8 Imposed deformation: Practical applications

8.1 Mechanics of composite structures1

8.1.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapters, structures are often split into elements or layers, having different
properties. Fig. 8.1 shows a typical example. The example concerns a wall monolithically
connected to a rigid base slab. The base slab is below ground level and has a more or less
constant temperature. The wall rises up to above ground level and is, therefore, subjected to
temperature variations and drying. A temperature drop causes shortening of the wall. The
shortening is restrained at the construction joint with the base slab. The structure is schematised
as a system consisting of two layers: the wall and the slab. For such systems, the mechanics of
composite structures applies when it comes to the quantification of the cross-sectional forces,
stresses and the risk of cracking.

Fig. 8.1

Cooling of a wall (hardened concrete), monolithically connected to a foundation

slab

Very often, the individual layers have different properties. This is the case, for example, in the
early stage of a wall cast on a rigid foundation (Chapter 7). In the latter case, the E-modulus of
the cooling wall is, for example, 20000 MPa, whereas the E-modulus of the slab is 35000 MPa.
In this chapter, problems of imposed deformations are solved using the mechanics of composite
structures. Many of these problems are the same as the ones from a set of standard cases,
namely:

young to old
thin to thick
cold to warm
dry to wet
inside outside

In the following sections, the expressions given are needed for the calculation of stresses in
composite structures subjected to imposed deformations.
1

) The term Composite structure refers to (concrete) structures that consist of rigidly connected
elements having different properties. The term composite refers to the macro-level. The term composite
is used for materials made from different constituents too, in which case it refers to the micro- or meso
level.

8.1.2 Cross sectional properties

E1 A1

E2 A2

2
Zs
1

Zi

E3 A3

Axial stiffness of one single layer i

Ki = EiAi

(8.1)

Axial stiffness of a system consisting of n layers

n

(EA )s = Ei Ai

(8.2)

i =1

Position of the elastic centre of gravity of a composite structure

n

z .E A
i

zs =

i =1

(8.3)

(EA )s

Distance of the centre of gravity of an individual layer to that of the composite structure
ai = zs - zi

(8.4)

Flexural stiffness of an individual layer i

Si = EiIi

(8.5)

Flexural stiffness of a system consisting of n layers

n

i =1

i =1

(EI)s = E i I i + (z i z s ) 2 . E i A i

(8.6)

8.1.3 Response under external loading

External axial force in the elastic centre of gravity of a composite cross section:

N0

Ei , Ai

Flexural moment on composite cross section:

1

M0

h
ai

Force in individual layer:

Ni = N 0

Ei Ai
( EA) s

(8.7)

Curvature of composite structure:

s =

| 1 | + 2
= Mo
h
(EI )s

(8.8)

Strain and axial force in individual layer i :

Mo
(EI )s

Strain:

i = a i . s = a i .

Normal force:

Ni = i . Ei . Ai = M o .

(8.9)

a i . ( Ei Ai )
(EI )s

(8.10)

Curvature and flexural moment in individual layer i :

Curvature

i = Mi = M o
(E i I i) (EI) s

Bending moment

Mi = M o .

(EI )i
(EI )s

(8.11)

(8.12)

8.1.4 Response under internal forces

Assume a system built up of different layers. One of these layers experiences a change of
temperature (Fig. 8.2a). For the determination of the stresses in the cross-section, the standard
procedure explained in section 4.2.4 is used.

First, the layer of which the temperature changes, is assumed to be able to deform freely.
The shortening of the layer, element k, is k. We then apply an axial force N* that
eliminates the temperature-induced deformation (Fig. 8.2b). The force is:
N* = k . (EkAk)

(8.13a)

After application of this force, the layers are again connected to each other.

The force N* is now applied to the composite cross-section, but with the reverse sign (Fig.
8.2c).

