HLTAP301B Recognise Healthy Body Systems Updated V1.1 24.11.14

HLTAP301B
Recognise healthy body systems

in a health care context
Learner Guide
Contents
HLTAP301B Recognise healthy body systems ........................................................................................... 1
in a health care context ................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 5
Elements and Performance Criteria ............................................................................................................. 5
Some useful resources ................................................................................................................................ 6
Introduction to Recognise Healthy Body Systems in a Health Care Context ........................................... 7
Concepts of good health .............................................................................................................................. 7
Classifications ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Influences .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Homeostasis.................................................................................................................................................. 9
Feedback .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Positive feedback systems .......................................................................................................................... 9
Optimal temperature .................................................................................................................................. 10
Optimal levels of fluid and pressure ........................................................................................................... 10
Blood pressure .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Anatomy and Physiology ........................................................................................................................... 12
Introduction to the human body ................................................................................................................. 12
Anatomical terminology ............................................................................................................................. 12
The Anatomical Position ............................................................................................................................ 13
Directional Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Anatomical Divisions of the Body............................................................................................................... 15
Body Cavities ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Regions of the Abdominal & Pelvic Cavities .............................................................................................. 16
Planes of the Human Body ........................................................................................................................ 16
Planes of the Body .................................................................................................................................. 16
Covering Membranes ................................................................................................................................ 17
Cells, tissues and organs ........................................................................................................................... 18
Cells .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Characteristics of Living Matter.................................................................................................................. 19
Fluid Movement ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Tissues ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
Epithelial Tissue ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Connective tissue ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Muscle Tissue ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Nervous Tissue ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Membranes ............................................................................................................................................... 23
Glands ....................................................................................................................................................... 23
Organs ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
Body Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 24
Cardiovascular system ............................................................................................................................... 25
Composition of Blood ................................................................................................................................ 25
Blood cells ................................................................................................................................................. 25
Cellular Contents ....................................................................................................................................... 26
The Blood Vessels..................................................................................................................................... 26
Circulation ................................................................................................................................................. 27
Coronary circulation................................................................................................................................... 28
Cardiovascular System .............................................................................................................................. 28
Structures of the Cardiovascular System ................................................................................................... 28
The Heart .................................................................................................................................................. 28
All Health Training. HLTAP301B Recognise Healthy Body Systems in a Health Care Context. V1.1 241114
Heart ......................................................................................................................................................... 29
Blood flow to the heart muscle .................................................................................................................. 29
The pulmonary circuit ................................................................................................................................ 29
The systemic circuit ................................................................................................................................... 30
Heart Valves ............................................................................................................................................. 31
The conducting system of the heart........................................................................................................... 31
Heart Facts ............................................................................................................................................... 32
Respiratory system .................................................................................................................................... 33
The Lungs ................................................................................................................................................. 34
Control of breathing................................................................................................................................... 34
Muscles of respiration ............................................................................................................................... 34
Respiration/Breathing ................................................................................................................................ 35
Assessing respiration ................................................................................................................................ 35
Taking a respiration rate............................................................................................................................ 36
Respiratory effort ....................................................................................................................................... 36
Respiratory noises ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Digestive System ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Organs of the digestive tract...................................................................................................................... 37
The Digestive System and accessory organs ............................................................................................ 42
Accessory Organs of Digestion ................................................................................................................. 42
Gall bladder............................................................................................................................................... 43
Pancreas................................................................................................................................................... 44
Urinary System ........................................................................................................................................... 45
Kidneys ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
The Nephron ............................................................................................................................................. 47
Ureters ...................................................................................................................................................... 48
Bladder ..................................................................................................................................................... 48
Urethra ...................................................................................................................................................... 48
Formation of Urine .................................................................................................................................... 48
Kidney function.......................................................................................................................................... 48
Urine and urine testing .............................................................................................................................. 49
Skeletal System .......................................................................................................................................... 50
Bones........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Ribs........................................................................................................................................................... 55
Sternum .................................................................................................................................................... 55
Appendicular Skeleton .............................................................................................................................. 55
Joints ........................................................................................................................................................ 56
Characteristics of Synovial Joints .............................................................................................................. 56
Cartilage.................................................................................................................................................... 57
Ligament ................................................................................................................................................... 57
Cardiac muscle ......................................................................................................................................... 60
Muscular system ....................................................................................................................................... 61
Tendons - Ligaments Cartilage .............................................................................................................. 62
Muscle function ......................................................................................................................................... 63
Function of muscles .................................................................................................................................. 63
Location and Function of Skeletal Muscles ................................................................................................ 64
Endocrine System ...................................................................................................................................... 65
Actions of Hormones ................................................................................................................................. 69
Nervous System.......................................................................................................................................... 70
Endocrine and Nervous Systems .............................................................................................................. 70
Nervous system ........................................................................................................................................ 70
The Central Nervous System .................................................................................................................... 71
The Peripheral Nervous System ................................................................................................................ 73
Skin functions ............................................................................................................................................ 75
Epidermis .................................................................................................................................................. 76
Dermis ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
Healing skin ............................................................................................................................................... 76
Lymphatic System ...................................................................................................................................... 77
Lymphatic System and Disease Resistance .............................................................................................. 78
Lymphatic system...................................................................................................................................... 78
How the lymphatic system protects the body ............................................................................................. 78
Resistance to disease ............................................................................................................................... 79
Types of resistance ................................................................................................................................... 79
What can you do tips on maintaining general health ............................................................................ 80
Special Senses ............................................................................................................................................ 82
The Ear......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Equilibrium and hearing ............................................................................................................................. 82
The ear ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
External ear ............................................................................................................................................... 83
Middle ear ................................................................................................................................................. 83
Inner ear .................................................................................................................................................... 84
Eustachian tube......................................................................................................................................... 84
Hearing...................................................................................................................................................... 84
Equilibrium ................................................................................................................................................ 85
The Eye ........................................................................................................................................................ 85
Vision ........................................................................................................................................................ 85
Structure of the eyeball .............................................................................................................................. 86
The Nose ...................................................................................................................................................... 87
Smell ......................................................................................................................................................... 87
The Tongue ................................................................................................................................................. 87
Taste ......................................................................................................................................................... 88
Reproductive Systems ............................................................................................................................... 89
Male Reproductive System ......................................................................................................................... 90
Female Reproductive System .................................................................................................................... 92
Female reproductive organs ...................................................................................................................... 92
External ..................................................................................................................................................... 92
Internal ...................................................................................................................................................... 93
Breasts/Mammary Glands ......................................................................................................................... 94
Menstrual Cycle......................................................................................................................................... 94
Ovulation and menstruation ....................................................................................................................... 94
Reproductive Hormones ............................................................................................................................ 95
Female reproductive system ...................................................................................................................... 95
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 96
Introduction
This learner guide has been developed in line with the national competency standard in the Health Services
Training Package HLT12 for the unit of competency.
Elements and Performance Criteria

Apply knowledge of the basic structure of the healthy human body
1.1 Use accepted health terminology to describe the normal structure, function and location of the major
body systems
1.2 Apply a basic understanding of the fundamental principles of maintaining a healthy body
1.3 Work with knowledge of the major components of each body system and their location in relation to
other structures
Apply basic knowledge of factors that support healthy functioning of the body
2.1 Work with a basic understanding of how to maintain the whole body in an overall state of health
2.2 Work with a basic understanding of the relationships between body systems required to support healthy
functioning
Essential knowledge:
Basic structure and functions of body systems and associated components, including:
cardiovascular
respiratory
musculo-skeletal
endocrine
nervous
digestive
urinary
reproductive
integumentary
lymphatic
the special senses smell, taste, vision, equilibrium and hearing
cells, tissues and organs
Basic maintenance for a healthy body
Essential skills the ability to:
Use and articulate accurately common health terminology related to human anatomy and physiology
Apply essential knowledge as outlined to own work role
This unit of competency describes the basic knowledge of anatomy and physiology required to recognise body
systems and their components and to identify and refer alterations associated with the functioning of the human
body in the context of health care work.
Some useful resources

For Pathology students, the following resource is suggested to assist you to gain the skills and knowledge
required in this unit:
Phlebotomy Essentials (5th Ed) Ruth Mc Call, Cathee M Tankersley, 2012
For Aged Care students, the following resource is suggested to assist you to gain the skills and knowledge
required in this unit:
Long Term Caring. (3rd Ed) Karen Scott, Margaret Webb and Sheila Sorrentino, 2014
Other Resources which may be found useful:
Oxford Nursing Dictionary 6th Edition

