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Dear Students,
In this course on Aircraft Design you will have an opportunity to apply and synthesise your
knowledge in many disciplines like Aerodynamics, Flight Mechanics, Controls,
Propulsion, Structures, Aircraft Systems and Costing. We will have some lectures to
supplement your background in some of these areas and prepare you to take up a Group Project
on Aircraft Design.
In pursuing the design project, you need to gather design information on successful aircrafts
belonging to similar category, take a close look at the customer requirements and applicable
airworthiness requirements of relevant class of aircraft, estimate takeoff mass, do preliminary
aircraft sizing and engine selection, carry out layout studies to arrive at 3 view drawing, relook
at the takeoff mass considering component and system mass break down, carry out aircraft mass
and CG balance calculations, obtain aircraft drag, lift & pitching moment characteristics, predict
aircraft performance, stability & control characteristics, prepare design compliance matrix and
finally do some cost analysis to help project USPs of the aircraft .
Apart from over all configuration design studies, each Group has also been assigned some
special topic and/or further design calculations, around the main design project, such as studies
on aircraft variants, aircraft system/s etc.
The whole range of activities outlined above has to be carried out iteratively and
accomplished within a time frame of 10 - 11 weeks, also making a few intermediate
presentations. This truly calls for well organised Group effort. The key to success will be to work
in a team with equitable task partitioning from the very beginning, also giving due attention to
periodic project documentation and sharing the same within the group. Hopefully this will give
you a feel for the Conceptual and Preliminary Design phases of Aircraft Design, and working in
a Group in a time bound manner.
We welcome you to this exciting experience of learning Aircraft Design through hands on
calculations in various disciplines.
Greetings and best wishes
Tonse G Pai
Sunil Joshi
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2. Teaching Plan
Weeks 1 to 13*
1. Introduction, Aircraft Design Project RFP and Project Activity Schedule
2. Aircraft Mission Analysis and Take Off Weight Estimation
3. FAR Part 25 Performance Related Sections, Constraint Analysis and Aircraft Sizing
4. Aircraft Layout Location of Wing, Tail, Fin, Engine & Landing Gears
5. Some Successful Aircraft Designs Military Aircrafts and Special Aircrafts
6. Some Design Features of Transport Aircraft and UAV
7. Review of Drag Analysis and Balance Field Length
8. A Relook at various Mission Segments and Analysis
9. Component Mass Estimation, A/C Mass and CG Balance for range of Pay Load and Fuel
10. Trade Off between Range and Pay load
11. Aircraft Material Selection
12. Aircraft Cost Analysis
* Weeks 12 and 13 will be devoted to Final Report Submission and Presentations
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Daniel Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, 5th Edition (TL 671.2 R267, 2012)
Lloyd Jenkinson, Civil Jet Aircraft Design (TL 671.2 J52 c, 1999)
LM Nicolai and GT Carichner, Fundamentals of Aircraft and Airship Design (TL 671.2 N636,
2010)
Lloyd R Jenkinson, Aircraft Design Projects (TL 671.2 J 52, 2003)
Jan Roskam, Airplane Design, Part I Preliminary Design Sizing of Airplanes (TL 671.2 R821,
1985)
Denis Howe, Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis (TL 671.2 H855, 2000)
Steven A Brandt, Introduction to Aeronautics A Design Perspective (TL 671.2 I61i, 2004)
E Torenbeek, Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Technology and Optimization of
Subsonic Civil Airplanes, 2013 (eBook accessible from NTU Library)
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The design mission for this aircraft must be accomplished with full pay load as relevant
eg.: Passengers, Baggage and Cargo. Annexure 1 gives Pay Load and Range for 10
different aircraft variants.
4.2.2
Design Mission:
Warm up and taxi to take off position typically with10 min idle power and take off with
applicable full power
Climb/accelerate to intermediate/cruise altitude & Mach number in suitable segments.
Take distance credit for climb/acceleration segments.
Cruise at relevant subsonic/transonic Mach number at constant altitude. Total climb plus
cruise distance must equal to design range set by the customer. See Annexure - 1 for
Speed, Altitude and Range for different aircrafts. Include additional cruise segment of 1
hour for domestic flight or 10% cruise duration for international flight (whichever is
higher) for estimation of mission fuel.
Descend negligible or nominal fuel penalty and no distance credit
Land- negligible or nominal fuel penalty
Taxi with10 min idle power
4.2.3 Other Requirements
The cabin of Transport aircraft shall include a flight deck (cockpit) for two pilots, a
passenger compartment (cabin) with stand-up headroom not less than 1.83 m (72 inches)
along the aisle and over head baggage compartments on both sides of the aisle/s.
