Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
main
2007/2/16
page 212
i
212
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
3.3
1 2 3 4 a
2 1 2 3 4
3 2 1 2 3
4 3 2 1 2
a 4 3 2 1
is invertible.
59. If
1 4 1
A = 3 2 1,
3 4 1
1 2 3 4
2 1 2 3
A=
3 2 1 2
4 3 2 1
is invertible, and use A1 to solve Ax = b if b =
[3, 7, 1, 4]T .
Cofactor Expansions
We now obtain an alternative method for evaluating determinants. The basic idea is that
we can reduce a determinant of order n to a sum of determinants of order n1. Continuing
in this manner, it is possible to express any determinant as a sum of determinants of
order 2. This method is the one most frequently used to evaluate a determinant by hand,
although the procedure introduced in the previous section whereby we use elementary
row operations to reduce the matrix to upper triangular form involves less work in general.
When A is invertible, the technique we derive leads to formulas for both A1 and the
unique solution to Ax = b. We rst require two preliminary denitions.
DEFINITION 3.3.1
Let A be an n n matrix. The minor, Mij , of the element aij , is the determinant of
the matrix obtained by deleting the ith row vector and j th column vector of A.
main
2007/2/16
page 213
i
3.3
Cofactor Expansions
213
If
Example 3.3.3
a11 a12
a31 a32
and
M31 =
a12 a13
.
a22 a23
2 1 3
A = 1 4 2 .
3 1 5
Solution:
M11 =
4 2
= 22,
1 5
M23 =
2 1
= 1,
3 1
M31 =
1 3
= 14.
4 2
DEFINITION 3.3.4
Let A be an n n matrix. The cofactor, Cij , of the element aij , is dened by
Cij = (1)i+j Mij ,
where Mij is the minor of aij .
From Denition 3.3.4, we see that the cofactor of aij and the minor of aij are the
same if i + j is even, and they differ by a minus sign if i + j is odd. The appropriate
sign in the cofactor Cij is easy to remember, since it alternates in the following manner:
+
+
..
.
Example 3.3.5
..
.
+
..
.
..
.
+
+ .
..
.
Determine the cofactors C11 , C23 , and C31 for the matrix in Example 3.3.3.
Solution: We have already obtained the minors M11 , M23 , and M31 in Example 3.3.3,
so it follows that
C11 = +M11 = 22,
C23 = M23 = 1,
main
2007/2/16
page 214
i
214
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
Example 3.3.6
If A =
a11 a12
, verify that det(A) = a11 C11 + a12 C12 .
a21 a22
Solution:
In this case,
C11 = + det[a22 ] = a22 ,
so that
a11 C11 + a12 C12 = a11 a22 + a12 (a21 ) = det(A).
Theorem 3.3.7
n
aik Cik .
k=1
n
akj Ckj .
k=1
The expressions for det(A) appearing in this theorem are known as cofactor expansions. Notice that a cofactor expansion can be formed along any row or column of A.
Regardless of the chosen row or column, the cofactor expansion will always yield the
determinant of A. However, sometimes the calculation is simpler if the row or column
of expansion is wisely chosen. We will illustrate this in the examples below. The proof
of the Cofactor Expansion Theorem will be presented after some examples.
Example 3.3.8
Use the Cofactor Expansion Theorem along (a) row 1, (b) column 3 to nd
2 3 4
1 1 1 .
6 3 0
main
2007/2/16
page 215
i
3.3
Cofactor Expansions
215
Solution:
(a) We have
2 3 4
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 = 2
3
+4
= 6 + 18 + 36 = 48.
3 0
6 0
6 3
6 3 0
(b) We have
2 3 4
1 1
2 3
1 1 1 = 4
1
+ 0 = 36 + 12 + 0 = 48.
6 3
6 3
6 3 0
Notice that (b) was easier than (a) in the previous example, because of the zero in
column 3. Whenever one uses the cofactor expansion method to evaluate a determinant,
it is usually best to select a row or column containing as many zeros as possible in order
to minimize the amount of computation required.
Example 3.3.9
Evaluate
0
5
7
6
Solution:
we have
0
5
7
6
3 1 0
0 8 2
.
2 5 4
1 7 0
3 1 0
5 8 2
5 0 2
0 8 2
= 3 7 5 4 + (1) 7 2 4
2 5 4
6 7 0
6 1 0
1 7 0
= 3 [2 (49 30) 4 (35 48) + 0] [5 (0 4) 0 + 2 (7 12)]
= 240.