By moving the force N* to the elastic centre of gravity and by inserting a compensating
moment M* we obtain (Fig. 8d):
M* = N * . e

(8.13b)

Forces and moments in all layers can now be determined. In formula (8.13b) e is the
distance of the axis along which the force N* works to the centre of gravity of the
composite cross-section.
For the forces in the different layers, the following expressions hold:
k
1

redured by

N*

N*
N*

N*

Fig. 8.2

M*

Calculation procedure in case of a temperature drop of one single layer

Axial force in arbitrary layer i :

Due to force N* (formula (8.7)):

Ni =

Ei Ai . *
N
(EA )s

(8.14)

Due to moment M* (formula (8.10)):

*

Ni =

M . (EA .
)i a i
(EI )s

(8.15)

Bending moment in layer i

From formula (8.12):
* E i Ii
Mi = M .
(EI )s

(8.16)

Axial force in layer k (directly loaded, Fig. 8.2a,b):

*
Nk = N -

(EA )k
(EA )k *
. ak
. N + M* .
(EI )s
(EA )s

(8.17)

Bending moment in layer k (directly loaded, Fig. 8.2a,b)

From formula (8.16):
*

Mk =

M .
E k Ik
(EI )s

(8.18)

8.2 Calculating with composite cross sections - examples

8.2.1 Long wall, monolithically connected to a foundation slab
a. Stress distribution shortly after cooling of the wall
To illustrate the foregoing, a case of a long wall monolithically connected to a rigid base slab is
considered. The height of the wall is 8,0 m and wall thickness is 1,0 m. The width of the base
slab is 6,0 m and the thickness is 2,0 m. (Fig. 8.3). This situation is a typical stage in the cooling
process of a hardening concrete wall cast on a rigid slab. In chapter 7, we have considered this
case in more detail. In the following, a more general, less sophisticated calculation procedure is
shown. In this procedure, many non-linearities that play in role in the stress development in
hardening concrete are not accounted for. As a consequence, predicted stresses are less accurate.
The procedure, however, has the charm of its simplicity.

 ( T)

N*

23.5
2

M*

Fig. 8.3

N*

(dimensions in m)

Wall, cast on a rigid base slab.

First, the situation shortly after casting of the wall is considered. In that stage, the temperature of
the wall increases because of the liberation of the heat of hydration. The strength and the
stiffness of the concrete increase. After some time, the tensile strength and the E-modulus have
increased substantially and the wall starts to cool down. The wall is in axial direction restrained
by the base slab and, as a result, tensile stresses develop in the wall. In order to calculate stresses
in the concrete, some simplifications are required.
The E-modulus of the hardened slab is assumed to be 30,000 N/mm2. Furthermore, it is
assumed that one week after casting of the wall, the Ec of its concrete is 20000 N/mm2 and its
mean tensile strength is 2,0 N/mm2. The temperature drop due to cooling of the wall is
estimated at 20C.
For the structure, the following quantities hold:
Axial stiffness
Wall
:
Base slab :

(EcA)1 = 20000 8 = 0,16 106 MN

(EcA)2 = 30000 12 = 0,36 106 MN

Flexural stiffness
Wall
:
(EcI)1 = (1/12) 1 83 20000 = 0,85 106 MNm2
Base slab :
(EcI)2 = (1/12) 6 23 30000 = 0,12 106 MNm2
Position of the centre of gravity, measured from the bottom side of the slab (formule (8.3)):
z = (6 8 20000 + 1 12 30000)/((0,16 + 0,36) 106) = 2,53 m
(EI)s = (0,85 + 0,12 + 3,472 0,16 + 1,532 0,36) 106 = 3,74 MNm2
Assume that the wall is not connected to the base slab. The wall then shortens due to a
temperature-induced shrinkage strain (T) = T c = 20 10-5 = 0,2 mm/m. To restore its
original length, a force is required (compare Fig. 8.2b):
N* = 0,2 10-3 20000 8,0 1,0 = 32 MN
Now, the wall is again connected to the foundation slab. The force N* is applied to the
composite structure at the same height, but with a reverse sign. In order to simplify the

calculation, this force is replaced by a combination of a force N* in the centre of gravity of the
composite structure and a flexural moment (Fig. 8.2c):
M* = 32 (6,0 2,53) = 111 MNm
It is assumed that bending of the wall is not prevented.
With the expressions (8.14) to (8.18) the following stresses in the wall and base slab are found:
Wall Base slab -

bottom : wo = + 3,10 N/mm2

bottom : fo = + 0,40 N/mm2

top : wb = - 1,65 N/mm2;

top : fb = - 1,38 N/mm2;

The stress diagram is in Fig. 8.4.

