Copper alloys - brasses and bronzes

Job Knowledge
The main alloying element in the brasses is zinc (Zn). There are three families; brass with zinc
content less than 20%, high zinc alloys with 30-45% zinc and the nickel-silvers that contain 2045% zinc and 20% nickel. These alloys are available as wrought or cast products, the low Zn
alloys being used generally for jewellery and coins, the higher Zn alloys in applications where
increased mechanical strength is required such as plumbing products, pump casings and thin wall
low pressure vessels. Nickel silver, as the name suggests, is a less expensive alternative to silver
(Ag) and is used for jewellery, coinage and cutlery. On an historical note, the panels of the 1907
Rolls Royce Silver Ghost are made from nickel silver, hence the name.
With the exception of brasses containing lead (Pb) all the brasses are weldable, the low zinc
alloys being the easiest. The main problem with welding the alloys is weld metal porosity caused
by the zinc boiling off during melting. Zinc melts at 420C and boils at 910C so brazing using
an oxy-acetylene torch and a copper-silver filler is a possible alternative to welding, being
capable of providing joints with adequate mechanical properties and without the porosity
problems. Boiling the zinc may also result in large amounts of zinc oxide in the welding fume
and this can be a health and safety issue. Brasses may be welded using MMA, MIG or TIG.
Filler metals are available although these are generally based on copper-silicon or copper-tin
alloys due to the problems of transferring zinc across the welding arc. A typical MIG/TIG filler
metal would be the 3% silicon alloy specified in EN ISO 24373 SCu 6560 (CuSi3Mn1).
Successful welds can also be made using copper-tin alloys such as Cu-7%Sn and Cu-12%Sn.
These can be obtained as both MIG/TIG wires and as MMA electrodes.
The Cu-Si filler metal flows easily and a 60 included angle weld preparation should give
acceptable results. The Cu-Sn weld metal is more sluggish and an included angle of at least 70
is advisable. The shielding gas used for MIG or TIG welding of thin section components is high
purity argon. In thicker sections, over 5mm thick, the addition of helium will greatly assist in
providing sufficient heat for full fusion as will the use of pulsed welding current. Brass, like
copper, has a high coefficient of thermal conductivity. TIG welding is generally limited to joint
thickness of around 10mm, MIG being the preferred process for thicker sections. Preheating to
between 100 and 300C, depending upon section thickness can be helpful in reducing zinc loss,
particularly in the high zinc alloys, by enabling a lower welding current to be used, resulting in
less melting of the parent metal.

There is a potential problem in service of stress corrosion, known as season cracking, in mildly corrosive media such as ammonia or sea water due to the
residual stresses from welding. This can be largely dealt with by annealing the welded item at 260-300C.

