Edited by Foxit Reader

Copyright(C) by Foxit Corporation,2005-2009

For Evaluation Only.

ACCIDENT CAUSES
Accidents at sea rarely have just one cause. Here you can find out how individual
elements can add up to a disaster. Heavy weather can overwhelm a ship. Human error,
such as poor maintenance of the vessel, can threaten safety. Engine breakdown and
other forms of mechanical failure can lead to loss of control. Cargoes can cause
problems; some coal will spontaneously combust or set light to itself for instance and
hostile acts, from war to piracy, are still a threat to shipping and crew.
Weather
Bad weather is a constant hazard at sea. Ships are built to withstand it, and sailors know
to expect it, especially in winter. The reason that shipping forecasts are broadcast on the
radio is to warn seafarers what conditions they might expect.
Freak storms
Just occasionally, there are freak storms that exceed all expectations for a particular part
of the world at a given season. These could cause havoc, especially in the days when
ships were built of wood and relied on sails. Even in modern times, the unexpected can
happen. In the 1970s, a large, well-built ship called the Benledi was hit by such an
enormous wave in the South Atlantic that it actually bent her hull. There is nothing
those on board can do to prevent such acts of nature, which over the years have
contributed to many ships being lost.
Ice
Ice is also a hazard - the most famous case being what happened when the Titanic hit an
iceberg, but ice can cause other problems. Floating ice that has been driven together into
a single mass is called `pack ice` and ships trapped in it can be crushed. Ice forming on
the upper parts of a ship can become so heavy that the ship capsizes - the fate of some
fishing vessels working in the Arctic.
These are extreme examples. Weather is usually just one of the causes of an accident.
For instance, if a ship`s engines break down completely, it could be blown ashore and
wrecked. Fog can suddenly descend so that those navigating the ship do not know
exactly where they are, and may be in danger of running ashore or colliding with
another ship.
Human error
Some might argue that most accidents at sea are due to human error of some sort. The
captain of the Titanic should have slowed down when he knew there was ice about. The
Herald of Free Enterprise should not have left its berth with its bow door still open.
Navigational errors
A common human error is not knowing exactly where the ship is. This was a particular
problem in the days before electronic aids, such as radar and satellite navigation.
Finding the exact position of a ship could be done only if the sun or stars could be seen
for long enough to measure their angle above the horizon. With this information, and
knowing the exact time, the ship`s position could be found. If the weather was bad, the
navigators had to rely on `dead reckoning` to find their position, sometimes for days on
end. They knew the course from their compass, but had to estimate their speed and
allow for any currents that would cause them to drift off course. This was just not

precise enough when the shore was close. Many ships have been wrecked because their
navigators thought they were well away from land.
Radar and other electronic aids such as satellite navigation systems have made this sort
of error less likely. However, accidents still occur if the equipment is not used correctly.
For instance, errors can be made in taking readings or positions may not be correctly
marked on charts. Too much reliance on electronics can also be a problem. If the
equipment is poorly maintained and fails, navigators can get lost if they cannot fall back
on older skills.
Poor Stowage of Cargo
In rough weather, the ship`s stability is critical. If the cargo moves, it can make the ship
heel over, becoming difficult or impossible to steer and even causing it to capsize.
Modern vehicle ferries are also vulnerable to such problems. If a vehicle on a ferry
begins moving in rough weather, it can do enormous damage to other vehicles and to
the ship itself. On occasion, rogue vehicles have gone right through the side of ferries. It
is usually the responsibility of the ship`s officers to ensure the cargo is stowed carefully
and is fully secured. For instance, with a loose cargo like grain that can easily shift
when the ship rolls, boards are put in the hold to limit its movement. If rough weather is
anticipated on a ferry crossing, vehicles must be fastened down with chains to prevent
them moving.
It may be beyond the crew`s ability or knowledge to prevent things going wrong with
the cargo. Timber is a light cargo that is often carried on the decks of ships. If a lot of
water washes over one side of a ship in rough weather, the timber stored on that side
can become waterlogged. As a result, the ship may heel over that way.
When the oil is pumped out of a tanker, it can leave explosive gases behind. A spark
from something as innocent as dropping a spanner into a tank can cause a massive
explosion. Fortunately, lessons have been learnt from this and precautions are now
taken to ensure tanks are free from gas before they are opened.
Poor Maintenance
The job of the ship`s engineers is to ensure all machinery on board works properly. This
includes not just the main engines but also equipment such as the generators that
provide electricity and the windlasses on deck that are used to moor a ship. Poor
maintenance resulting in a breakdown during critical conditions is a very common cause
of accidents. For instance, in a gale at sea a ship might only be safe if it keeps its bows
pointing into the wind. In this situation, an engine stopping could allow the ship to be
rolled over by the wind and waves.
Fires
Fire can result from poor maintenance. For instance, a pipe carrying fuel may be so
corroded that the oil spills and catches fire. If soot is allowed to build up in an exhaust
pipe, it might catch fire. Fire can often be a result of unsafe practices. Ships have been
burned out in port because a spark from a welder`s torch set fire to flammable material,
such as life jackets.