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The Transport Aircraft cockpit must have two flight crew stations in a side by side
arrangement. For aircraft with mission time exceeding 8 9 hours, it is necessary to
accommodate spare team of flight crew in the passenger cabin
Full passenger capacity with single class/mixed class seating as specified for Transport
Aircraft (Annexure - 1)
At maximum landing mass, the aircraft approach speed must be 150 Knots. The
maximum landing mass must be not greater than 80% of the maximum design takeoff
mass (from the considerations of loads on landing gear)
Cabin Pressure for Transport Aircraft shall provide an equivalent altitude of 8000 ft.,
including in the baggage compartment for mission time of 9 hours or less and 5500 ft for
longer mission duration..
Baggage compartment below the passenger cabin must be big enough to accommodate
passenger/crew baggage (23 Kg or 0.25 m3 for economy class Pax and higher baggage
allowance as applicable for higher class of Pax) and 30% in excess of this for
accommodating nominal freight (perishable/courier packages) and Pax excess baggage.
In case of Combi (Passenger + Cargo) configuration additional volume may have to be
provided for cargo at cabin level. For passenger baggage and cargo, the containers and
pallets of standard sizes shall be used. Assume cargo density applicable for cargo mix of
perishable (~ 30%) and heavy machinery (70%).
Maximum operating altitude is as specified for different aircrafts in Annexure - 1
Maneuvering load factors for Transport Aircraft : +2.5 g and -1.0 g
Aircraft shall be designed to meet FAR Part 25 requirements or equivalent
The aircraft shall have a maximum cruise Mach number (< Drag Divergence Mach
number) as specified in Annexure - 1
4.2.4 Safety Constraints:
For refused landing and diversion to alternate airport provide fuel reserves for 200 Nm
cruise plus 30 minutes loiter at 15000 ft. Assume that the aircraft in its descent path gets
the diversion signal from Air Traffic Controller, at 3000 ft altitude and climbs to 15000 ft
before cruising 200 Nm to alternate airport..
The aircraft must have an FAA balanced field length as specified at 4000 ft ISA.
For multi-engine aircraft the second segment climb gradient (CGR) capability with one
engine inoperative (OEI) shall be greater than 2.8%. Conditions for second segment
climb are landing gear retracted and wing flaps in takeoff position with Speed not less
than 1.2Vstall and Altitude of 400 ft above take off field altitude.
Other conditions are as specified in FAR 25.
4.2.5 Economic Constraints:
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The proposal may include some considerations or features that simplify manufacturability
and assembly.
4. 2.7 Sustainability:
The proposal may include brief description of features of the aircraft design that
maximize reliability, simplify maintenance, and minimize special ground support
equipment and airport turnaround time.
4. 2.8 Environmental:
The proposal must describe design features that minimize environmental impact as far as
pollution and noise are concerned
4. 2.9 Recommended Weights for Pay Load Estimation:
Passenger/Crew
Baggage
Cabin
Check in
91 Kg per pax
Economy/Crew:10 Kg per pax
Business/First: 2 x 10 Kg per pax
Economy/Crew: 23 Kg per pax
Business/First: 2 x 32 Kg per pax
Economy
Business
First Class
30 to 32
36 to 38
60 to 62
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5. Special Studies:
Different groups have been assigned some special topics for design studies which include
aircraft systems like hydraulic system, fuel system, landing gear, cockpit &
avionics system etc
structural joints and lay out for integration of strut (brace) with fuselage & wing,
engine pylon with wing, cargo loading doors with the fuselage etc.
aircraft variants to meet extended range and/or enhanced pay load, fully freighter
version for the combi aircraft etc.
aircraft CG management for combi aircraft using partial PAX and cargo loads
These topics have been identified in Annexure 2A for different groups along with aircraft
pay load, range, speed and configuration lay out such as wing location (low wing or high
wing) engine location (wing or fuselage mounted) and special features like strut support
for wing (braced wing).