N/mm2

5.22

2.78

-1.65 N/mm

-1.38

+0.40

Fig. 8.4

0.45

1.55

+3.1

Distribution of stresses over the height of the wall

The diagram is easily checked by multiplication of the areas of the stress diagram with the
width of the corresponding element in the structure. The sum of the internal forces should then
be zero.
b. Determination of the crack width Short term
Because the mean tensile strength of the wall in this stage of hardening was assumed to be
2,0 N/mm2, it is clear that cracking occurs at the bottom part of the wall. For reasons of
simplicity, it is assumed that cracking occurs over the full height of the tensile zone, i.e. over a
height of 5,22 m; see Fig. 8.4. Now, the questions are how the crack pattern looks like and at
what spacing cracks appear. Fig. 8.5 shows the crack pattern in an indicative way. If a crack
forms over the assumed height, the concrete immediately adjacent to the crack relaxes. The next
crack, having the same length as the previous crack, occurs only if the tensile stresses are
present again at some distance from the first crack. Assuming that the stresses spread into the
wall under an angle of about 45, each next crack has the same length and occurs at a distance
of about 5,22 m from the previous crack. Between those cracks, new cracks can occur which are
shorter in length. In Fig. 8.5, it is indicated how the crack pattern can be constructed.

Fig. 8.5

8
2

5.22 m
45

Crack pattern from the stress diagram from Fig. 8.4.

Although the calculated tensile stresses in the wall are the highest directly above the
construction joint between wall and slab, the highest crack width occurs a little higher in the
wall. This is because the stiff base slab has a crack width reducing and a crack distributing
effect (as if it were a stiff reinforcing bar). Let us assume that the largest crack width occurs half
way the length of the crack. If we assume that the shrinkage strain at that position in the wall
manifests itself as a crack, the mean crack width is:

c
w m = =l
2

wo
=l
2 Ec

3,1
5220

= 0, 40 mm
2 20000

where l is the crack spacing. If no measures to prevent cracking (like cooling or isolating) are
taken, reinforcing steel has to be used to control the crack width.
For the case considered, it is assumed that the curvature (bending) of the structure is not
restrained. For the stress diagram of Fig. 8.4, the curvature is:
*
111
= M =
= 30 10-6 m -1
6
(EI) s 3, 74 10

For a length of the structure of 40 m, this results in a deflection at the middle of the wall relative
to the ends of the wall of 5 mm. In a relatively soft soil, this does not result in high bending
moments in the structure.
In the case of very stiff soil, or a rigid foundation slab or a slab founded on piles, the situation in
terms of risk of cracking becomes more severe. This is since in those cases, the wall cannot
bend and, as a result, the tensile stresses have the same magnitude over the full height of the
wall. Cracks, once they occur, then develop over the full height of the wall. If bending is fully
restrained, these major cracks develop at a mutual distance of 1,0 to 1,5 times the height of the
wall. In Fig. 8.6, a crack pattern is shown where the crack spacing of the major cracks is 1,5 h.
For a height of the wall of 8,0 m and a temperature-induced deformation of 0,2 mm/m, the crack
width wm = 1,5 8 0,2 = 2,4 mm if no reinforcement for crack width control is used.

1.5 h

h
.5
1 :1

Fig. 8.6

Crack pattern in a wall in case of fully restrained bending

c. Effect of creep on long-term behaviour

The same wall is now assumed to experience both temperature-induced shrinkage and drying
shrinkage. The shrinkage strains are generated very slowly and the corresponding stresses are,
therefore, subjected to relaxation. For the calculation of the stresses, we start from a temperature
differential between wall and slab of 20C and a difference in shrinkage of 0,2010-3. In a wall
free to deform, this results in a difference in strain between wall and slab of:
= T c + shr = 20 10-5 + 0,20 10-3 = 0,40 10-3 m/m
The effect of relaxation on the magnitude of the stresses is approximated by using a reduced
modulus of elasticity. The reduced modulus of elasticity is calculated as a function of the creep
coefficient. For the wall a creep coefficient = 3,1 is adopted; for the slab it is = 1,9. At a
short-term modulus of elasticity of the concrete of 30000 N/mm2, the long-term moduli can be
calculated:
wall
foundation slab