Sometimes a ship`s cargo could cause a fire. For instance, coal could catch fire
spontaneously under certain conditions. Putting out the fire means pumping in sea
water, which risks sinking the ship.
The hulls of iron and steel ships could not burn, but their engines, boilers and fuel
introduced other possible causes of fire. Tankers are very vulnerable to fire, especially
when they are loading and unloading. Very strict precautions have to be taken.
Mechanical Failures
However well the ship is maintained, failures of equipment can still occur.
Engine breakdowns
Probably the most common cause of accidents to ships today is a failure of their
machinery. There can be a wide variety of causes including water in the fuel, a bearing
running hot or a fuel pump failing. If this sort of problem happened in a car, it would
just stop by the side of the road. However, engine breakdown can make a ship very
vulnerable during storms or being blown ashore.
Sails, masts and rigging
Big sailing ships had very tall masts and huge areas of sail, all held up by miles of
rigging. If the wind suddenly changed its direction or increased in force before the crew
could reduce the sail area, the whole lot could come crashing down. This was known as
`dismasting`. Dismasting was a serious matter. The mass of rigging and sails would
drag in the water and make it difficult to steer the ship, so it had to be cut away as
quickly as possible. The ship obviously relied on its sails to drive it along so, to make it
to port, the crew had to use what sails and masts were left. A ship in this state was
known as a `jury rigged`.
Hull problems
The hull of a ship needs regular surveys and maintenance if it is to retain its strength.
This is especially so as the hull gets older. The plates of a ship`s hull are vulnerable to
corrosion, which could make them so thin that they no longer have the strength to resist
the force of the sea. Equally important are the frames on which the plates are fastened.
If they are corroded or not firmly welded together, the hull may not have the strength to
survive a major storm.
Navigational equipment
Today`s seafarer relies heavily on electronic aids to navigation, including radar and
satellite navigation systems. These are far more reliable than the old methods of
navigation. These involved using a sextant to measure the angle of the sun or stars and a
chronometer to fix a ship`s position. However, like any equipment, electronic aids can
go wrong. If the navigators cannot then fall back on old methods, the ship may be in
danger if its position is uncertain, especially in bad weather.
Hostile Acts
Wars, acts of terrorism and piracy can lead to ships being deliberately sunk.

Edited by Foxit Reader

Copyright(C) by Foxit Corporation,2005-2009
For Evaluation Only.

War
In wartime, ships of an enemy are prime targets of hostile action. This may be to stop
them taking supplies of men or equipment to a war zone. Equally, it can be to try to
stop an enemy nation waging war by cutting off its supplies of raw materials or food.
Ships are also vulnerable when ports are bombed, as happened at London, Liverpool,
Southampton and many other ports during the Second World War (1939-45).
Terrorism
Terrorists have recognised that merchant ships are vulnerable targets. Passengers on
cruise liners, such as the Achille Lauro, have been held hostage by terrorists. Bombs
have been set off aboard British-owned cargo ships in Northern Ireland.
Piracy
Mention of pirates makes you think about sailing ships flying the skull and crossbones.
However, piracy still continues to be a very serious problem for the shipping industry.
This is particularly true in South East Asia, where ships are regularly captured by armed
bands who take them into little-known ports to steal the cargo. Even more widespread is
the practice where armed robbers come aboard in a port to steal money and possessions
from the crew.
It is clear that the sea is a dangerous environment, where many things can go wrong for
a ship. It is therefore very important that crews are well trained and ships well built and
maintained. Quick thinking and careful handling of a ship can prevent a serious incident
from becoming an accident.
(Port Cities Organization Southhampton UK)

1. Liste as principais causas de acidentes no mar.

2. Que instrumento citado no texto para prevenir pessoal de bordo acerca das
condies climticas?
3. Que consequncias o tempo ruim trouxe ao Benledi em 1970?
4. Como gelo pode comprometer as estabilidade do navio?
5. Que erro humano foi citado no Herald of Free Enterprise?
6. Como a tecnologia reduziu o risco em se usar dead reckoning na navegao.
7. Que forma citada para se reduzir o risco de cargo shift ao se transportar
carga em granel?
8. Como uma falha na propulso pode comprometer a segurana do navio sob mau
tempo?
9. O que dismasting?
10. De acordo com o texto, que medidas podem ser tomadas para se reduzir os
riscos a bordo?
1 - Weather, ice, human error, poor stowag of cargo, poor maintenance, fire, mechanical failures, navigation equipment, hostile acts.
2 - Radio.
3 - A freak storm bent her hull.
4 - Ships trapped in "pack ice" can be crushed.
5 - The Herald of Free Enterprise should not have left its berth with its bow door still open.
6 - Radar and other electronic aids such as satellite navigation systems have made this sort of error less likely.
7 - For instance, with a loose cargo like grain that can easily shift when the ship rolls, boards are put in the hold to limit its movement.
8 - Engine stopping could allow the ship to be rolled over by the wind and waves.
9 - If the wind suddenly changed its direction or increased in force before the crew could reduce the sail area, the whole lot could
come crashing down.
10 - It is therefore very important that crews are well trained and ships well built and maintained.