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x, x a
x b,
iff
then
a b.
Theorem. Equality of sets satisfies the following properties, for all sets a, b, and c.
i.
ii.
aa
a bba
(a b) (b c) a c
iii.
2. Axiom Schema of Subsets: For any set a, there exists a set b such that,
x, x b
iff
xa
and
b x a | A( x)
A(x).
That is,
Theorem. The set b is unique.
b a,
Definition:
iff,
x, x b x a
*a is called a superset of b.
a b a b b a.
Theorem. For any two sets a and b,
Properties of set inclusion:
aa
i.
ii.
a bb a a b
a bb c a c
iii.
b
Definition: a iff,
ba
and
b a.
xa
such that
x b.
b a.
3. Axiom of Pairing: If a and b are sets, then there exists set c such that
ac
and
b c.
x c | x a x b
From the axiom schema of subsets, for a given set c, there exists the set
which contains just a andb. This set is unique.
a, b x c | x a x b
Denote:
a x | x a
*unit set or singular set of a
Hence every set is an element of some set. Axiom of pairing says that any two sets are elements
a , a, a ,
of some set. Thus given a set a, it is possible to create sets such as
a, a , a, a ,...
x a | x x.
Theorem.
i.
ii.
iii.
is unique.
c a, b
a b x | x a x b
a c x | x a x b
4. Axiom of Union: For every set c, there exists set y such that if
x b
x y.
for some b of c, then
a b a a b
Theorem.
a b x a | x b
a b a b b a
*relative complement of b in a
*symmetric difference of a and b
a, b
Ordered Pairs:
a , a, b
is the set
a, a a
a, b c, d a c b d
Theorem. If a, b, c, and d are sets, then
a1 , a2 ,..., an
Ordered n-tuple:
a1 , a2 ,..., an1 , an
is the ordered pair
a, b, c
a, b , c
xa
5. Axiom of Power Set: For each set a, there exists set b such that for all x, if
then
x b.
x b | x a.
Apply the axiom schema of subsets to form the set
x a.
x | x a ,
Definition: Let a be a set. The set
Cartesian Product:
a b
ab
x, y
is the set of all ordered pairs
where
xa
y b.
and
a b .
If
then
Theorem. Let a, b, and c be sets.
i.
ii.
ab ba a b
a b ac bc
a b c a b a c
iii.
a b c a b a c
iv.
is a relation, we write ,
aa
x, x | x a.
ia
Identity Relation:
is the set
x y.
ia
Thus for each x, y in a, x y iff
be a relation from a to b.
x | x, y .
The domain of
is the set
y | x, y .
The range of
is the set
Equivalence Relation:
i.
A relation
ii.
A relation
iii.
A relation
x a.
i.
x for each x in a.
y and y
x.
z
z.
y | x, y .
x
[x] or
is the set
for every x in a.
x y
ii.
iii.
Either
x y x y
a xa x
or
iv.
Partitions: Let
i.
a .
ii.
b c
bc
a bA b
iii.
Theorem. Let
be an equivalence relation in a. Then the collection of distinct
classes in a is a partition of a.
-equivalence
Df a
The element f(x) is the sole f-relative of x. That is, each element of
c a.
Rf
The set f[a] is called the image set of f and is also denoted by im f. This is precisely the range
f b
of the function f. Note that im
and b is called the co-domain of f.
c a,
Injection Map: If f is a function from a to b, and
( x, f ( x)) | x c.
Dg D f
A function g is the restriction of f to some subset of the domain of f iff
and
x Dg .
g ( x) f ( x)
for all
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The restriction of f in c is also called an injection map (or inclusion map) from c to b.
Equality of Functions: f and g are equal iff they have exactly the same ordered pairs as elements.
f g D f Dg
That is,
f ( x) g ( x )
and
x1 , x 2 a,
f ( x1 ) f ( x 2 ) x1 x 2 .
alternatively,
This means that f maps distinct elements to distinct elements, that is, no two ordered pairs must
have the same second coordinate.
Bijectivity: A function f from a to b that is both injective and surjective is called a bijection or a
one-to-one correspondence.
Definition: Two sets a andb are said to be equivalent (or equipollent) if there is a bijective
a ~ b.
function from a to b. In this case, we write
number of elements or cardinality.
a .
g f
Composition of Functions:
is the set
Remarks:
g f
i.
is a function.
ii.
iii.
Composition is associative.