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Annexure - 1
Pay Load
Speed/
Altitude
Range/
Endurance
Take Off/
Landing
Distance
Engine
Type/
Location
Medium Haul
Transport
(MHT-1/MHT-2
MHT-3
0.75 - 0.85 M
10 to 12 Km
3250 Km
< 1600 m
Turbofan/
Wing or
Fuselage
Long Haul
Transport
(LHT-1/LHT-2
LHT-3
0.86 - 0.89 M
11 to 13 Km
12500 Km
< 2600 m
Turbofan/
Wing or
Fuselage
Long Haul
Combi
(LHC-1/LHC-2
LHC-3
0.86 - 0.89 M
11 to 13 Km
< 2600 m
Turbofan/
Wing or
Fuselage
0.89 - 0.92 M
11 to 13 Km
15500 Km
< 3000m
Turbofan/
Wing
0.89 - 0.92 M
11 to 13 Km
16000 Km
< 3000m
Turbofan/
Wing
12500 Km
Note:
A total of 11 configuration variants have been suggested for above four Aircraft requirements to
enable formation of 11 Student Projects (6 students each) with specific system related or design
studies added to each of the Student group.
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Annexure 2A
Configuration
Engine/ Location
Special Studies/Systems
MHT1
MHT2
MHT3
Conventional
Conventional
Braced Wing
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Fuselage
Turbofan/Wing
Hydraulic System
Cockpit & Avionics System
Blended Wing Body Variant
LHT-1 Conventional
LHT2 Braced Wing
LHT-3 Conventional
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Fuselage
Turbofan/Fuselage
LHC1 Conventional
LHC2 Conventional
LHC-3 Braced Wing
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Fuselage
Turbofan/Fuselage
UHT-1 Conventional
UHT-2 Conventional
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Wing
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Annexure 2B
Config.
Code
Configuration
Engine Location
1.
MHT1
Conventional
Wing
2.
MHT2
Conventional
Fuselage
3.
LHT1
Conventional
Wing
4.
LHT2
Braced Wing
Fuselage
5.
LHC1
Conventional
Wing
6.
LHC2
Conventional
Fuselage
7.
MHT3
Braced Wing
Wing
8.
LHT-3
Conventional
Fuselage
9.
LHC-3
Braced Wing
Fuselage
10.
UHT- 2
Conventional
Wing
11.
UHT- 1
Conventional
Wing
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containers. If cargo bay length works out to be longer than the cabin length estimated in
Para 2 above for passenger seats and other amenities, take the average of passenger cabin
length and cargo bay length as revised cargo bay length, if necessary by marginally
increasing the same to accommodate an integer number of containers. The remaining
containers not accommodated in the cargo bay have to be accommodated in the extended
passenger cabin, by using appropriate container/s which fit/s in passenger cabin cross
section, with minor increase in length.
6. Estimate aircraft pay load or useful load considering passenger capacity (RFP),
flight/cabin crew, cabin/check-in baggage allowances, cabin amenities for
passengers/crew (food, beverages, reading material, life jacket, entertainment etc),
additional passenger baggage, cargo (in case of Combi) etc as applicable.
7. Considering technologies of 2020s, in the areas of Aerodynamics (low drag airfoil and
large AR), Flight Controls, Structures, Materials, Manufacturing, Engine etc to get 15
20% performance improvements, assume suitable (L/D)max (from present day value of 17
to possible maximum value of 23 for blended wing- body configuration) and Structural
Technology factor KS (0.75 for aircraft with 50% composites to 0.85 for aircraft with
nominal composites), and thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) for the engine (10 to
15% lower than the contemporary value).
8. Estimation of mission fuel mass fraction considering major mission segments like
cruise/loiter including extra cruise time/distance, diversion to alternate airfield, hold up in
flight prior to landing etc., as applicable for aircraft mission (higher of the cruise
allowance: 10% range for international or 1 hour cruise for domestic operations). Make
suitable assumptions on weight fractions for takeoff, climb and descent segments, and
trapped fuel (1 to 2 %).
9. Estimation of aircraft gross take off mass based on aircraft pay load (Para 6), mission
fuel mass fraction (Para 8) and statistical correlation between aircraft empty mass and
take off mass (for all metal aircraft), considering Structural Technology factor KS
applicable for aircrafts of 2020s (0.75 to 0.85). Excepting for Ultra Long Haul Transport
(UHT) aircraft, Nicolai/Raymers correlation between empty mass and take off mass of
transport aircraft gives reasonable estimation of take off mass and empty mass for Long
Haul and Medium Haul aircraft (LHT, LHC and MHT). UHT group working on ultra long haul transport aircraft need to consider reference aircraft mass data - takeoff mass,
empty mass and fuel mass, towards finalising TO mass.