In evaluating the determinants of order 3 on the right side of the rst equality, we have
used cofactor expansion along column 3 and row 1, respectively. For additional practice,
the reader may wish to verify our result here by cofactor expansion along a different row
or column.
Now we turn to the
Proof of the Cofactor Expansion Theorem: It follows from the denition of the
determinant that det(A) can be written in the form
det(A) = ai1 C i1 + a12 C i2 + + ain C in
(3.3.1)
where the coefcients C ij contain no elements from row i or column j . We must show
that
C ij = Cij
where Cij is the cofactor of aij .
Consider rst a11 . From Denition 3.1.8, the terms of det(A) that contain a11 are
given by
a11
(1, p2 , p3 , . . . , pn )a2p2 a3p3 anpn ,
main
2007/2/16
page 216
i
216
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
Evaluate
2
1
1
1
Solution:
2
1
1
1
1 8
4 1
2 1
3 1
6
3
.
4
2
We have
1 8
4 1
2 1
3 1
6
0 7 6 0
7 6 0
7
6 0
3 1 1 4 1 3 2
3
4
=
= 6 2 7 = 1 12 0 = 90.
4
0 6 2 7
1 2 1
1 2 1
2
0 1 2 1
main
2007/2/16
page 217
i
3.3
Example 3.3.11
Cofactor Expansions
217
Solution: We will apply Corollary 3.2.5. The determinant of the matrix of coefcients
of the system is
10 k 1
10
k
1
k 10 1 k
1
2
det(A) = k 1 1 = k 10 1 k 0 =
28 1 3k
2 1 3
28 1 3k 0
= [(k 10)(1 3k) (28)(1 k)] = 3k 2 3k 18 = 3(k 2 k 6)
= 3(k 3)(k + 2).
1. A12 (1), A13 (3)
From Corollary 3.2.5, the system has nontrivial solutions if and only if det(A) = 0; that
is, if and only if k = 3 or k = 2.
If the elements in the ith row (or column) of an n n matrix A are multiplied by the
cofactors of a different row (or column), then the sum of the resulting products is zero.
That is,
1. If we use the elements of row i and the cofactors of row j ,
n
aik Cj k = 0,
i = j.
(3.3.2)
k=1
aki Ckj = 0,
i = j.
(3.3.3)
k=1
Proof We prove (3.3.2). Let B be the matrix obtained from A by adding row i to row
j (i = j ) in the matrix A. By P3, det(B) = det(A). Cofactor expansion of B along row
j gives
det(A) = det(B) =
n
k=1
n
k=1
aj k Cj k +
n
aik Cj k .
k=1
main
2007/2/16
page 218
i
218
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
That is,
det(A) = det(A) +
n
aik Cj k ,
k=1
since by the Cofactor Expansion Theorem the rst summation on the right-hand side is
simply det(A). It follows immediately that
n
aik Cj k = 0,
i = j.
k=1
aik Cj k = ij det(A),
k=1
n
(3.3.4)
k=1
The formulas in (3.3.4) should be reminiscent of the index form of the matrix
product. Combining this with the fact that the Kronecker delta gives the elements of the
identity matrix, we might suspect that (3.3.4) is telling us something about the inverse
of A. Before establishing that this suspicion is indeed correct, we need a denition.
DEFINITION 3.3.14
If every element in an n n matrix A is replaced by its cofactor, the resulting matrix
is called the matrix of cofactors and is denoted MC . The transpose of the matrix of
cofactors, MCT , is called the adjoint of A and is denoted adj(A). Thus, the elements
of adj(A) are
adj(A)ij = Cj i .
Example 3.3.15
Determine adj(A) if
Solution:
2 0 3
A = 1 5 4 .
3 2 0
C11 = 8,
Thus,
C23 = 4,
8 12 13
4,
MC = 6 9
15 5 10
main
2007/2/16
page 219
i
3.3
so that
Cofactor Expansions
219
8 6 15
adj(A) = MCT = 12 9 5 .
13 4 10
1
adj(A).
det(A)
1
adj(A). Then we must establish that AB = In = BA. But,
det(A)
using the index form of the matrix product,
Proof Let B =
(AB)ij =
n
aik bkj =
k=1
n
1
1
adj(A)kj =
aik Cj k = ij ,
det(A)
det(A)
n
aik
k=1
k=1
where we have used Equation (3.3.4) in the last step. Consequently, AB = In . We leave
it as an exercise (Problem 53) to verify that BA = In also.
Example 3.3.17
Example 3.3.18
8 6 15
1
12 9 5 .