:
:

Ec, = Eco/(1 + ) = 30,000 / (1 + 0,8 3,1) = 8620 N/mm2

Ec, = Eco/(1 + ) = 30,000 / (1 + 0,8 1,9) = 11900 N/mm2

For the long-term tensile strength of the concrete, it holds (see section 4.3.6.2):
fct, = 0,7 (1 + 0,05 fccm)
where 0,7 is a long-term factor. For an estimated value of the compressive strength at later ages
of fccm = 40 N/mm2, we obtain fct, = 2,1 N/mm2.
In the same way as in the previous sections, the stiffness of the wall and slab, including creep
effects, are calculated:
Axial stiffness
wall
base slab
composite structure

: (EA)1 = 8620 8,0 = 0,069 106 MN

: (EA)2 = 11900 12,0 = 0,144 106 MN
: (EA)s = (0,069 + 0,144) 106 = 0,213 106 MN

Bending stiffness
wall
base slab

: (EI)1 = (1/12) 1,0 8,03 8620 = 0,368 106 MNm2

: (EI)2 = (1/12) 1,0 2,03 11900 = 0,048 106 MNm2

1
N*=27.6 MN

2.61 m

M* =N* x e

Fig. 8.7

N*= -27.6 MN

Forces N* and M* on the composite structure

The position of the centre of gravity from the bottom side of the base slab is (Fig. 8.7):
z = (6,0 8,0 8620 + 1,0 12,0 12000) / ( (0,069 + 0,144) 106 ) = 2,61 m
For the bending moment on the composite structure is follows:
(EI)s = (0,368 + 0,048 + 3,392 0,069 + 1,612 0,144) 106 = 1,58 MNm2
The same calculation procedure as presented under a) is now followed. Starting point for the
calculation are the forces N* and M* (see also Fig. 8.7):
N* = Ec A1 = 0,40 10-3 8620 8,0 = 27,6 MN
M* = N* (2,0 + 8,0/2 - z) = 27,4 (6,0 2,61) = 27,4 3,39 = 93,6 MNm
For the stresses in critical points of the cross-section, it is found:
1.

Due to the axial tensile force in the wall:

wb = wo = N* / A1 = 27,6 106 / 8,0 103 103 = +3,45 N/mm2

2.

Due to N* on the composite cross section (formula (8.14)):

wall

(EA)1 *
0, 069 106
27, 6 = - 8,9 MN
.N =N1 =
(EA) s
0, 213 106
wb = wo = N1 / A1 = - 8,9 10-6 / ( 8,0 10-3 10-3 ) = -1,1 N/mm2

base slab

N2 = N* - N1 = - 27,6 - (- 8,9) = - 18,7 MN

fb = fo = N2 / A2 = - 18,7 106 / ( 12,0 106) = -1,56 N/mm2

3.

Due to M* on the composite structure (formula (8.15)):

wall

N1 =

(EA)1 *
0, 069
93, 6 3,39 = 13,86 MN
. M . a1 =
(EI) s
1,58

wb = wo = - 13,86 106 / (8 103 103) = - 1,73 N/mm2

10

N2 =

base slab

(EA) 2 *
0,144
93, 6 1, 61 = 13, 73 MN
M a2 =
(EI) s
1,58

fb = fo = + 13,73 106 / (2 6 106) = + 1,14 N/mm2

4.