Medical Terminology for Health Care Andrew Hutton 4th Edition
Introduction to Recognise Healthy Body Systems in a Health

Care Context
Anatomy and Physiology is perhaps one of the most daunting subjects that is studied in healthcare. It seems
that you will never learn all the structures, functions and terms introduced with each new system of the body.
This learner guide is designed as a resource and a study tool for you to use as you progress through the
Recognise Health Body Systems in a Health Care Context classes and assessments as distributed by your
trainer. The assessments are to be submitted on the date as stated by your trainer.
Health care workers require a broad overview of the healthy functioning of the human body. This learner guide
examines the basic knowledge of anatomy and physiology required to recognise body systems and their
components. This guide also details the basic knowledge required to identify and refer changes in the
functioning of the human body in the context of health care work.
It is important that healthcare workers understand the different parts of the human body and how they work.
Knowing how our bodies work will help you to:
understand health problems accurately
assist with treating health problems properly
teach people how to stay healthy
prevent people from getting sick or injured
Concepts of good health

Health is defined as:
state of complete mental, physical & social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or informity
(WHO. 1987)
Classifications
Individuals will all feel different levels of health depending on what is happening at any one time within their
lives. Those classifications of health may include:
physical
mental
emotional and social
behavioural
spiritual
social
Influences
Things that influence a persons health status include:
environmental issues
economic issues
cultural issues
If we look at these three influences more closely, you will identify specific reasons for the fluctuations in an
individuals health.
gender
genetic make-up
age
race
family dynamics
income and social status
culture
friends and social life
geographic demographics
environmental pollution
working conditions
access to health services, housing and education
self esteem
Good
health
services
Knowing
how to
stay
healthy
Employment
Culture,
history,
spirituality
Good
Friends
HEALTH
Clean
sustainable
environment
Nutritious
Food
Control
over time
Pleasure
activities
Housing
Diagram: Influences on Health
The fundamental requirements for good health are: peace, shelter, education, food, finance, a stable
ecosystem, sustainable resources, social justice and equity.
Homeostasis
The Macquarie Dictionary defines homeostasis as the:
physiological equilibrium within living creatures involving a balance of functions and chemical composition.
In other words, it occurs when the internal environment of the body remains in a state of balance.
In order for homeostasis to be maintained the body is required to:
maintain optimal levels of nutrients, fluid, gases and ions
maintain optimal temperature
maintain optimal pressure for cell function
have sufficient sleep and rest
If homeostasis equates to the bodys good health it is understandable that when it cant be maintained the body
is at risk of illness or even death. However, homeostasis is constantly being challenged within the body. The
bodys internal environment, and subsequently homeostasis, is constantly being disturbed. These disturbances
or imbalances are caused by stressors. These stressors might be mild or severe, short term or long term,
known or unknown and their impact will vary amongst individuals.
Feedback
When confronted by stressors, the body uses mechanisms to cope with the disruption and restore balance.
These are called feedback systems and they can either be negative or positive.
This system reverses the effect of the stressor Negative feedback systems.
For example, if the body temperature lowers the body will attempt to reverse the drop in temperature by
shivering as a means of raising the temperature to normal again.
Positive feedback systems

Positive feedback systems usually reinforce conditions that do not happen very often, for example, childbirth.
The stressor or stimuli would begin with the contractions which push the baby into the cervix. This causes
internal stretching which sends nerve impulses to the brain asking it to release oxytocins. The uterus contracts
more forcefully and the babys body stretches the cervix more, which in turn releases more oxytocins and the
cycle continues. Positive feedback systems usually continue until there is a break in the cycle e.g. the birth of
the baby or medicine
Optimal temperature
Humans are warm-blooded and maintain a near-constant body temperature (36.4
C 37.1 C). Maintaining temperature (thermoregulation) is an important aspect of
human homeostasis. In the human body, heat is mainly produced by the liver and
when muscles contract. High temperatures pose great danger for humans as it
puts serious stress on the body and can result in injury or death. If body
temperature reaches extremes of 45C it can cause an individuals metabolism to
stop and could ultimately result in death. Increased temperatures cause the body
to perspire/sweat in an attempt to cool the body. This also results in a loss of fluids
which is why it is important to keep fluids up when presented with increased
temperature.
Similarly abnormally low temperatures can be dangerous and even life
threatening. Shivering is the bodys way of dealing with low temperatures as
muscles involuntarily contract in order to produce heat and increase temperature. When temperatures are low,
blood vessels contract sending less blood to the skin in an effort to preserve heat for more vital areas. In
extreme cases (hypothermia) the subject will need to be hospitalised. In less extreme cases the subject can
be warmed with blankets and hot fluids e.g. soup.
Optimal levels of fluid and pressure

Maintaining the volume and composition of bodily fluids is essential for homeostasis. Bodily fluids are the dilute,
watery solutions found inside cells (intracellular fluid) and surrounding them (extracellular fluid). Cells rely on
intracellular fluid containing oxygen, nutrients, proteins and a variety of ions to maintain life.
The extracellular fluid that surrounds all cells (interstitial fluid) is constantly changing as it provides the cells of
the body with nutrients and offers a means of waste disposal as well.
Osmoregulation refers to the regulation of the osmotic pressure of bodily fluids to maintain the body's water
content and thus homeostasis. Osmoregulation keeps the body's fluids from becoming too dilute or too
concentrated. Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move into one solution from another
by osmosis. The higher the osmotic pressure of a solution the more water wants to go into the solution.
The kidneys are the organ responsible for removing excess ions from the blood, thus affecting the osmotic
pressure. These are then expelled as urine.
Blood pressure
Blood flows through the body to service the body tissues constantly, which is vital for our survival. How much
blood flows and the force of the flow depends on the pressure. Blood pressure increases and decreases
depending on the location in the body. It is highest at the aorta and decreases as it gets further away. Blood
pressure is also dependant on the amount or volume of blood in the body. The body can sustain small losses
of blood. However, if the body experiences a decrease in blood volume by 10% or more then blood pressure
will drop. Conversely, if the body retains fluid, blood volume can increase and so too will blood pressure.
High blood pressure can cause:
headache
dizziness
blurred vision
nausea
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Chronic (ongoing, long-term) high blood pressure can result in:

heart attack
heart failure
stroke or mini stroke transient ischemic attack (TIA)
kidney failure
eye damage with loss of vision
peripheral arterial disease
An aortic aneurysm can form which is a sac formed by abnormal dilation of the weakened wall of a blood
vessel
Low blood pressure might result in:
unconsciousness
light-headedness, when standing from a sitting or lying position
unsteadiness
dizziness
weakness
blurred vision
fatigue
fainting
Low blood pressure can result in insufficient blood flow to vital organs and therefore inadequate oxygen and
nutrients reaching vital organs and cells. This could result in organ damage.
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Anatomy and Physiology

The human body is a complex structure comprising millions of microscopic cells, all functioning in unison with
each other to maintain a stable internal environment equilibrium.
Introduction to the human body

Anatomical terminology
The study of the bodys structure and how it works or functions is called anatomy and physiology. The meanings
of many of the words used in anatomy and physiology are derived from ancient Greek or Latin (Roman) words
because this is where the study of anatomy and physiology began.
Anatomy is about the parts or structure of the human body. Anatomy comes from the Greek word anatome,
which means I cut up. This is because anatomy is studied by cutting up (dissecting) body parts to see what
they are made of and how they work. Medical students still study anatomy by dissecting body parts. We also
use plastic models with all the body parts in them to teach anatomy.
Physiology is about how the parts of the human body work or function. Physiology comes from two Greek
words, physe which means growing, and logos, which means study.
So physiology first meant studying things that grow. Nowadays it means studying how living things (such as
people) grow and function.
As people began to understand more and more about the human body many new names were needed for
body parts. Greek and Latin words continued to be used in order to maintain a more universal approach
because people studying the body spoke many different languages.
Some anatomical names cover whole areas of the body, such as the:
head
neck
arms
legs
Within each of these areas, there are many anatomical names for each part. Throughout this learner guide you
will see on diagrams that there are common names for body parts, together with medical names for the same
parts.
It is important to be familiar with common anatomical and physiological terms in order to avoid misinformation
or misunderstanding. For example, health professionals can use names such as anterior and posterior to make
sure that their listeners know exactly what position they are talking about. Let us look at these common
descriptors more closely.
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The Anatomical Position