=
55 13 4 10
For square matrices of relatively small size, the adjoint method for computing A1
is often easier than using elementary row operations to reduce A to upper triangular
form.
In Chapter 7, we will nd that the solution of a system of differential equations can
be expressed naturally in terms of matrix functions. Certain problems will require us to
nd the inverse of such matrix functions. For 2 2 systems, the adjoint method is very
quick.
2t t
e
e
Find A1 if A =
.
3e2t 6et
Solution:
In this case,
det(A) = (e2t )(6et ) (3e2t )(et ) = 3et ,
and
adj(A) =
so that
1
6et et
3e2t
e2t
2e2t 13 e2t
1 t
et
3e
,
.
main
2007/2/16
page 220
i
220
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
Cramers Rule
We now derive a technique that enables us, in the case when det(A) = 0, to express the
unique solution of an n n linear system
Ax = b
directly in terms of determinants. Let Bk denote the matrix obtained by replacing the kth
column vector of A with b. Thus,
Bk = . .
..
.. .
.. ..
.
.
an1 an2 . . . bn . . . ann
The key point to notice is that the cofactors of the elements in the kth column of Bk
coincide with the corresponding cofactors of A. Thus, expanding det(Bk ) along the kth
column using the Cofactor Expansion Theorem yields
det(Bk ) = b1 C1k + b2 C2k + + bn Cnk =
n
bi Cik ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
(3.3.5)
i=1
where the Cij are the cofactors of A. We can now prove Cramers rule.
Theorem 3.3.19
(Cramers Rule)
If det(A) = 0, the unique solution to the n n system Ax = b is (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
where
det(Bk )
,
det(A)
xk =
k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(3.3.6)
(3.3.7)
1
adj(A).
det(A)
x1
x2
x= .
..
(3.3.8)
and
xn
b1
b2
b= .
..
bn
and recall that adj(A)ij = Cj i , then substitution from (3.3.8) into (3.3.7) and use of the
index form of the matrix product yields
xk =
n
i=1
(A1 )ki bi =
n
i=1
1
adj(A)ki bi
det(A)
main
2007/2/16
page 221
i
3.3
1
Cik bi ,
det(A)
Cofactor Expansions
221
k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
i=1
det(Bk )
,
det(A)
k = 1, 2, . . . , n
as required.
Remark In general, Cramers rule requires more work than the Gaussian elimination
method, and it is restricted to n n systems whose coefcient matrix is invertible.
However, it is a powerful theoretical tool, since it gives us a formula for the solution of
an n n system, provided det(A) = 0.
Example 3.3.20
Solve
3x1 + 2x2 x3 = 4,
x1 + x2 5x3 = 3,
2x1 x2 + 4x3 = 0.
Solution:
det(B2 ) =
3 2 1
1 1 5 = 8,
2 1 4
4 2 1
det(B1 ) = 3 1 5 = 17,
0 1 4
3 4 1
1 3 5 = 6,
2 0 4
det(B3 ) =
17
8 , x2
3 2 4
1 1 3 = 7.
2 1 0
= 68 = 43 , and x3 = 78 , so
Key Terms
Minor, Cofactor, Cofactor expansion, Matrix of cofactors,
Adjoint, Cramers rule.
Skills
Be able to compute the minors and cofactors of a
matrix.
Understand the difference between Mij and Cij .
Be able to compute the determinant of a matrix via
cofactor expansion.
Be able to compute the matrix of cofactors and the
adjoint of a matrix.
True-False Review
For Questions 17, decide if the given statement is true or
false, and give a brief justication for your answer. If true,
you can quote a relevant denition or theorem from the text.
If false, provide an example, illustration, or brief explanation
of why the statement is false.
1. The (2, 3)-minor of a matrix is the same as the (2, 3)cofactor of the matrix.
2. We have A adj(A) = det(A) In for all n n matrices
A.
main
2007/2/16
page 222
i
222
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
3. Cofactor expansion of a matrix along any row or column will yield the same result, although the individual
terms in the expansion along different rows or columns
can vary.
4. If A is an n n matrix and c is a scalar, then
adj(cA) = c adj(A).
5. If A and B are 2 2 matrices, then
adj(A + B) = adj(A) + adj(B).
6. If A and B are 2 2 matrices, then
adj(AB) = adj(A) adj(B).
7. For every n, adj(In ) = In .
Problems
For Problems 13, determine all minors and cofactors of the
given matrix.
1 3
1. A =
.