The next group of alloys is the bronzes. These may be alloyed with tin, generally described as phosphor bronze, silicon or aluminium. Many of these
alloys, like the brasses, are alloyed with lead to improve machinability. These leaded alloys are generally regarded as unweldable and specialist advice
should be sought if the need arises.
Phosphor bronze alloys contain between 1 and 12% tin with a small amount (0.01-0.1%) of phosphorus (P) when this is used solely as a deoxidising
agent. True phosphor-bronzes contain at least 0.1%P and as much as 1.0%P in some of the cast phosphor bronzes.
The alloys are corrosion resistant and have excellent wear characteristics so they are used for valves, bearings and machine parts. From a weldability
point of view the main problem is that the alloys are sensitive to hot cracking and the lower P content alloys are also prone to form oxide films on the
weld pool. High welding heat inputs, high preheat and slow cooling rates should therefore be avoided. MIG and TIG welding are the preferred welding
processes with argon or helium-argon mixtures. MIG is more suitable than TIG for welding heavier section joints and positional welding is best achieved
using pulsed current. Filler metals matching the composition of the parent metal, e.g. EN ISO 24373 CuSn6P, are available. Although MMA welding
consumables are available the process is not widely used. A stringer bead welding technique is generally necessary and heavy sections require preheat
and interpass temperatures of around 200C.
Silicon bronzes are probably the easiest of all the bronzes to weld. They contain between 1.0 and 4.0% silicon with small amounts, less than 1.5% in
total, of zinc, manganese and/or iron. They have good strength and excellent corrosion resistant properties and are frequently used for heat exchanger
tubing, marine hardware and in chemical process plant applications.
Unlike many of the other copper alloys thermal conductivity is relatively low and this makes it possible to use high welding speeds and to dispense with
preheat for the thicker joints. One undesirable characteristic, however, is that the silicon tends to form an oxide film on the weld pool surface that
requires vigorous wire brushing of individual weld passes during multi-run welding. There is also a slight tendency to hot shortness at elevated
temperatures. It is advisable to stress relieve or anneal components prior to welding and to cool rapidly through the 1000-850C temperature range.
As with the other bronzes, MIG or TIG welding are the processes of choice using pure argon as the shield gas and consumables that match the parent
metal composition, e.g. EN ISO 24373 CuSi3Mn1. Low thermal conductivity means that helium mixes are not necessary and the TIG process can be used
for welding components up to 25mm thickness at welding currents of 300amps. However, it should be noted that the weld pool size should be restricted
to provide a fast cooling rate.
The last alloy in this series is aluminium-bronze. This family of alloys have compositions between 3 and 15% of aluminium with additions of iron,
manganese and nickel. The alloys with less than 8%Al are single phase; those with more than 9%Al are two phase and capable of being quench hardened
to give a martensitic micro-structure. All the alloys have excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in marine environments, and are used for pump
bodies, valves, bearings and ships propellers.
The characteristic that gives the alloy its corrosion resistance is the strong tenacious aluminium oxide film that forms on the surface. This causes
problems of oxide film entrapment and lack of fusion during welding and must be removed. Scraping and wire brushing the surfaces before welding is
necessary. With respect to the welding processes, IG and TIG are preferred. With MIG there is no problem in dispersing the oxide film, the DC+ve current
breaking up and dispersing the film. DC-ve TIG welding does not provide this cleaning action and it is necessary to use AC-TIG. Inverter-based square
wave TIG power sources will give the best control. Argon is the recommended shield gas although a helium/argon mixture may be useful when welding
very thick section joints with the MIG process. MMA welding is possible although the fluxes required to remove the oxide film are very aggressive and
may cause corrosion problems if not completely removed before the item enters service.
Aluminium bronzes with less than 8% aluminium are prone to hot cracking at temperatures around 700C and care needs to be taken to reduce residual
stresses as much as possible by ensuring accurate fit-up and minimal root gaps. Low heat input procedures should be used and interpass temperature
limited to 150C. These alloys do not require preheat. A filler metal with around 8 to 10% aluminium such as EN ISO 24373 CuAl10Fe1 or AWS A5.7
CuAl-A2 is the best choice as this composition is relatively resistant to hot cracking.
The two phase alloys, i.e. those with more than approximately 9%Al, have very high tensile strengths although the very highly alloyed suffer from a
substantial loss of ductility. All the alloys are, however, readily weldable and relatively insensitive to hot cracking. Heat input control is therefore less
important although a maximum interpass temperature of 250C is recommended and a preheat of 150C may be used when MIG welding thick section
joints. AWS A5.7 ER CuAl-A2 (EN ISO 24373 CuAl10Fe1) or, for higher strength, ER CuAl-A3 (EN ISO 24373 CuAl11Fe3) are readily available MIG/TIG
filler metals.
Post weld heat treatment is rarely necessary but can be of benefit if the welded item is to experience very corrosive conditions. In this case a stress relief
operation at 300-350C may be beneficial, although precise temperatures and times will depend upon the specific alloy composition, thickness etc. It is
possible for the high aluminium duplex alloys to be quenched from 950C and tempered at 650C to restore full corrosion resistance but this is rarely
done due to cost and distortion issues.

Welding of copper and its alloys - Part 1

Job Knowledge
Repair of copper boiler from the Flying Scotsman
Of all metals copper is the most ancient, having been first used to fabricate tools and weapons since about 3500 years BC. Welders and metallurgists can
therefore claim to have a very long pedigree! Pure copper is soft, ductile and easily worked but can be strengthened only by cold working. It does not
undergo phase changes so cannot be hardened by heat treatment as can a steel. This also applies to many of the copper alloys so that any application of
heat will soften the cold worked alloy, resulting in a significant loss of strength in the heat affected zones.
Two additional characteristics of copper and some of its alloys are
1.

high thermal conductivity, meaning that preheat is required for many joints, even at quite modest thicknesses, and

2.

the high coefficient of thermal expansion, meaning that distortion can be an issue with root gaps rapidly closing during welding.

Alloying with a range of metals can be used to improve the mechanical properties and/or corrosion resistance. These alloys can be conveniently placed
into nine separate groups as listed below. In addition to those listed there are several grades of free machining alloys containing lead (Pb) or selenium
(Se). These free machining grades are hot-short and very sensitive to hot cracking. They are best avoided by the welder although they can be
successfully joined by brazing or soldering.

Pure copper with less than 0.7% residual elements

High copper alloys with less than 5% alloying elements
Copper alloys with up to 40% zinc (Zn) (brasses)
Copper alloys with less than 10% tin (Sn) (bronzes)
Copper alloys with less than 10% aluminium (Al) (aluminium bronzes often shortened to ally-bronze)
Copper alloys with less than 3% silicon (Si) (silicon bronze)
Copper alloys with less than 30% nickel (Ni) (cupro-nickel alloys)
Copper alloys with less than 40%Zn and less than 18%Ni (nickel silvers)
Copper alloys with less than 10%Sn and less than 4%Zn (red brass or gunmetal)
Special alloys containing
1.