The anatomical position is a reference used when describing the location of body organs, characteristic marks
or body structures.
The body is erect, facing forward with the arms by the side, palms facing forward. The feet are together.
Anatomical Position
13
Directional Terms
In order to locate the exact placement of a body part or characteristic there are a number of terms which are
used.
Superior situated above
Inferior situated below
Anterior situated at or directed to the front
Posterior situated at or directed to the back
Proximal nearest to the point of reference, as to the centre or median line
Distal remote, farther from any point of reference
Medial pertaining to or situated toward the midline
Lateral denoting a position farther from the median plane or midline of the structure
14
Anatomical Divisions of the Body
Head & Neck
comprises the skull and upper portion of the vertebral column
Trunk
comprises the thorax, abdomen and pelvis
Peripheries
comprises the upper and lower limbs
Body Cavities
The body is divided into two main cavities ventral and dorsal. Within these cavities are subsidiary cavities
specific to the structures that they comprise.
Cavities of the Body
The dorsal cavity is divided into two subsidiary cavities:

the cranial cavity
includes the skull and its contents; and
the spinal cavity
includes the vertebral column.
The ventral cavity has three subsidiary cavities:
the thoracic cavity
includes the organs of the upper trunk;
the abdominal cavity
includes the organs of the middle trunk;
the pelvic cavity
which is continuous with the abdominal cavity
You may also hear of the orbital, nasal and oral cavities which contain the structures that the name suggests.
15
Regions of the Abdominal & Pelvic Cavities

As the abdominal cavity contains a large number of organs, for identification purposes it is often
compartmentalised or broken into regions. There are two methods of dividing the abdominal area into regions,
the most common is to simply divide it into four equal parts.
Regions of the Abdomen
Planes of the Human Body

Another method of describing the location of body structures is to divide the body into a series of planes running
at angles.
the transverse or horizontal plane divides the body into upper and lower portions
the midsagittal plane divides the body into left and right, or lateral portion
the coronal plane divides the body into front (ventral) and back (dorsal) portions.
Planes of the Body
16
Covering Membranes
In addition the body has two main membranes that cover and protect body structures parietal and visceral.
The parietal membrane adheres to the walls of the cavity, whereas the visceral membrane covers the organs.
17
Cells, tissues and organs

Cells
Our bodies are made up of millions of tiny living building blocks, called cells. A cell is the most basic unit of life.
Cells are microscopic groups of chemical compounds. Individual cells in the body have different shapes and
sizes, depending on their particular function. Cells generate chemical reactions that create and maintain life
processes including, but not limited to: storing energy, detoxifying substances and producing proteins. Cells
can be specialised into different types such as blood cells, fat cells, muscle cells, nerve cells and skin cells.
Generally cells are clumped together to form a similar function. Where cells are grouped together with similar
function you have tissues. Tissues that group together are create organs and organs that are grouped together
form a body system.
The cell is the functional unit of all living matter.

The cell comprises an outer wall cell membrane that acts as a physical barrier between the cell contents and
the exterior. The membrane is semi-permeable meaning that is allows for the selective movement of
substances both in and out of the cell.
Inside the cell is a jelly-like substance called the cytoplasm (or protoplasm) and a number of specialised
structures that enable the cell to maintain function organelles. As you can see from the diagram above there
are a number of structure contained within the cell, one of these is the nucleus. The nucleus is generally found
in the centre of the cell and its function is to supply the DNA for cell replication.
18
The function of the other organelles are detailed in Table below.

Organelle
Function
mitochondria
convert nutrients into energy
centrioles
function in the process of cell division
lysosomes
act as reservoirs for cell secretions; or digestive

areas of cell
endoplasmic reticulum:
smooth
rough
synthesise and secrete protein chemicals

synthesise and secrete non-protein chemicals
Golgi complex
temporary storage of secretory substance
Functions of Organelles
Characteristics of Living Matter

The cell has a number of characteristics that are common for almost all cells irrespective of where they are
found. There are seven basic Characteristics of living matter.
Characteristic
Definition
1.
Activity
Ability to move using energy
2.
Respiration
To take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide

according to requirements
3.
Digestion & Absorption
To break down and absorb nutrients to produce

energy for cell function.
4.
Excretion
The removal of wastes from the digestive process
5.
Reproduction
The duplication or replacement of itself.
6.
Irritability
The ability of the cell to respond to stimuli.
7.
Growth & Repair
The ability to repair damages and develop to maturity.
Characteristics of Living Matter
19
Fluid Movement
There are a number of methods by which fluid within the body is able to move from one site to another across
the semi-permeable membrane of a cell. The two main fluid movement mechanisms are diffusion and osmosis.
Tissues
When we have a group of cells together that have the same function (do the same job) they are called tissues.
There are four main types of tissue, each with their own job to do.
1.
Epithelium is a covering tissue. It is the lining, covering and glandular tissue of the
lines organs and cavities.
body. It covers or
2.
Connective tissue gives support and protection, and connects different body parts.
3.
Muscular tissue provides movement by contracting and relaxing.
4.
Nervous tissue receives and passes on messages from one part of the body to another.
This allows control of the bodys activities.
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Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the body, forms glands and lines cavities. It is usually packed
can be classified as either simple of stratified.
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
closely together and
flat cells
square or cube-shaped cells
long, column shaped cells. In the respiratory tract they may also have attachments such as cilia.
These classifications can be further divided according to the number of layers in their make-up.
Simple
single layer of cells, usually found in areas where there is a need for fluid movement to occur lining blood vessels.
Stratified
more than one layer of cells as in the skin
Transitional where there are three or four layers of specialised epithelial cells found only in the urinary tract
Connective tissue
Connective tissue has more widely spaced arrangement of cells compared to epithelial tissue. The primary
function of connective tissue is to bind and add support tyo body structures. Connective tissue can be described
as being either loose, dense or fibrous.
Loose connective tissue has three divisions
Areolar: membrane surrounding brain and spinal cord,
adipose: at cells forming packing around and between organs, nerves blood vessels,
reticular: as in the liver, bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
Types of Connective Tissue