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10. Draw Constraint Diagram for identifying feasible design space in W/S - T/W domain,
meeting the range of performance and safety requirements as design constraints for multiengine aircraft from civil aviation (FAR) or other requirements. Make suitable
assumptions on rolling friction coefficient for ground run, C Lmax (for TO and landing),
number of engines etc. Select optimum values for W/S and T/W within the feasible
design space, with some built-in margin allowing for aircraft growth potential, catering
for marginally higher pay load and/or range for possible design variants of your aircraft
(larger wing or lower W/S and larger engine or larger T/W).
11. Aircraft Sizing: Using max gross takeoff weight (Para 9) and optimum values chosen for
wing loading W/S and thrust to weight ratio T/W (Para 10), estimate wing area S and
engine thrust T (total thrust of all the engines)
12. Wing Design: Choose wing planform parameters - sweep (for higher Mcrit), taper ratio
(for efficient aerodynamic loading and structure), aspect ratio AR (braced wing, stiffer
structure vis-a-vis low CDi), high lift devices (CLmax for low landing speed and distance)
and winglets (drag reduction). These values (, AR, ) may be chosen in the range of
values corresponding to successful transport aircraft or your reference aircraft. The wing
sweep normally refers to quarter chord sweep.
Select wing airfoil thickness ratio (t/c: 12 to 15% for fuel volume and efficient structure)
and type of airfoil (laminar supercritical airfoil with sufficiently large Mcr and low Cd0)
towards realising the targeted value of cruise Mach number (below the Mcrit of the wing
considering sweep ) and with min profile drag (Cd0) or efficient (L/D) (see Para 7).
Calculate wing span b using the wing area S obtained in aircraft sizing (Para 11) and AR
chosen. Using S, b, , calculate wing tip and root chords, Ct and Cr. With this, wing
planform may be drawn and wing can be initially located with its root apex about 40%
behind the fuselage length. Choose the wing mounting location on the fuselage to be low
or mid or high. For braced wing only high wing configuration is possible maintaining
upper wing surface clean. Calculate the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) of the wing.
13. Estimate available fuel volume in the wing assuming fuel tanks to be extended from front
spar (20% chord line) to rear spar (65 - 70% chord line) and from wing root to station
70% of semi span outboard, and configuring available fuel volume into 2 or 3 (inboard,
midboard and outboard) wing tanks on each side. The net volume available for fuel is
about 65 to 70% of geometric volume within the wing, allowing for volume occupied by
the structural components like spar, ribs, stringers etc. Estimate fuel mass & CG for wing
tanks full and check for adequacy of wing fuel volume vis--vis mission fuel with
allowances (10 15%) made for aircraft growth potential (longer range) and for possible
Pay Load Vs Range trade off options. If wing fuel tank is not adequate for
MA 4701 Aircraft Design
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accommodating mission fuel, include a fuel tank in rear fuselage. (Fuselage fuel tank is
normally avoided for transport aircraft.)
14. HT and Fin Sizing: Select ratio of HT area with Wing area ( 0.25 to 0.3), ratio of Fin area
with Wing area ( 0.2 to 0.25), airfoil sections (symmetric), t/c ratio (10 12%) and
planform parameters , AR, of HT and Fin from statistical data of similar aircraft.
Finalise horizontal and vertical location of HT and Fin with respect to the wing. HT is
always located above the wing plane, mounted between the Fin root and the Fin tip. HT
located at Fin tip is known as T tail. Draw a preliminary 3 View drawing of Aircraft,
reflecting relative locations of Wing, HT and Fin with each other. Calculate the tail
volume coefficient and fin volume coefficient and compare the same with reference
aircraft value.
15. Engine Selection: Based on engine thrust T estimated above (Para 11) for the multiengine layout (twin or four) chosen, select an engine from off the shelf successful engines
meeting the thrust requirements (within 10 to 15%) and TSFC targeted in Para 7,
considering the technologies of 2020s. Get the engine geometry (dia and length), mass
and sea level performance data (T and TSFC) for the chosen engine. Also collect the
engine data (if available) on variation of the thrust with altitude and TSFC with altitude.
16. Complete the 3 view drawing of the aircraft by locating the engines either on the wings or
on the rear fuselage (as per the location suggested for your project) and accordingly the
main and nose landing gears. In case of fuselage mounted engines make sure to locate the
engine such that wing wake is not ingested in the engine. In case of braced wing
configuration with fuselage mounted engine, also ensure that the wake of the brace as
well as the wing is not ingested in the engine.