( x, y ) f
such that
( y , z ) g}
and
g f f g , f , g
g f h g f
h , f , g , h
Dg f x D f | f ( x ) Dg
Note:
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iv.
f, g injective
v.
f, gsurjective
surjective.
g f
injective
f injective.
g f
surjective
g surjective.
vi.
vii.
g f
injective.
R 1 ,
Inverse Relation: Let R be a relation from a to b. The inverse relation of R, denoted by
is the
R ( y, x) | ( x, y ) R
1
DR 1 RR RR 1 DR
Note:
Inverse Function
Note: The inverse relation of a function is not necessarily a function.
f 1 ,
Theorem. Let f be a bijective function from a to b. Then the inverse relation of f, denoted by
is a function from b to a. This will be called the inverse function of f.
Remarks:
1 1
i.
f f 1 ib ,
ii.
ib
where
f ia ,
iii.
( x, x) | x b.
is the identity function on b given by
ia
where
( x, x) | x a.
is the identity function on a given by
f 1
iv.
is bijective.
g f 1
f 1 g 1
v.
Definition: A relation
y and y
x y.
x, then
Definition: A partially ordered set is a set together with a specific partial ordering.
Examples:
y kx
such that
Remarks:
a,
i.
a,
ii.
If
is a poset and x
iii.
x y
x y.
y and
x y x y
,
x y x y.
x y
or
x y
x y
.
Definition: Two distinct elements in a poset are not comparable if neither element precedes the
other.
Definition: A relation on a set is called a linear or total ordering iff it is a partial ordering where
any two elements are comparable.
a,
a ' , '
and
are said to be isomorphic, denoted by
f : a a'
x y f ( x ) ' f ( y ).
a a'
, if there exists a bijective function
such that
Note: f is an order-preserving function (isotone).
a,
Theorem. A partially ordered set
is isomorphic to a collection of sets, indeed, a collection
of subsets of a, partially ordered by inclusion.
Proof: Let
xa
S x z a | z x
Define
f : a S x | x a
. Define
a,
First Element: Let
z x.x a
f ( x) S x
by
za
Z ,
Example: In
a,
Last Element: Let
x w.x a
wa
Example: The
is the first element and a is the last element in the family of subsets of a
ordered by inclusion.
Note: The first and last elements are unique, if they exists.
a,
Minimal Element: Let
be a poset. An element
wa
x w w x
a,
Maximal Element: Let
be a poset. An element
za
zxzx
That is, there is no element which strictly dominates z.
Remarks:
i.
A first element is a minimal element and the only one. A last element is a maximal
element and the only one.
ii.
A totally ordered set can contain at most one minimal element which would then be a first
element. Likewise, it can contain at most one maximal element which would then be a
last element.
iii.
Every finite poset has at least one maximal element and at least one minimal element.
iv.
Not every poset, even if totally ordered, need have a first element.
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a,
Well-Ordered Sets: A poset
element.
Remarks:
i.
The positive integers under the natural order is a well-ordered set.
ii.
The integers under the natural order is linearly ordered but is not well-ordered.
x y
The following is a well ordering of Z via:
x is to the left of y.
0, 1,-1, 2,-2, 3,-3,,n,-n,
Note: Every well-ordered set is totally ordered.
ya
then b is well-ordered.
a,
Least Upper Bound: Let
be a poset and b a. An element z a is an upper bound for b if
and only if x z, xb. An element z a is a least upper bound (supremum) for b if and only
if z is an upper bound for b and z y for all upper bounds y for b.
z = sup b
z = lubb
Remarks:
i.
A set may have many upper bounds.
ii.
A supremum is an upper bound which is a lower bound for the set of all upper bounds.
iii.
The supremum is unique.
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a,
w a
be a poset and b a. An element
b if and only if
w a
An element
w y
only if w is an lower bound for b and
for all lower bounds y for b,
z = inf b
z = glb b
Remarks:
i.
A set may have many lower bounds.
ii.
An infimum is a lower bound which is an upper bound for the set of all lower bounds.
iii.
The infimum is unique.
6. Axiom of Choice:
(Version 1) There exists a choice function for any non-empty family of non-empty sets.
(Version 2) The product of a family of non-empty sets indexed by a non-empty set is non-empty.
Note:
iI
Ai
Ai | i I
Choice Function: Let =
f Ai Ai
iI Ai
for is a function f:
defined by
Essentially a choice function for a given family of sets chooses an element from each set in the
family.
Zorns Lemma: Let a be a non-empty poset in which every totally ordered subset has an upper
bound. Then a contains at least one maximal element.
of a such
a,
that
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