Dense or fibrous tissue can be found as:
Tendon (attach muscle to bone)
Bone
Cartilage
21
Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells are referred to as Muscle fibres, contain multiple nuceli and have the ability to contract, either
voluntarily or involuntarily.
Categories of muscle tissue
There are three different types of muscle tissue:
1. Striated: which is also referred to as skeletal muscle. This muscle type is voluntary meaning that its
movement is under the control of the will. Skeletal muscle is attached by tendons to the bones of the
skeleton.
2. Smooth: or visceral muscle which is referred to as involuntary, meaning it is reliant on stimuli to work
and not under conscious control.
3. Cardiac: is found only in the heart and also considered to be involuntary. This type of muscle is reliant
upon an electrical stimuli to be initiated and spread through the muscle fibres in order for activity
(contractions) to occur.
Muscle Tissue
Nervous Tissue
The functional component of nervous tissue is the nerve cell or neuron. Nervous tissue can be in the brain, the
spinal cord and the nerve fibres throughout our bodies. The function of these nerve cells is to conduct
electrochemical impulses throughout the body to ensure an equilibrium of homeostatic environment is
maintained adapts to changes in the environment internally and externally.
22
Membranes
Membranes are thin layers of epithelial tissue that either cover or line body structures and cavities. There are
three main types of membranes located in the body.
1. mucous
2. serous
3. synovial
Glands
The function of glands is to produce secretions in response to a stimuli. There are two main categories of
glands.
Exocrine: Secrete through a duct onto the surface of the skin i.e. Sweat gland.
Endocrine: secrete hormones into the bloodstream (ductless) i.e. Pituitary
Organs
When tissues group together to do a job, they form a body part called an organ. Organs do specific jobs or
certain functions. One example is the heart which pumps blood around the body. Another organ is the lungs
which the body uses for breathing.
Organs working together form systems in the body.
23
Body Systems
Throughout this learner guide we will examine the structure and functions of the bodys systems and associated
components listed below. We will also examine the conditions, processes and resources they require to support
a healthy functioning body.
System/component
Description
Cells, tissues and organs
how the body is organised from a cellular level to a structural level
Senses
smell, taste, vision, equilibrium and hearing
Cardiovascular
heart, blood vessels, arteries, veins & capillaries, blood
Respiratory
lungs, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea
Musculo-skeletal
muscles, ligaments, joints, bones
Endocrine
glands which release & control hormones
Nervous
brain, spinal cord, nervous tissue
Digestive
digestive tract and associated organs
Urinary
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Reproductive
male and female sexual organs and genitalia
Integumentary
skin, hair, glands and nails
Lymphatic
lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus gland & immune systems
24
Cardiovascular system
The Cardiovascular can be divided into three parts: the Heart which is the structure responsible for pumping
fluid around the body, the Blood vessels which are the structures the fluid must pass in order to make its
journey through the body, and the blood which is the fluid that is pumped throughout the body.
The main function of the cardiovascular system is to transport oxygen and nutrients to the cells thoughout the
body and to take the waste products of cellular activity away from the cells for elimination from the body.
Composition of Blood
Blood is a fluid that consists of two main parts: the straw-coloured plasma, and the formed elements that
consists of three cell types red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
The plasma volume of blood is approximately 55 per cent and contains mostly water. The volume of water in
plasma is important as it affects the volume found both intercellular and extracellular around the body.
Blood cells
Most blood cells in the adult are produced in the red bone marrow principally found in flat bones.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) contain the haemoglobin (Hb) which transports oxygen and carbon
dioxide. The cells are biconcave, have no nucleus and have a lifespan of approximately 120-days.
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes (white blood cells) consists of a number of different types and primarily responsible for the
fighting of infection throughout the body.
Leukocytes
Thrombocytes (platelets) are responsible for the clotting of blood.
25
Cellular Contents
Erythrocytes or red blood cells - Red blood cells (RBC), also called erythrocytes, contain haemoglobin (Hb)
which is a protein that contains iron. Haemoglobin carries the oxygen in the blood to all the cells of the
body.
Leukocytes or white blood cells - White blood cells (WBC), also called leucocytes, form a protective army
that help to defend the body against damage by bacteria, viruses, parasites and tumour cells.
Thrombocytes or platelets- Platelets are needed for the clotting of blood when a blood vessel is cut,
ruptured or broken. This helps to control blood loss.
Plasma - contains:
- Water 80-90%
- Nutrient material
- Hormones
- Proteins
- Enzymes
- Antibodies and antitoxins
- Mineral Salts
- Organic waste product.
- Gases oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
The Blood Vessels

Blood vessels are intricate networks of hollow tubes that transport blood throughout the entire body.
There are three major types of blood vessels.
Arteries - Arteries are elastic vessels that transport blood away from the heart
Capillaries - are extremely small vessels located within the tissues of the body that transport blood from
the arteries to the veins.
Veins - Veins are elastic vessels that transport blood to the heart.
The muscle layer of the arteries is important for the contraction and dilatation of the lumen (vasoconstriction
and vasodilatation). Thus making the blood vessel capable of accommodating the extreme forces and volume
of blood that is required to be pumped through them.
Veins have the same three tissue layers as arteries however the muscle tissue found in veins is less. To aid in
the return of blood back to the heart, particularly from peripheral sites, the lumen of veins comprises valves to
prevent backflow. Blood flow is further assisted in the veins by muscle contractions that squeeze the vessels
and push the blood along.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels and consist of a single tissue layer that allows for diffusion and
osmosis of substances between the blood and the cells. Blood itself does not usually pass through the capillary
walls
26
Also found in the body are blood vessels called arterioles and venules. These blood vessels are smaller
branches of their namesakes, so called because the vessels must gradually decrease in size from the
artery to connect to a capillary and must gradually increase in size from a capillary to a vein.
Blood leaves the heart via the large arteries moving into successively smaller arteries and into arterioles, which
feed into capillary beds. Blood drains from these capillaries to venules and then into small veins and onto larger
veins and back to the heart.
Circulation
Blood vessels carry blood from the heart to all areas of the body. The blood travels from the heart via arteries
to smaller arterioles, then to capillaries or sinusoids, to venules, to veins and back to the heart.
Microcirculation deals with the flow of blood from arterioles to capillaries to venules. As the blood moves
through the capillaries, substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wastes are exchanged
between the blood and the fluid that surrounds cells.
27
Coronary circulation
The heart muscle has a network of blood vessels that are dedicated to the supply of oxygen rich blood and
nutrients. It is the lack of oxygen and nutrients via these blood vessels that causes many of the cardiac
problems that you may encounter as part of your careers.
Coronary circulation
Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system is responsible for transporting nutrients and removing gaseous waste from the
body. This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system. Structures of the cardiovascular system
include the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The lymphatic system is also closely associated with the
cardiovascular system.
Structures of the Cardiovascular System

The Heart
The heart sits below the sternum between the lungs, tilted slightly to the left. It is composed of three tissue
layers: pericardium, myocardium and epicardium.
Pericardium
consists of an outer fibrous and inner serous layer or membrane (parietal pericardium
lines fibrous layer and visceral pericardium lines heart muscle) between which serous fluid circulates.
Myocardium
comprised of cardiac muscle
Endocardium line the myocardium innermost layer.
28
Heart
The heart is the organ that supplies blood and oxygen to all parts of the body. The Heart has four chambers:
Two superior atria - Right atrium and the Left atrium and two inferior ventricle the right ventricle and left
ventricle, the internal partition is known as the intra atrial or intra ventricular septum. The superior atria are
receiving chambers for blood returning to the heart, and are relatively small thin-walled chambers that contract
minimally to push blood to the ventricles .Blood enters the right atrium via three veins: superior vena cava;
inferior vena cava; and the cardiac sinus. Blood enters the left atrium via four pulmonary veins.
The left and right Ventricles are the discharging chambers or pumps of the heart, and have a much thicker
muscular wall than the atria.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the pulmonary arteries to allow gas exchange in the lungs, and the left
ventricle pumps blood into the aorta for transport to the whole body, thus is larger with much thicker walls than
the right.
Blood flow to the heart muscle

It is important that the muscle (myocardium) of the heart is supplied with oxygenated blood in order for normal
heart function to be maintained. The circulation that supplies blood to the myocardium (heart muscle) is called
the coronary circulation.
The pulmonary circuit

Oxygen poor blood is returned to the right atrium and passes into the right ventricle, which pumps it to the
lungs via the pulmonary arteries. The freshly oxygenated blood is returned to the left side of the heart via the
pulmonary veins, from the lungs.
The pulmonary circuit is unique, as oxygen rich blood is carried by veins and oxygen poor blood by arteries.
Nowhere else in the body does this occur.
29
The systemic circuit

Freshly oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium and passes to the left ventricle which pumps it into the
aorta. It is transported via smaller systemic arteries to the body tissues and gas and nutrient exchange occurs
across capillary walls. Spent blood returns to the heart via systemic veins to the superior and inferior vena
cava, which empty into the right atrium, and the cycle repeats itself.
30
Heart Valves
Blood flows in one direction only within the heart, from the atria to the ventricles and out the arteries.
This is enforced by 4 heart valves. The Atroventricular valves prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles
are contracting.
The right A V valve is the tricuspid valve and has flexible cusps.
The left A V valve is the bicuspid or mitral valve and has cusps. White collagen cords (chordae tendinae)
anchor the cusps to the muscle.
The aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves prevent backflow into the ventricles: They consist of 3 pocketlike cusps, each shaped like a crescent moon.
The conducting system of the heart