Stresses due to moment M per layer (formula (8.16)):

wall

93, 6
* E1I1
0,368 = 21,8 MNm
=
M1 = M .
(EI) s 1,58
wb = -

1
6

21,8
= - 2, 04 N/mm 2
2
1, 0 8, 0

wo = - wb = + 2,04 N/mm2

base slab

0, 048
* E 2I 2
= 93, 6
= 2,84 MNm
Mf = M .
(EI) s
1,58
fb = -

1
6

2,84
= - 0, 71 N/mm 2
6, 0 2, 02

fo = - fb = + 0,71 N/mm2
The resulting stress distribution is in Fig. 8.8. A comparison of Fig. 8.8 with Fig. 8.4 shows that
the first case (linear elastic, no creep) is dominant. If the structure is to remain uncracked after
casting, for example by artificial cooling of the concrete, the

11

N/mm2

5.19

2.81

- 1.42 N/mm

+0.31

Fig. 8.8

0.44

1.56

-1.11
+2.64

Distribution of stresses over the height of the structure from a temperature drop
and drying shrinkage of the wall. Stresses include the effect of relaxation.

8.2.2 Hollow core slab with compressive top layer

We assume a hollow core slab with a compressive top layer as shown in Fig. 8.9. The slab has
an E-modulus of 40000 N/mm2, whereas the top layer has an E-modulus of 3000 N/mm2. The
shrinkage differential between the hollow core slab and the compressive layer is estimated at
shr = 20 10-5. For both elements, a creep factor of = 2,5 is adopted. For this composite
system, the stresses in the top layer are to be determined.

50

For the determination of the stresses, we start by disconnecting the slab from the top layer.
Because of shrinkage of the top layer, a difference in length of the two elements occurs. This
has to be eliminated by introducing a tensile force N1 (Fig. 8.10a). Then, the top layer is
connected again to the slab (Fig. 8.10b). The force N1, indicated with a dashed line in Fig.
8.10b, is now replaced by a force No = N1 and a moment Mo = N1 a, acting in the centre of
gravity of the composite structure.

compression layer

200

Ac = 165800 mm 2
Ic = 1427 . 106 mm 4
1200 mm

Fig. 8.9

Hollow core slab with compressive top layer

12

A1

0 = N1 /A1

N1

N1
M0

N0 =|N1 |

a. Disconnecting compressive layer

Fig. 8.10

b. Forces on composite structure

Procedure for determining stresses in a hollow core slab with top layer

In this example, we have a system in which the stresses develop slowly. Stresses are, therefore,
subjected to relaxation. For calculating the stresses, a reduced modulus of elasticity is used:

Ec " =

Eco
1 +

For the compressive top layer we get:

E c1" =

30000
= 10000 N/mm 2
1 + 0,8 2,5

and for the hollow core slab:

E c2" =

40, 000
= 13333 N/mm 2
1 + 0,8 2,5

For the tensile force N1 it holds:

''
N1 = r E c1
A1 = 20 10-5 10000 (50 1200) = 120 103 N

Directly after stretching the top layer we get (Fig. 8.10a):

o = N1 / A1 = 120 103 / (50 1200) = 2,0 N/mm2
For the moment Mo it holds:
Mo = N1 a = 120 0,096 = 11,5 kNm
While ignoring the intermediate steps, the result obtained is in Fig. 8.11. The maximum tensile
stress in the top layer is 1,0 N/mm2. At the bottom side of the hollow core slab, a tensile stress
of 0,6 N/mm2 occurs.

13

+2,0
= +0.20

Force N1, required to bring the shortened

top layer back to its original length

N1 = 120 kN

= -0.46

Force No = N1 applied in opposite direction in the

centre of gravity of the composite structure

a
N0 =|N1 |
= -0.64
-0.84
-0.49
-0.66

Moment Mo = No a on the composite structure

M0 = 11.5 kNm

+1.20

Resulting stress diagram

+0.70
-1.30
+0.10

+1,05

+0.60

Fig. 8.11

Steps for calculating stresses in a composite structure

8.2.3 Thermal stresses in a chimney

In chimneys, hot smoke discharged can heat up the inside of the chimney shaft. Consider a
segment of a cylindrical wall, heated from the inside. Due to inside heating, the segment has a
temperature differential between inside and outside of the wall. The segment would like to bend
as shown in Fig. 8.12a. Since bending is restrained due to the cylindrical shape of the wall, a
moment Mo occurs which fully eliminates the curvature caused by the temperature differential.
This moment causes tensile stresses at the outside part of the wall, possibly leading to vertical
and horizontal cracks. Fig. 8.12b shows an example of vertical cracks. This example dates back
to the seventies of the last century. The installed reinforcing steel was plain steel and appeared
to be not sufficient to control crack widths properly: the reinforcing steel was beyond the yield
stress.