0.1-1.5% cadmium (Cd)

2.

less than 2.7% beryllium (Be)

3.

0.6-1.2% chromium (Cr)

4.

0.1-0.2% zirconium (Zr).

This group of special alloys are capable of being precipitation hardened.

Copper alloys can be welded with most of the conventional welding processes although of the arc welding processes, gas shielded arc methods are the
most common.

Pure copper alloys

There are three separate grades of pure copper: Oxygen-free copper with less than 0.02% oxygen; tough pitch copper that contains <0.1% of oxygen,
present as copper oxide, and phosphorous (P) deoxidised copper with 0.05% P up to 0.05% arsenic (As). Oxygen-free copper has the highest electrical
conductivity, P-deoxidised copper is the alloy most frequently used for pressure vessel and heat exchangers. Oxygen-free copper is the most readily
weldable although porosity may be a problem if non-deoxidised filler metals are used.
The copper oxides in tough pitch copper can result in embrittlement of the heat affected zones due to oxide films forming on the grain boundaries. Weld
metal porosity, even when using fully deoxidised filler metals, is also a major problem caused by the dissociation of the copper oxide, particulaly when
hydrogen (H) is present.
Phosphorus deoxidised copper presents less of a porosity problem although weld metal porosity is still likely to be formed, particularly in autogenous
welds. It is essential therefore that filler metals contain strong deoxidants, the commonest being silicon (Si) and manganese (Mn). Hydrogen control is
also necessary so correctly baked low hydrogen electrodes are necessary when manual metal arc welding. Clean, grease-free wires and rods and high
purity shield gases are required when TIG or MIG welding.
The two filler metals most often selected to weld the pure copper alloys are AWS A5.7 ERCu, the C7 of the now superceded BS 2901 Part 3 and ERCuSi-A,
the old C9 of BS 2901. ERCu typically contains 0.4% of Si and Mn with 0.8% of Sn to aid fluidity; ERCuSi-A contains 1%Mn and 3%Si and is the preferred
filler metal for tough pitch and P-deoxidised copper. BS 2901 Part 3 has been replaced by BS EN ISO 24373:2009 Welding consumables. Solid wires and
rods for fusion welding of copper and copper alloys.
Shielding gases for welding are argon, helium and nitrogen or mixes of two or more of these. Pure argon may be used for TIG welding up to a thickness
of some 2mm and for MIG welding up to approximately 5mm - above these thicknesses an argon-helium mixture will give better results with greater heat
input and less risk of lack of fusion defects.
Nitrogen and argon-nitrogen gas mixes have been used in the past with some advantages being gained in terms of increased heat input from the high
voltage nitrogen arc but such gases are not commercially available and argon-helium or helium shield gases are now the preferred choice. The high
thermal conductivity of copper means that not only are high heat input shielding gases required as thickness increases, but preheat is necessary at
section thicknesses exceeding 2mm. A very rough guide to recommended preheat and welding current levels is given in the table for TIG and MIG
welding.
Process

Thickness (mm)

Shielding Gas

Preheat C

Welding Current (amps)

TIG
1.0

argon

>10

20 - 60

1.0 - 2.0

argon

>10

50 - 160

2.0 - 5.0

argon/75helium

50

120 - 300

6.0 - 10.0

argon/75helium

100 - 200

250 - 375

12.5

argon/75helium

350

350 - 420

15.0

argon/75helium

400 - 450

400 - 470

<5.0

argon

10 - 100

175 - 240

5.0 - 7.0

argon/75helium

100

250 - 320

10.0 - 12.5

argon/75helium

200 - 300

300 - 400

MIG

>16.0
argon/75helium
350 - 450
350 - 600
When welding thick copper with preheats of over 250C and welding currents of more than 350 amps then the health and safety of the welder and
personnel working in the vicinity must be considered.
Lagging the item being welded with thermal blankets is essential as is the provision of adequate screening from the very powerful TIG or MIG arc. The
welder should select a dense filter glass of at least shade 13 when using welding currents above 300 amps to reduce eye strain.
Typical butt weld preparations are:
up to 1.5mm thickness - square edge,no gap

1.5 to 3mm - square edge with 1.5mm gap

3 to 12mm single -V, included angle of 60 to 90, feather edge and up to a 1.5mm gap

12mm to 25mm single V, included angle of 60 to 90, 1.5 to 3mm root face, 1.5mm maximum gap

Over 25mm thickness double V, included angles of 60 to 90, 1.5 to 3mm root face, 1.5mm maximum gap
Carbon, stainless steel or ceramic tiles or tape can be used as temporary backing strips and are helpful in controlling root bead shape.
The Job Knowledge series is aimed at the welder and therefore tends to concentrate on the conventional arc welding processes. It is worth bearing in
mind that electron beam and friction welding, including friction stir, have been used extensively and very successfully to weld thick section copper without
the need for filler metals, high preheat temperatures and expensive shielding gases.