This heart muscle produces electrical impulses through a process called cardiac conduction. These impulses
cause the heart to contract and then relax; producing what is known as a heartbeat. The beating of the heart
drives the cardiac cycle which pumps blood to cells and tissues of the body.
The main structures responsible for the conduct of the cardiac stimuli are:
Sinoatrial node (SA node): located in the upper wall of right atrium, it is described as the pacemaker
of the heart because it initiates the impulses.
Atrioventricular node(AV Node): located in the septum between the right and left atria, it receives
the impulse from the SA node and causes contraction of the atrial myocardium. It is capable of
independently initiating impulses at a slower rate.
Atrioventriculare Bundle branche (AV Bundle/Bundle of His): originate from the AV node and
divides into the right and left bundle branches at the upper end of the ventricular septum.
AV Bundle Branches: divide into the fine network of fibres called the Purkinje Fibres that cause ventricular
contraction and pumping of blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta
31
Heart Facts
The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins. Blood travelling through
the capillaries picks up the waste product carbon dioxide from the cells and tissues and then the veins return
the blood to the right side of the heart.
Blood enters the right side of the heart through the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava and goes
into the right atrium and then down into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle the blood is pumped
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
In the lungs there is an exchange of gases the blood picks up oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide is breathed out (exhaled). The blood, which is full of oxygen, then travels through the
pulmonary vein to the left atrium.
Cardiac muscle is striated with one or two nuclei and characteristic intercalated discs interweaving adjacent
cells.
Heart muscle does not require the nervous system for contraction although the hearts ample nerve fibers can
alter the basic rhythm.
When the heart contract and forces blood out of its chambers it is called systole when it relaxes allowing the
chambers to fill with blood it is known as diastole.
32
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is responsible for the uptake of oxygen required by the cells and the removal of carbon
dioxide from the body. The structures that make up the respiratory system include the nose and to a, lesser
degree the mouth, the trachea and the larynx.
Organs and structures of the respiratory system
The nose is composed of cartilage and bone to give shape. It is lined with cilia or tiny hair responsible
for the filtering of the air as it passes through, trapping foreign bodies and dust. It is also lined with mucous
membrane which moistens the air as it passes through the nose. Capillaries on the surface of the nose
also warm the air.
From the nose, the air passes into the pharynx, a 12-14 centimetre tube composed of mucous membrane,
fibrous tissue and muscle tissue. The pharynx is divided into three sections nasopharynx located behind the
nose, the oropharynx behind the mouth which is important for formation of vowel sounds; the laryngopharynx
which connects it with the larynx.
The larynx is composed of several irregularly shaped cartilages, joined by muscles and ligaments. The largest
of these is the thyroid cartilage. Because it can be quite prominent and moves during swallowing, it is commonly
known as the Adams apple. Attached to the thyroid cartilage is the epiglottis which protects the larynx during
swallowing.
From the larynx, air then passes into the trachea, a cylindrical, cartilaginous tube 10 to 12 centimetres in
length. The trachea splits at its lower end to form the two major bronchial tubes that enter the left and right
lungs. As the bronchial tubes continue further into the lungs they become smaller in diameter forming the
bronchioles that lead to the alveoli. The structure of the major bronchi is similar to that of the trachea, but as
branching continues and the airways become smaller, the amount of cartilage decreases and eventually, at
the level of the bronchioles it disappears altogether.
The alveolar ducts or sacs form at the end of the terminal bronchioles as clusters covered in a network of
capillaries. It is here that the movement of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs between the blood and
the alveolar tissue.
Alveolar - capillary network
33
The Lungs
There lungs are divided into the left and right, the left lung comprising three lobes and the right only two lobes.
They are cone-shaped organs extending from a point just below the clavicle, to the diaphragm; the large muscular partition which separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Lining the thoracic cavity and covering the external surface of the lungs is a double layer of serous membrane
called the pleura. The layer lining the thoracic cavity is known as the parietal pleura, that covering the lung,
the visceral pleura.
Between the two layers there exists a potential space containing a small amount of serous fluid.
The terms used for the taking in of air from the environment can be either referred to as breathing, respiration
or ventilation. There are two phases:
Inspiration (inhalation): the diaphragm flattens and moves downward. The muscles between the ribs
(intercostal muscles) contract, lifting the ribs upward and outward allowing for the lungs to fill with air.
Expiration (exhalation): the intercostal muscles relax moving the ribs back down and inward, decreasing the
size of the ribcage and the diaphragm moves back up, thus forcing the contents out of the lungs.
Control of breathing
A person will breathe approximately 15 times per minute. The process of breathing moving through three
phases inhalation, exhalation, rest and is controlled by three mechanisms. The rate and depth at which we
breathe is dependent on many factors, but generally reflects the need of cells for a fresh supply of oxygen or
the removal of carbon dioxide.
1. Muscle control in normal quiet breathing, the intercostal muscles and diaphragm contract
simultaneously to enlarge the thoracic cavity.
2. Nervous control nerve impulses travel from the respiratory centre located in the medulla oblongata of
the brain to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles causing contraction and inspiration. Nerve impulses
travel from the lungs via the vagus nerve to the pos in the brain resulting in relaxation and expiration.
3. Chemical control the respiratory centre is stimulated by the level of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Muscles of respiration
Respiration in humans involves simply taking oxygen-rich air into the lungs and expelling waste carbon dioxide.
Diaphragm The diaphragm, a layer of muscle and fibrous septum, is connected to the spine at the lumbar
vertebrae by two pillars. The diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Intercostal muscles occupy spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs.
During difficult breathing muscles of the neck, shoulders and abdomen are used.
34
Respiration/Breathing
Each human lung is in the rib cage bounded below by the diaphragm.
Breathing works by making the rib cage larger, decreasing the pressure in the lungs, and air is sucked in
(inspiration). Expelling depleted air is the reverse, where the cage collapses and the lung pressure is increased.
The breathing action is driven by the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm.
When the diaphragm muscle contracts, it moves downward, making the chest or thoracic cavity longer, while
its associated intercostal muscles contract, widening the chest, allowing inspiration.
The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles then relax and expiration occurs.
The diaphragm is now back in its resting stage due to elastic recoil and the pull of the abdominal muscles. Gas
exchange happens every time we breathe, that is, oxygen in and carbon dioxide out.
Assessing respiration
The respiration rate is how many breaths a person takes in one minute (in and out equals one breath).
Normal respiration rates are:
infant
2840
child
2028
adult
1620
35
Taking a respiration rate

