Op. 3 1/11
Allegretto
(TO BE CONTINUED)
Notes
Rudolf Kolisch's "Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music," originally written in German, was given as a talk before the Greater New York Chapter of the
American Musicological Society on December 29, 1942 in a translation by Arthur
Mendel, and published the following year in Vol. XXIX of The Musical Quarterly (pp.
169-187 and 291-312). In 1961 Mr. Kolisch developed a shortened version of the
German text as part of a lecture-demonstration for West German radio. In the 1970s,
when David Satz was Mr. Kolisch's teaching assistant at the New England Conservatory, he and Mr. Kolisch worked for several years to revise the article for publication
by Universal Edition (Vienna).
The revision was not finished at the time of Mr. Kolisch's death o n August 1,
1978. The most that could then be done was to present the available material in the
best possible condition; but by the time the manuscript was ready for submission,
Universal felt that it could no longer undertake the project. It was agreed instead that
the Munich-based publication series Musik-Konsepte, which had shown great interest
in Rudolf Kolisch's work, would publish the article. Regina Busch, a musicologist who
had participated in the Schoenberg seminars in Modling, Austria, led by Rudolf
Kolisch and Rudolph Stephan, assumed primary responsibility for editing the text.
Her edition, upon which the present translation by Thomas Y. Levin and David Satz
is based, has just been published under the title Rudolf Kolisch, Tempo und Charakter in
Beethovens Musik (Musik-Konzepte 76/77, July 1992). It offers extensive notes and
commentary on the sources plus a substantial collection of supplementary research
material, and is highly recommended for those wishing to study this article in depth.
Unless otherwise indicated, all footnotes below are by Rudolf Kolisch. For reasons of length the article is being published in two parts, the second of which will
appear in the following issue.
1. Once, in a conversation about Beethoven's metronome marks, a well-known
conductor refused to consider them, on the ground that Beethoven had brought suit
against Malzel because his metronome had proved wholly unreliable! What passions
must be raging in a musician's heart if his mind can believe such an absurdity!
2. Reprinted in Beethovens samtliche Briefe und Aufzeichnungen, ed. Fritz Prelinger
(ViennaiLeipzig: C. W . Stern, 1911), 5:13f; reprinted in Beethoven. Das Probkm der
Interpretation, Musik-Konzepte 8 (April 1979), 80.
3.
4. Emily Anderson, ed. and trans., The Letters of Beethoven (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1961; New York: Norton, 1985), 2: 806.
7.
8. "I don't consider your lousy fiddles when the spirit comes over me," Beethoven is
reported to have said to Schuppanzigh; see Adolph Bemhard Marx, Ludwig van
Beethoven. Leben und Schaffen. 4th Ed. ed. Dr. Gustav Behncke (Berlin: Verlag von
Otto Janke, 1884), 2: 41.
9. For the original French of this letter, see the Deiters edition of Alexander Wheelock Thayer's Ludwig van Beethovens Leben (Leipzig: Reimann, 1908), 5: 558 (Appendix 11).
131
10. Most interesting in this context is the case of Bela Bartdk, whose conception of
tempo was so exact that the indications given o n the metronome scale were not sufficient for him. Thus he might indicate = 130, but would note right away, as I had
repeated occasion to observe, the slightest deviation from that tempo.
11. In Europe, where for understandable reasons the traditional deviations are much
more firmly rooted than in the United States, this resistance has sometimes taken o n
passionate forms. I remember with pleasure a n occasion in Paris when, after a performance of op. 95 which I had played according to Beethoven's metronomic markings,
a professor from the Conservatoire, a true keeper of the Holy Grail of Tradition,
could hardly wait for the last note to die away before crying out, "Tout $a mop vite!"
[That's all much too fast!] This promptly led to a fistfight.
Nowadays such resistance may have other sources as well, for "mankind's sacred
heritage" has become to a great extent a tool of commercial advertising. Its value for
commodity culture would be seriously affected if it were essentially transformed, rendering it, if not entirely unrecognizable, then at least unfamiliar.
12. Kolisch's manuscripts reflect a continuing struggle not only with the wording of
these two paragraphs but also with the choice of phenomena to be considered in them
as the factors that influence the tempo. From his notes it is clear that he was still not
be satisfied with this formulation of the "tempo principle." I believe that a complete
explanation would need to include the note value of the tempo unit as a n inverse
factor. -"Metric unit" is not always used by Kolisch as a special term; sometimes it is
simply equivalent to "note value" [D.S.].
13. This is probably still due to the influence of Wagner, who once wrote of the
Adagio, "In a certain subtle sense one may say that the pure Adagio can not be taken
slowly enough" ("About Conducting," in Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans.
William Ashton Ellis [New York: Broude Bros., 19661, 4: 314).
14. T h e lower limit of the metronome scale at that time was 50. Therefore when
Beethoven gives a tempo between 50 and 100 we cannot conclude that the smaller
note values are meant as the tempo unit [D.S.].
15. But only o n the borderline; there is hardly a piece by Beethoven that has been
made more banal by the mere placing of it in a conventional category, that of
Andante cantabile, than this particular one, of which the unique quality lies in the
very fact that it hovers between the cantabile (but never purely lyric) elements of the
theme and the sinister footsteps of the opening. Too slow a tempo would resolve this
indefin~tenessin favor of the conventional singing character. T h e interpretation of
the sixteenth-note counterpoint as a jolly, bouncing spiccato also contributes, by the
way, to this banalization.
16. T h e authenticity of the Malzel canon has long presented a historical puzzle; as
Nottebohm points out, in the year of Malzel's return to Vienna his device was still
known as the "Chronometer" and there is n o particular evidence that the later name
of the device was known to Beethoven in advance. There is n o manuscript source
other than in a conversation book from Schindler, whose refusal to accept Beethoven's position o n the metronome and questions of tempo led him to falsify nearly every
statement he ever made o n the subject [D.S.].