17. Studies on Special Topics (to be initiated in Phase 1 and continued in Phase 2): Collect
the data on the system(s) (eg.: Hydraulic System, Fuel System, Landing Gears, Flight
Control Systems, Cockpit & Avionics System, Engine Mounting Scheme etc) identified
under special studies for your group, from your reference aircraft or any other sources.
Also collect reference material for pursuing special studies (eg.: Blended Wing - Body
configuration, typical Structural Joints etc) identified for your group. For the identified
system, study the system architecture, functionalities and block diagram, major building
blocks like subsystems or components and possible system input/output and interface
with other aircraft systems. In these studies only description of one of the existing
systems adoptable to your aircraft need be addressed. Sizing studies or design
calculations are optional. In case of Blended Wing Body variant identified for a few
groups, cabin lay out studies may be initiated based on passenger seating with amenities
in a triangular planform of leading edge sweep back of 30 to 45 considering passenger
entry/emergency evacuation, and also the layout of cargo compartment below the
MA 4701 Aircraft Design
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24. Aircraft Performance: Flight envelope, Cruise, Range, Endurance, Climb, Take off/
Landing, Balance Field Length (at SL and 4000 ft) and Climb gradient for one engine
inoperative (OEI) case for multi-engine aircraft as per FAR.
25. Overall design compliance matrix - Aircraft performance and safety (FAR).
26. Trade off between Range and Pay Load leading to options of aircraft variants
27. Aircraft Stability & Control Analysis: Longitudinal and Directional analysis. Static
Margin (SM) for range of CG operations. HT setting for CL > 0 flights. Longitudinal
Controllability for forward most CG and CLmax, Elevator deflection (preferably zero) for
cruise. Directional controls for Engine failure case and cross wind landing or take off
28. Aircraft Costing: Initial look at formulation of costing of DOC, fly away cost and Life
Cycle Cost.
29. Group Presentations on Ph. 2 activities Week 10: Oct 19 & 21, 2015 (20 min)
PPT File to be submitted a day prior to the presentation.
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Range/ payload, cruise speed/ altitude, take off and landing distance/speed etc.,
Gross takeoff weight, payload, fuel, empty weight, equipment weight etc.,
Geometrical details like aircraft length, span, aspect ratio, wing/tail/fin areas,
Control surface areas (ailerons, elevators, rudder) and range of control deflections
High lift devices, Winglets, etc.
Engines, sea level thrust, TSFC, size (dia & length), weight, location etc.
A detailed list is given in Annexure 1 to this. Please note Braced Wing configuration is
futuristic one and for design project with braced wing configuration, collect statistical
data for aircraft with similar pay load, range, cruise speed and altitude.
2. FAR Part 25 Airworthiness Standards (for Transport Aircraft): Study of FAR pertaining
to Transport Category Airplanes: relevant to second segment climb gradient, balance
field length, engine failure case, climb following diversion to alternate airport etc which
are converted as design constraints in the constraint analysis to follow
3. Aircraft Mission Profile and Estimation of Mission Fuel: From the RFP prepare a specific
mission profile applicable to your aircraft and carry out mission fuel weight fraction
estimation making suitable assumptions on weight fraction for takeoff, climb, descent
and landing segments and also on aircraft L/D and engine TSFC for cruise/loiter
segments including for diversion.
4. Study of Cabin Lay out, Baggage Compartment and Cross Section of Fuselage
considering seat width, seat pitch, head room, cabin baggage compartment, storage space,
galleys, doors, emergency exits, toilets, crew seating, standard baggage container and
pallet dimensions, baggage loading and access doors etc
5. Fuselage cross section considering the interior dimension of the cabin, baggage/cargo
compartment below the floor and fuselage structure bulkhead / skin and floor structure
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6. Estimation of Aircraft Pay Load or Useful Load: Passengers & Crew; Cabin/Check-in
baggage; Cabin amenities for Passengers and Crew; Additional Passenger baggage;
Cargo (in case of Combi)
7. Overall Plan of action for the project for Phase 1 and Phase 2
8. Finalise a Project Title or Aircraft Name for your Aircraft Design Project (Optional)
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Annexure 1
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No of
Slides
1
1
1
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
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Page 25
General Guidelines
Entire Team should share the presentation equitably following suitable sequencing.
Total Time: 45 min
Presentation: 25 5min. (avoid videos)
Q & A: 15 5 min.
PPT soft copy should be sent/uploaded in NTULearn in advance, a day prior to the
presentation. 2 sets of hard copy with any update to be submitted prior to the presentation
Note: Pier Review also should be completed through NTULearn before the final
presentations
//End of Document//
MA 4701 Aircraft Design
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