14

M0
M0

M0

a. Bending of segments at inside heating

(only bending of the segments is shown)

Fig. 8.12

b. Cracking of factory chimney [2]

Deformational behaviour of horizontal segments of a chimney at heating from the

inside (a) and corresponding crack pattern (b).

In case the wall is composed of several layers, the calculation scheme from Fig. 8.12 must be
extended, see Fig. 8.13. Suppose that the chimney wall consists of: 1 = steel outer liner, 2 =
insulation, 3 = fire proof brick. During warming up of the wall, the temperature distribution is
non-linear. When ignoring the eigen temperatures, the temperature profile can be split up in a
part that leads to extension of the wall (TN) and a part that results in bending (TM) (Fig. 8.13). If
TN and TM are restrained, (fully or partly), stresses occur.
T1

TN

TM
h1

1
2

~
=

h2

h3

T0

Fig. 8.13

Temperature distribution and splitting up in components

For each of the profiles (TN and TM), corresponding stresses can be calculated. For that purpose,
the layers are first disconnected, so that they can deform freely (Fig. 8.14a). Subsequently,
forces Ni and moments Mi eliminate the deformations. It holds:
Ni = i TNi EiAi
Mi = i EiIi
where:

i =

Tmi i
hi

15

N1
M1

N1

+
N2

M2
N3

M1
M2

N3

M3

a. Free deformation of individual layers

N2

M3

b. Eliminating deformations of individual layers

M1 +M2 +M3 +N i.a i

N1 +N2 +N3

c. Forces in composite structure

Fig. 8.14

Calculation procedure for internal forces due to a temperature differential over the
wall thickness.

The resulting axial force is applied as a tensile force in the elastic centre of gravity of the
composite structure (Fig. 8.14c). Furthermore, a resulting bending moment
Mo = Mi + Ni ai
is applied, where ai is the distance from the centre of gravity of an individual layer i to the
centre of gravity of the composite structure. Then, the cross-sectional forces and the
corresponding stresses are determined, which are added to the stresses (per layer) found earlier.
Fig. 8.15 shows a chimney in which the tensile stresses should be smaller than 2 N/mm2 (or
2 MN/m2). Fig. 8.15a shows how the wall is constructed and gives a global indication of the
temperature and stress distribution. In Fig. 8.15b, the heating curves for the wall are given. Fig.
8.15c shows the calculated development of the tensile stresses as a function of time.

16

T (C)
180
150
1

100
maximum heating rate

50
0
0

10

12
t (h)

b. Temperature distribution in a chimney as a function of time

ct (MN/m 2)
foam glass

T
fire resistand stones

a. Side view and cross-section

1.6

1
0
0
0

Fig. 8.15

allowable stress = 2.0

2.2

12

ct

3.0

10

12
t (h)

c. Maximum stresses ct in chimney shaft .

Development of tensile stresses in a chimney wall as a function of time. The rate of

heating of the wall is the parameter varied [2].

Heating curve 2 results in maximum tensile stresses of 2,2 N/mm2 and does not meet the
requirements. Heating curve 3 results in maximum tensile stresses of 1,6 N/mm2 and does meet
the requirements. In order to avoid cracking, the heating rate should, therefore, be limited. This,
however, does introduce a risk. Recently, chimneys are provided with a system to remove SO2
from the gasses. As a consequence of this, the temperature control is less efficient and the
temperature can increase rapidly. In Fig. 8.15b, this is indicated with temperature curve 1. The
temperature can increase up to 180C in 5 minutes. The maximum tensile stress in the chimney
wall then is 3,0 N/mm2. At this stress, cracking is very likely to occur. For that reason, it is
important to provide a concrete chimney with hoop reinforcement. In a chimney constructed
from brick, an outer steel liner or steel rings can be used.