The respiratory rate is the most important assessment to make of someones breathing.
Fast breathing usually means something is wrong.
1. Have a watch with a second hand available.
2. It is best if the person is not aware that you are counting their breaths.
3. Count each time the person breathes in and out, for one minute.
4. You can place the palm of your hand on the persons chest to help you count the
chest movements when they breathe.
5. Or you can place your hand on the person's shoulder to feel when they breathe.
6. You can just count their breaths for 30 seconds and then multiply the number of breaths by two to find
out how many breaths in a minute.
7. Write down the number of breaths for one minute on paper and then record it in the patient's chart.
Important things to identify when counting a person's breaths
If a child is crying, wait until they have stopped before counting their breaths.
Is the patient short of breath?
Is the patients breathing noisy? What sort of noise is it?
Is the patient blue around their mouth? This is called cyanosed. The blue will be inside the lips of the mouth
or on the nail beds of their hands.
Respiratory effort
Respiratory effort is when the person has to work very hard to breathe and get air into their lungs. This means
there is something going wrong with the lungs (such as asthma, pneumonia or heart failure).
In a child there is nasal flaring and the ribs are sucked in.
In an adult the shoulders are hunched up and raised, there is an anxious look on the persons face and the
person is leaning forward.
Respiratory noises
Respiration should be silent. Sometimes the persons breathing sounds noisy such as from rattling sputum
or from narrow air passages (wheezing). Using a stethoscope on the persons chest you might hear
whistling noises (from asthma) or crackling noises (from fluid or sputum).
36
Digestive System
Organs of the digestive tract
Sometimes called the alimentary tract from the Latin word meaning Food
The digestive system is also referred to as the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract GIT. It is a long,
hollow, muscular tube through which food passes and extends from the mouth to the anus. Along its length
there are a number of accessary organs and glands that empty secretions that aid in the digestive process.
The main function of the digestive system is to breakdown the food introduced into the mouth from complex to
more simple substances that can easily be utilised by the body for energy and nourishment. The unusable or
unwanted component of the digestive process is excreted.
From the oesophagus, the walls of the digestive tract is composed of four tissue layers. An outer serous layer,
a smooth muscle layer which is responsible for the peristaltic action that aids in the movement of food through
the tract, a loose connective tissue layer and finely the inner mucous membrane layer.
There are six basic food groups (see table) considered essential for normal growth and development of the
body.
Food Group
Form Absorbed
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)
Proteins
Amino Acids
Fats (Lipids)
Monoglycerides, Fatty Acids, Glycerol
Minerals
Minerals (In Solution)
Vitamins
Vitamins (Water or Fat Soluble)
Water
Water
37
There are four digestive processes that occur as food passes through the tract Ingestion, Digestion,
Absorption and Excretion.
Ingestion is the process of taking various substances particularly foodstuffs into the gastrointestinal or
digestive tract.
Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into less complex structure. Digestion can occur
through mechanical digestion - occurs mainly in the mouth when the food is chewed (masticated) by
the teeth and broken up into smaller quantities. Chemical digestion starts in the mouth and continues
in the stomach. A majority of the chemical digestion of food takes place in the small intestine.
Absorption occurs when the nutrients from digestion passes through the walls of the intestines into
the bloodstream or lymphatic system and is distributed throughout the body. The main site for
absorption is the small intestine.
Elimination is the removal of the unwanted substances from the digestive process. Otherwise referred
to as defecation.
38
Mouth - receives food and masticates the food with the teeth and saliva to prepare for digestion.
Taste buds situated on the surface of the tongue are a way by which taste sensations can be differentiated.
Pharynx - commonly referred to as the throat. The oral part of the pharynx is called the oropharynx it contains
the palatine tonsils. The pharynx extends upwards to the nasal cavity which becomes the nasopharynx and
downward to the level of the pharynx which is named the laryngeal pharynx.
The soft palate is tissue that forms the back of the roof of the oral cavity and from it hangs a soft fleshy Vshaped mass called the uvula. In swallowing the Bolus a small portion of chewed food mixed with saliva is
pushed forward by the tongue into the pharynx, swallowing occurs rapidly by an involuntary reflex action, the
soft palate and uvula rises to prevent food and liquid entering the nasal cavity and tongue is raised to seal the
back of the oral cavity. Entrance to the trachea is guarded by the epiglottis.
The swallowed food is then moved into the Oesophagus.
Oesophagus - is a muscular tube about 25cms long, it lubricates food with mucus and moves food along by
peristalsis into the stomach. No additional digestion occurs.
Stomach - is an expanded J shaped organ in the upper left region of the abdominal cavity.
It has muscle layers that aid in grinding food and mixing it with digestive juices and muscular rings or sphincters
permit the passage of substances in only one direction and are present at each end of the stomach.
The stomach serves as a storage pouch. When the stomach is empty the lining forms into folds called rugae
which disappear when the stomach is full.
Digestive organ cells lining the stomach secrete substances that mix together called gastric juice (hydrochloric
acid) which softens connective tissue in meat and destroys foreign organisms. Pepsin is also produced, a
protein digestive enzyme, which is activated only when food enters the stomach and when HCL is produced.
39
Small Intestine - Is the longest part of the digestive tract, it is divided into:
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
This is where the main part of digestion occurs. Food takes about six hours to travel through the small intestine
sending nutrients into the bloodstream. The small intestine contains glands that secrete a large amount of
mucus for protection from the acidic Chyme. (Digested food).
Cells secrete enzymes that digest proteins and carbohydrates and digestive juices from the liver and pancreas
also enter the intestine at this point. Absorption of digested food also occurs through the walls of the small
intestine.
Large Intestine The large intestine is about 1.5m long. It differs from the small intestine in structure as it is
wider and instead of having villi (finger like folds) it has invagininations (or intestinal glands). These glands
contain cells that absorb water and goblet cells that secrete mucus into the large bowel. This mucus lubricates
the walls of the large bowel and allows smooth movement of the contents through the colon.
Before the main part of the large bowel there is a pouch called the cecum which receives the contents from
the small intestine. The appendix is an attachment that has no real function but it can become infected. If this
occurs then it must be removed.
The rest of the colon is made up of 4 major parts:
The ascending colon
The transverse colon
The descending colon
The sigmoid colon
40
Then there is the Rectum and the anal canal where an anal sphincter provides voluntary control over
defecation.
41
The Digestive System and accessory organs
Accessory Organs of Digestion

The liver is the largest organ in the body it is 2% of the total body mass. The liver is located in the abdominal
cavity, below the diaphragm on the right side. 1.5 Litres of blood flows through into the liver every minute, 80%
via the intestines via the portal vein and caries absorbed nutrients (glucose, amino acids and fats. The liver is
a vital organ necessary for health and survival.
It serves many purposes including detoxification, protein
synthesis, decomposition of red blood cells, hormone production, and production of the biochemicals
necessary for digestion. It also stores vitamins and minerals and activates vitamin D.
The Gall Bladder is located beneath the Liver, this is where bile produced by the liver flows into the gall bladder
pouch and is then released via the common Bile Duct into the Duodenum.
The liver processes nutrient absorbed from the intestines, stores, controls energy reserves and vitamins,
breaks down toxic substances and makes cholesterol, bile and blood clotting factors.
The function of the liver is to convert:
Glucose to glycogen - when the bodys blood sugar level falls below normal, liver cells convert glycogen
(stored in liver) to glucose and release this glucose into the blood stream, glucose is essential to life.
Converts amino acids, fatty acids, lactate to glucose
Manufactures bile .The production of bile is the livers main function in the digestive system. Bile is a
substance that helps our body breakdown fat. It is what gives faeces its colour. Bile passes out of the liver
and into the gall bladder through the common bile duct. It then passes into the duodenum
Bilirubin to glucuronide
Excess amino acids and ammonia to urea
Vitamin B1 to coenzyme TPP
Stores of vitamins and iron.
42
The liver also excretes:

Bilirubin to gall bladder
Inactivated steroid hormones
The liver cleans the blood by removing harmful waste products - Detoxified substances such as
medications and alcohol.
Gall bladder
The gall bladder is a small organ that also aids in digestion by storing and transporting bile when needed. The
gall bladder concentrates the bile by removing water to increase its potency and intensify its effects on fats. It
releases the concentrated bile when food containing fat enters the digestive tract. The bile then emulsifies the
fats in partly digested food.
43
Pancreas
The pancreas is a glandular organ lying on the top posterior of the stomach. It is both an exocrine (secreting
pancreatic juice) and an endocrine gland (secreting insulin, glucagon among other things). The secretion of
pancreatic juice assists with the digestion processes by helping to neutralise the acidity of the partly digested
semi-fluid that passes from the stomach. The pancreas also secretes insulin and glucagon which are part of a
feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels at the right level.
Specialised cells in the pancreas produce the two hormones needed to maintain stable blood sugar levels in
the body:
insulin, which helps the bodys cells to use glucose for energy, reducing the amount of sugar in the
bloodstream
glucagon, which stimulates the liver to release its stored sugar into the blood, raising the blood sugar levels
The pancreas also functions in the digestion of food. Some of the cells in the pancreas produce special
chemicals called enzymes that are secreted directly into the small intestine through ducts. These enzymes
help to break down food (mainly fats and starch) in the small intestine.
44
Urinary System
The function of the Urinary system is to filter the blood and remove soluble waste products as well as excess
water from the body. Substances required by the body are absorbed in the kidney allowing the unwanted
substances to be excreted in urine.
The kidneys are located on the posterior abdominal wall behind the peritoneaum and other abdominal organs.
There is a left and a right kidney both encased in fat which protects them from trauma. Visually the kidneys
have two distinct zones of tissue, the outer, dark reddish brown layer of tissue known as the cortex and the
innermost reddish pink layer known as the medulla. The colour difference is due to the arrangement of internal
blood vessels, and the presence of microscopic, tubular filtering structures called nephrons. The renal arteries
and veins serving the kidneys, nerves and lymphatics enter and exit through an indentation called the hilum.
The structures that make up the urinary system include:
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
45
Kidneys
The kidneys are one of the major organs of the body. Every second of the day the kidneys (the waste disposal
units of the body), the heart (the pump), the liver (the manufacturing centre) and the brain (the control centre)
are working in harmony to keep your body alive and healthy.
Blood flows to the kidneys through the renal arteries, and returns to the rest of the body through the renal
veins (the word renal means relating to the kidneys or surrounding area).
A fine tube called the ureter passes down from each kidney to the bladder. The ureter is the tube through which
urine passes to the bladder from the kidneys. The tube through which the urine passes out of the body is called
the urethra.
Food and drink are slowly broken down in the stomach and either used for energy, stored or removed as waste
through the bowel as faeces. The nutrients that have been absorbed from the gut are further broken down and
used by the body. Those nutrients which cannot be used are now toxic to the body, and are filtered out through
the kidneys and passed out of the body in the urine.
The kidneys have a rich blood supply. 0.25L of total blood volume is sent to the kidneys every minute, total
body blood volume passes through the kidney filtration system every 30 mins
There are a number of other functions performed by the kidneys.
Maintenance of water
maintenance of electrolyte balance
production and excretion or urine from the body
to play an important role in the maintenance of blood pressure and
by the production of a hormone, produce red blood cells (erythropoiesis).
46
The Nephron
They have one million small filters (called glomeruli) which purify the blood and remove all waste.
Located in the renal pelvis are approximately one-million microscopic structures called nephrons. These
structures are responsible for the filtration of the blood, removing wastes, toxins and other excess substances.
Each nephron has its own blood supply which comes from an arteriole leading almost directly from the renal
artery; blood circulates with great force, an important factor in the formation of urine.
A cup-shaped capsule called the glomerular or Bowmans capsule almost entirely surrounds a bed of
capillaries called the glomerulus. Blood enters the glomerulus with great force by way of an efferent arteriole,
and the plasma, or fluid portion of the blood is filtered into the glomerular capsule.
47
Ureters
The ureters are approximately 25-30 centimetres long and are continuous with the renal pelvis. They are
responsible for the passage of urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. The process used to propel the
urine through the uretrs is peristalsis.
Bladder
The urinary bladder acts as a reservoir for the urine whilst it awaits to be expelled from the body via the urethra.
The size of the urinary bladder is dependent on the amount of urine being stored. A sphincter controls the
passage of urine out of the urinary bladder to the urethra. Once a certain volume of urine has collected in the
urinary bladder, nervous impulses are sent to the brain to tell the person that they need to urinate. The passage
of this urine from the body is also referred to as micturition.
Urethra
The urethra is the tube that passes urine from the urinary bladder to the outside or exterior. Its length differs
between males and females and ends at the external urethral orifice which contains the external spincter. which
is under conscious control. It can be held shut for some time voluntarily, but eventually will open to allow
emptying of the bladder by muscular contractions of the bladder walls.
Urine passes by way of the ureters into the urinary bladder, where it is stored until its elimination by way of the
urethra. The elimination of urine was seen to be primarily a voluntary act.
Formation of Urine
The body produces on average 1 to 1.5 litres of urine a day, obviously this is further determined by the amount
of fluid being consumed, the weather and the efficiency of the kidneys to function. Once 200-300 millilitres of
urine has collected in the bladder the stimulus to micturate occurs
There are three phases in the formation of urine.
1. simple filtration
2. selective reabsorption
3. secretion
Kidney function
Besides removing waste material, the kidneys have another important function making and regulating three
main hormones:
erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cell formation
renin which is involved in the balance of body salt and the control of blood pressure
active vitamin D which controls calcium absorption and helps to keep the bones strong
The main functions of the kidney are to:
rid the body of excess salt and food wastes, including acid, as urine
rid the body of excess fluids
regulate the bodys needs by retaining the right amount of fluid, salts and chemicals
produce hormones that regulate red blood cell formation, blood pressure and calcium absorption
48
Urine and urine testing