2 4
1 1 2
2. A = 3 1 4 .
2 1 5
2 10 3
3. A = 0 1 0 .
4 1 5
4. If
1
3
A=
7
5
3 1 2
4 1 2
,
1 4 6
0 1 2
1 2
, row 1.
1 3
1 2 3
6. 1 4 2 , column 3.
3 1 4
2 1 4
7. 7 1 3 , row 2.
1 5 2
3 1 4
8. 7 1 2 , column 1.
2 3 5
0 2 3
9. 2 0 5 , row 3.
3 5 0
1 2 3 0
4 0 7 2
10.
, column 4.
0 1 3 4
1 5 2 0
For Problems 1119, evaluate the given determinant using
the techniques of this section.
1 0 2
11. 3 1 1 .
7 2 5
12.
1 2 3
0 1 4 .
2 1 3
2 1 3
13. 5 2 1 .
3 3 7
14.
0 2 1
2 0 3 .
1 3 0
1
0
15.
1
0
0 1 0
1 0 1
.
0 1 0
1 0 1
2 1 3 1
1 4 2 3
16.
.
0 2 1 0
1 3 2 4
3 5 2
6
2 3 5 5
17.
.
7 5 3 16
9 6 27 12
2 7 4 3
5 5 3 7
18.
.
6 2 6 3
4 2 4 5
main
2007/2/16
page 223
i
3.3
2
0
19. 0
1
3
20. If
0 1 3 0
3 0 1 2
1 3 0 4 .
0 1 1 0
0 2 0 5
0 x y z
x 0 1 1
A=
y 1 0 1 ,
z 1 1 0
1 ...
r2 . . .
r22 . . .
..
.
1
rn
rn2
..
.
&
(rm ri ).
1i<mn
For Problems 2231, nd (a) det(A), (b) the matrix of cofactors MC , (c) adj(A), and, if possible, (d) A1 .
3 1
22. A =
.
4 5
1 2
23. A =
.
4 1
5 2
24. A =
.
15 6
2 3 0
25. A = 2 1 5 .
0 1 2
Cofactor Expansions
223
2 3 1
26. A = 2 1 5 .
0 2 3
1 1 2
27. A = 3 1 4 .
5 1 7
0 1 2
28. A = 1 1 3 .
1 2 1
2 3 5
29. A = 1 2 1 .
0 7 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
30. A =
1 1 1 1 .
1 1 1 1
1 0 3 5
2 1 1 3
31. A =
3 9 0 2 .
2 0 3 1
1
2x
2x 2
32. Let A = 2x 1 2x 2 2x .
2x
1
2x 2
(a) Show that det(A) = (1 + 2x 2 )3 .
(b) Use the adjoint method to nd A1 .
In Problems 3335, nd the specied element in the inverse
of the given matrix. Do not use elementary row operations.
1 1 1
33. A = 1 2 2 ; (3, 2)-element.
1 2 3
2 0 1
34. A = 2 1 1 ; (3, 1)-element.
3 1 0
1 0 1 0
2 1 1 3
35. A =
0 1 1 2 ; (2, 3)-element.
1 1 2 0
In Problems 3638, nd A1 .
t 2t
3e e
.
36. A =
2et 2e2t
t
e sin 2t et cos 2t
.
37. A = t
e cos 2t et sin 2t
main
2007/2/16
page 224
i
224
CHAPTER 3
Determinants
et tet e2t
38. A = et 2tet e2t .
et tet 2e2t
1 2 3
A = 3 4 5,
4 5 6
39. If
2x1 3x2 = 2,
x1 + 2x2 = 4.
41.
3x1 2x2 + x3 = 4,
x1 + x2 x3 = 2,
x1
+ x3 = 1.
42.
43.
x1 3x2 + x3 = 0,
x1 + 4x2 x3 = 0,
2x1 + x2 3x3 = 0.
x1 2x2 + 3x3 x4
+ x3
2x1
x1 + x2
x4
x2 2x3 + x4
1,
2,
0,
3.
+
+
+
+
4x2
9x2
5x2
14x2
+
+
3.4
2x3
3x3
x3
7x3
x4
2x4
x4
2x4
=
=
=
=
2,
5,
3,
6.
1 2 3 4 4
68
2 1 2 3 4
72
,
87 .
3
2
1
2
3
A=
and
b
=
4 3 2 1 2
79
4 4 3 2 1
43
53. Verify that BA = In in the proof of Theorem 3.3.16.
Summary of Determinants
The primary aim of this section is to serve as a stand-alone introduction to determinants
for readers who desire only a cursory review of the major facts pertaining to determinants.
It may also be used as a review of the results derived in Sections 3.13.3.