8.2.4 Cracking in a prestressed concrete bridge due to

temperature effects
In the wall of a prestressed concrete box girder bridge (spans 32,3 m and 23,0 m, see Fig. 8.16)
a 17 m long crack was observed in September 1964. Over a long section of the crack, the crack
width was 5-6 mm (Fig. 8.17) [3]. The bridge was designed such that the shear stresses in the
walls would be below the shear stress capacity of the concrete (in EN 1992-1-1- notation: below
the vRd,c capacity). As a result, only minimum shear reinforcement was required: stirrups 12250 (sw = 0,12%) were applied. According to the calculations, no cracks were expected under
the external loading. The question was, therefore, which load had caused cracking.

17

23.00 m

32.20 m

cracked area

a. Side view of the box girder bridge

9.00 m
6.00

1.50
50 mm asphalt
50 mm concrete
10 mm sealing

510/m

2.510/m

damaged body
verticale shear reinforcement
in crack area, stirrups
4 12/m,FeB 240

510/m

0.14

prestress cable

0.28
0.60

0.11

1.50

2.00

0.75

0.75

1.00

1.00

0.75

0.75

2.00

b. Cross section of the box girder

Fig. 8.16

Side view and cross-section of the Jagstbrcke in Untergriesheim [3].

Fig. 8.17

Crack pattern in box girder bridge (side view).

70C
50 mm asphalt
50 mm concrete
10 mm sealing
220 mm reinforced
concrete

37C

Fig. 8.18

Temperature distribution in the bridge deck due to solar radiation

At the time the crack formed (in September), it was an exceptionally bright day. In the shadow,
the temperature raised up to 28C, while at night it was below zero at ground level. Due to the
intensive solar radiation, the temperature of the deck (dark asphalt) could reach 70C. The
corresponding temperature profile in the deck is in Fig. 8.18. Due to the warm deck, also the
temperature inside the box increased. In the late afternoon, the wall of the box girder was
18

subjected to solar radiation for another 2 hours. The temperature of the wall, therefore, reached
a value of 37C. At night, the temperature at ground level dropped to about 0C. For the
calculation of thermal stresses, a temperature differential between the centre of the wall and the
environment of 30C was assumed. Furthermore, it was assumed that the temperature in the box
dropped to 15C. Fig. 8.19a shows the subsequent calculated temperature distributions in the
wall. Fig. 8.19b shows the corresponding strains after 10 hours. The stresses follow from:
ct = Ec c T = Ec (T)
In case of an Ec of 35,000 N/mm2 and a maximum strain (T) = ~ 7,5 10-5 (see Fig. 8.19b),
the maximum tensile stress is ct(T) = 2,6 N/mm2. The thermal load described before and its
resulting stress, were not considered in the design. In combination with stresses from other
loads, the calculated stresses were found to exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. Since the
amount of reinforcing steel (stirrups) was very low, cracking of the concrete immediately
caused yielding of the steel. For repair, vertical holes were drilled in the webs of the box girder
and a vertical prestressing was installed.
T C
t-0h

30

14

Tinside -15
15
s-0.175 m

~7.5.10-5

T10h

5
10

30
10-5
+

+
15
~0.16 m

Toutside -0
R s-0.175 m

0
0.75 m

a. Temperature distribution in the wall of a box girder

Fig. 8.19

0.75 m

b. Temperature-strains at t = 10 hours.

Temperature distribution in the web of a box girder due to cooling from the outside
at different stages (a) and temperature-induced strains (eigen strains) at a
temperature distribution after 10 hours (in case of free deformation of the web)

8.3 Literature
1

2
3

Noakowski, P., van Dornick, K., 1992. "Bewertung der Bausubstanz anhand der zugrunde
gelegte Bemessungsvorschriften", VGB Kraftwerkstechnik, 72. Jahrgang, Heft 3, blz. 251259.
Noakowski, P., 1987. "Einige statische Aufgaben im Feuerfestbau", Die Bautechnik, No. 2,
blz. 51-57.
Leonhardt, F., 1965. "Temperaturunterschiede gefhrden Spannbetonbrcke", Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau, Heft 7, blz. 157-163.

19