Urine is a clear, pale yellow fluid. It is the waste (rubbish) product of the blood. The kidneys make urine as they
filter and clean the blood.
Urine can be tested for blood, sugar, protein, pus and other things. This can help us to assess health and
disease. Testing urine with a special test strip is called urinalysis.
Routine Microscopic Urine Testing:
Dipsticks may be removed

from the air tight, light sealed
containers. It is important not
to touch the reagent areas of
the strip as this may alter test
results.
Urine should be collected in

a clean, dry container that is
free of any disinfecting or
cleaning chemicals.
Completely immerse all

reagent areas of the strip
briefly but completely in the
urine.
To remove excess urine, tap

the edge of the strip against
the side of the urine
container, or draw the strip
across the top of the
container or press the edge
of the strip against an
absorbent paper.
Time
according
to
manufacturer's
directions
using a timing device with a
second hand.
Compare test areas closely

with corresponding color
charts on the bottle label at
the times specified. Hold
strip horizontally and close to
the color blocks. Read at
times listed on the product
you are using.
49
Skeletal System
The skeletal system is comprised of bones, cartilage and other membraneous structures. In total there are 206
bones that make up the protective framework of the body.
The main functions of the bone tissue found in the body include:
it supports and protects surrounding soft tissues and the vital organs;
it assists in body movement by giving attachment to the muscles and providing leverage at the joints;
in the red bone marrow, it manufactures most blood cells; red blood cells, (erythrocytes) white blood
cells (leucocytes) and platelets (called the haemopoietic function); and
it provides a storage depot for mineral salts, particularly calcium and phosphorus. Mineral salts give
bone tissue its hardness, but it should be appreciated that these minerals can be mobilised from the
tissue, through the effect of hormones, for use in other parts of the body.
There are three types of bone cells:

1.
osteoblasts which function to form bone;
2.
osteoclasts, which function to absorb and assist in the shaping of bone; and
3.
osteocytes, which are the cells of mature bone.
50
Bones are one of the hardest tissues in the body. There are two main types of bone which make up most bone
classifications.
Compact bone - appears solid to the naked eye. The structure of compact bone is comprised of microscopic
tubular structures.
Cancellous bone - appears spongy to the naked eye. The structure of cancellous bone is the same
microscopic tubular structures as found in compact bone, only they are much larger and give the appearance
of honeycomb.
Periosteum - This is the name given to the vascular, fibrous membrane that covers bones and provides a
protective strength to the bone. At the articular ends of bones, the periosteum is replaced by hyaline cartilage.
In the skull the periosteum is replaced by the dura mater.
Bones
Bones can be of four different types:
1. Long
2. Short
3. Flat
4. Irregular
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Long bones such as the humerus the bone in the upper arms
Long bones have a diaphysis or shaft with an epiphyses at each end. The diaphysis is comprised of compact
bone with a central medullary cavity containing yellow bone marrow. The epiphyses comprise cancellous bone
with an outer layer of compact bone.
Short, Flat, Irregular, Sesamoid these bone types are composed of a thin layer of compact bone with
cancellous bone and red bone marrow inside.
Short bones such as the carpals the small bones in the hands and ankles.
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Flat bones such as the bones in the skull
Irregular bones such as the vertebrae the bones of the spine (back)
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The features of a typical vertebrae are shown in the diagram below:
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Ribs
comprised of 12 pairs, the ribs form the lateral wall of the thoracic cage and articulate posteriorly with the
thorcic vertebrae.
the first ten pairs of ribs attach anteriorly to the sternum with cartilage.
the last two pairs (floating ribs) have no anterior attachment.
between each rib are intercostal muscles that move the ribs during respiration
Sternum
is a flat bone that articulates with the clavicles and the ribs.
Appendicular Skeleton
Consists essentially of the bones that make up the peripheries
Shoulder girdle is comprised of the clavicle, the scapula.. Where both these bones articulate, they form the
acromioclavicular joint.
Upper Limbs - each upper limb consists of a humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones, metacarpal bones and
phalanges.
Pelvic Girdle
- the pelvic girdle is composed of the innominate bones which are three bones that have
fused together. There are anatomical differences between the male and female pelvis with the female pelvis
generally lighter, more shallow, rounded and spacious.
Lower limbs - the lower extremities are comprised of the femur, tibia, fubula, tarsal bones, the metatarsal
bones and phalanges.
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Joints
Every bone in the body forms a joint with another bone (except for the hyoid bone of the neck). Joints hold
bones together, and give the body flexibility.
There are three main types of joints in the body;
1. Fibrous or Fixed Joints - as the name suggests, these joints allow very little if any movement. Strong
fibrous tissue between the bones prevents this from occurring.
2. Cartilaginous or slightly moveable joints - these joints allow for slight movement. A fibrocartilage
pad of tissue sits between the bones and as the pad is depressed slight movement is allowed.
3. Synovial or freely moving joints - these joints allow for free movement of the bones. The type of
movement that may occur include: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, inversion, eversion,
circumduction, rotation, pronation and supination. Joints are further classified according to the range of
movement they permit.
Characteristics of Synovial Joints

