AP*

Chapter 1

Chemical Foundations

Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview
Atoms vs. Molecules

Matter?
Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
Atom?
Atom: smallest part of an element that is still that element.
Molecule?

Molecule: Two or more atoms joined together and act as a unit.

Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview
Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules
How to use symbols to represent a molecule?
Use subscripts when more than one atom is in
the molecule.

Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview
A Chemical Reaction

What is a chemical reaction?

One substance changes to another by reorganizing the
way the atoms are attached to each other.

The molecule changed

Section 1.2
The Scientific Method
Science

What is science?
Science is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge.
Science is a plan of action a procedure for processing and
understanding certain types of information.
Scientist?
People who does science.
Scientists are always challenging our current beliefs about
science, asking questions, and experimenting to gain new
knowledge.
What is needed to do science?
Scientific method is needed.
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Section 1.2
The Scientific Method

What are the

Fundamental Steps of
the Scientific Method?
Process that lies at
the center of
scientific inquiry.

Section 1.2
The Scientific Method
Scientific Models
Law?
A summary of repeatable observed (measurable) behavior.
Hypothesis
A possible explanation for an observation.
Theory (Model)
Summary of a set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall
explanation of some natural phenomenon.
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Section 1.2
The Scientific Method
Example

What is your
hypothesis?
How to prove your
hypothesis?

The Statue of Liberty

Section 1.3
Units of Measurement
Nature of Measurement
Measurement
How do you express a quantitative measurement?
Quantitative observation consisting of two parts.

number

scale (unit)

Examples?

20 grams

6.626075510-34 joulesecond Planck constant
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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement
The Fundamental SI Units (International System of
Units)
Physical Quantity
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
Electric current
Amount of substance
Luminous intensity
Energy

Name of Unit
kilogram
meter
second
kelvin
ampere

Abbreviation
kg
m
s
K
A

mole
Candela
Joule

mol
Cd
J
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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement
Prefixes Used in the SI System
Prefixes are used for what?
to change the size of the unit.

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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement
Prefixes Used in the SI System

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Section 1.3
Units of Measurement
What is mass? What is weight? Are they the same?
Mass Weight

Mass is a measure of the resistance of an object to a
change in its state of motion.

F=ma Newtons 2nd Law

Mass does not vary in classical mechanics.

Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object.

Weight varies with the strength of the gravitational field.
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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement

What is uncertainty?
A digit that must be estimated in a measurement is
called uncertainty.
Does a measurement always have some degree of
uncertainty?
Yes, it is dependent on the precision of the measuring
device.
How do you record a data?
Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit
(the estimated number).
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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement
Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

The volume is read at the bottom of the
liquid curve (meniscus).

Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about
20.15 mL.

Certain digits: 20.15

Uncertain digit: 20.15

Certain digits: 19.75

Uncertain digit: 19.75
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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement
What is Accuracy? What is Precision?
Accuracy

Agreement of a measured value with the true value.

Precision

Degree of agreement among several measurements

of the same quantity.

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Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement
Precision and Accuracy of Shooting

Identify the accuracy and precision among the three

diagram?
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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations

What are Significant Figures?

All the meaningful digits of a number that are used to
express a quantity to a certain degree of accuracy.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.

3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
2. There are three classes of zeros.
a. Leading zeros, zeros that precede all the nonzero digits.
Leading zeros do not count as significant figures.

0.048 has 2 sig figs.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
b. Captive zeros, zeros between nonzero digits.
These always count as significant figures.

16.07 has 4 sig figs.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
c. Trailing zeros, zeros at the right end of the number.
They are significant only if the number contains a
decimal point.

9.300 has 4 sig figs.

150 has 2 sig figs.

150. has 3 sig figs.

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
3. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant
figures.

1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly.

9 pencils (confirmed by a number of counting).

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Exponential Notation

Example
Using exponential notation to express 0.000300

300. written as 3.00 10-4

Contains three significant figures.

What are the advantages?

Number of significant figures can be easily indicated.

Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very
small number.
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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
1. For multiplication or division?
the number of significant figures in the result is the same as
the number in the least precise measurement (with the
least significant figure) used in the calculation.
1.342 5.5 = 7.381  7.4

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
2. For addition or subtraction?
the result has the same number of decimal places as the
least precise measurement used in the calculation.
23.445
+
7.83
31.275

Corrected
31.28

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

3. Logarithms?

follow the X and , + and log16.000=log(1.6000x101)=log(1.6000) + log101
=0.20401+1(an exact integer)=1.20401
Log2.000x109=log2.000+log109=0.3010+9 (an exact
integer)=9.3010

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Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
CONCEPT CHECK!
You have water in each graduated
cylinder shown. You then add both
samples to a beaker (assume that
all of the liquid is transferred).
How would you write the number
describing the total volume?
2.9 mL+0.28 mL=3.18 ->3.2 mL



What limits the acuracy of the total
volume?
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