A typical synovial joints consists of the following structures:
articular or hyaline cartilage
capsular ligament
intracapsular structures
sunovial membrane
synovial fluid
muscles, nerves and blood supply
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Ball and socket joint
Hinge joint
Gliding joint
Saddle joint
As well as giving the body its shape and form, bones perform the following functions:
Support: bones form the framework that supports and holds all the organs in place. For example, the bones
of the legs allow the body to be upright when we stand up.
Protection: bones protect the soft body organs. For example, the skull bones protect the brain, the ribs
protect the heart and lungs, and the pelvis protects the bladder.
Movement: bones act like levers for the joints and help the body to move by giving muscles places to attach
by tendons.
Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities (hollows) of bones. Bone also stores minerals such as calcium.
Blood cell formation blood cells are formed in the marrow of the long bones.
Cartilage
The ends of the bones are covered by cartilage. It provides a smooth, slippery surface that lessens friction
(rubbing) at joint surfaces.
Ligament
These are fibrous cords that bind bones together at the joints. (bones to bones)
N.B.
Tendons are fibrous cords that attach muscles to bones and are part of the muscular System
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Muscular System
As discussed in the introduction to the human body and body systems, the muscular and skeletal systems
work together. When a muscle extends across a joint, contraction of that muscle will cause flexion or extension
of the joint. Muscles give the skeletal system stability and attach to bones with tendons. Muscles consist of
muscle cells or fibres which have the specialised characteristic of being able to contract and shorten.
Muscle cells are elongated (long-shaped), and are usually called muscle fibres. Muscles provide movement
by contracting (shortening) and relaxing (lengthening). It is for this reason that muscles can be viewed as
the machine of the body
There are three types of muscle tissue. Skeletal muscles attach to the bones help form the shape of the body.
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Striated muscle voluntary musculature of the skeletal system is striated muscle.
Skeletal muscles can contract and relax whenever we want them to. This is called voluntary movement and is
controlled by the nervous system.
Skeletal muscle is attached to bone via tendons.
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Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and has a combination of characteristics of both smooth muscle and
striated muscle. The important characteristic of the heart muscle is the ability to contract and relax in rapid
succession.
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Muscular system
Muscle cells are elongated (long-shaped), and are usually called muscle fibres. Muscles provide movement by
contracting (shortening) and relaxing (lengthening). It is for this reason that muscles can be viewed as the
machine of the body.
Smooth muscles are found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, bladder and respiratory
passages. Smooth muscles are controlled by the nervous system, hormones and chemicals. This is called
involuntary movement because we cannot consciously control this movement. For example, there is a layer of
smooth muscle in the bowel. This muscle moves food through for digestion without us consciously having to
control it. Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart. It is like a mix of skeletal and smooth muscle and it is what
makes the heart pump. The movement of cardiac muscle is controlled by the nervous system, hormones and
the hearts pacemaker. It cannot be consciously controlled so its movement is also involuntary.
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Tendons - Ligaments Cartilage
Tendons attach muscles to bone.

Ligaments attach bone to bone.
Cartilage is soft tissue to cushion between two bones. Provides shape (ears and nose) and support.
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Muscle function
Attachment
Attached to bone indirectly by means of tendons, consisting of strong non-elastic fibrous tissue.
Insertion
Muscles act only on the joint between the origin and insertion.
Function of muscles
1. Movement all movements of the body are a result of muscle contraction. Most movement that allows
the body to walk, run, stand and swim are due to skeletal muscles. The cardiac muscle pumps the
heart, allowing blood to pass through it. The smooth muscles of other hollow organs force fluids (such
as urine, bile and blood) and other substances (such as food) through internal body channels.
2. Support muscles allow the body to stay upright, whether standing or sitting.
3. Heat is generated as a by-product of muscle activity. Leftover energy from muscles contracting and
relaxing is the heat felt in the body. Most of this heat is used to maintain ideal body temperature.
4. Stabilises joints
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Location and Function of Skeletal Muscles

Facial muscles - these are responsible for allowing facial expression, movement of the jaw to allow speech
and eating, movement of the eyebrows up and down, blinking and whistling.
Sternocleidomastoid - located in the neck from the sternum and clavicle to temporal bone.
Latissimus dorsi - passes across the back and under the arm.
Trapezius - covers the scapula and back of the neck
Rectus abdominis - making up one of the abdominal muscles, it is broad and flat originating at the pubic
bones and passes upward to the lower rib and xiphoid process.
Obliques - External and internal obliques lie on either side of the rectus abdominis.
Biceps - Located on the anterior aspect of the upper arm these muscles are responsible for flexion for the
forearm and arm
Deltoid - originates from the clavicle, acromion process and scapula and extends over the shoulder point to
humerus.
Brachialis - Lies on the anterior aspect of the upper arm under biceps.
Triceps - Lies on the posterior aspect of the humerus, it arises from the scapula and humerus and extends to
the ulna.
Pectoralis major - lies on the anterior thoracic wall. Originates from the clavicle and sternum and extends to
the humerus.
Quadriceps - a group of four muscle groups that lie across the anterior thigh: rectus femoris, vastus lateralis,
vastus medialis and vastus intermedius.
Hamstrings - Lies on the posterior aspect of the thigh. It originates from the ischium of the pelvis and extends
to upper tibia. The group of muscles known as the hamstrings include: biceps femoris, semimembranosus and
semitendinosis muscles.
Gluteal muscles - Consists of the gluteus maximus, medius and minimus, they form the fleshy part of the
buttock. Muscles originate from the ilium and sacrum and extend to the femur.
Sartorius - Considered the largest muscle in the body, the sartorius crosses from the lateral side of the hip to
the medial side of the knee.
Gastrocnemius - This muscle forms the calf and extends from the femur to the calcaneus (achilles tendon).
Tibialis anterior - originates from upper end of the tibia and lies anterior to the leg surface.
Soleus - this is one of the main muscles of the calf. It lies undere the gastrocnemius and extends to the
calcaneus.
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Endocrine System
The Endocrine system is a system that assists in the regulation and coordination of body activities. Endocrine
glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (ductless glands). These hormones are then taken to a
target organ where it will have its effect.
The glands that make up the endocrine system includes:
Pituitary gland - otherwise known as the master gland it produces and secretes the targets number of
hormones in the body. It is divided into the anterior and posterior portion and is located in the brain.
Thyroid Gland - situated in the neck anterior to the larynx and trachea.
Parathyroid Glands - there are four parathyroid glands and they are located on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland.
Adrenal Glands - situated on top of the kidneys
Islets of Langerhans - found in clusters irregularly distributed in the pancreas they are responsible for the
release of glycogen and insulin necessary for regulation of blood sugar.
Ovaries & Testes
Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is a control and communication system but operates at a much
slower pace than the nervous system. The endocrine system communicates through chemical signals called
hormones. Endocrine tissues secrete a variety of hormones into the bloodstream, these are chemical
substances (chemical messengers) which exert their effect on other tissues (target tissues). They either
stimulate or inhibit their activity.
A hormone is a chemical messenger released into the blood stream and transported throughout the body to
reach target organs. The endocrine system interacts with the nervous system to co-ordinate and integrate body
cells activity. The system acts on a negative feedback which occurs when an increase in one thing results in a
decrease in another thing.
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Main functions of the endocrine system:

growth and development
defence against stress
reproduction
maintenance of electrolyte balance
regulation of metabolism
The main discrete endocrine organs are the:
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Pituitary gland has a role in stimulating the growth of bone and soft tissue. It also stimulates the release of
hormones from the thyroid and adrenal glands, and from the male and female reproductive organs.
Thyroid gland - regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and affects the rate of
metabolism, O2 use and heat production. Secretion of the thryroid hormone is prompted by thyroid stimulation
hormone (TSH) from the `pituitary gland. This gland needs iodine to produce the hormones.
The thyroid tissue is made up of two types of cells: follicular cells and parafollicular cells. Most of the thyroid
tissue consists of the follicular cells, which secrete iodine-containing hormones (thyroxine (T4 and
triodothyronine (T3)
Parathyroid glands - help to control the amount of calcium in the body for good health (usually located behind
the thyroid gland). The parafollicular cells secrete the hormone calcitonin.
Adrenal glands - are also called suprarenal glands, are small, triangular glands located on top of both kidneys.
The adrenal cortex produces:
Hydrocortisone hormone this hormone, also known as cortisol, controls the body's use of fats, proteins,
and carbohydrates.
Corticoste Frone - this hormone, together with hydrocortisone hormones, suppresses inflammatory reactions
in the body and also affects the immune system.
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Aldosterone hormone - this hormone inhibits the level of sodium excreted into the urine, maintaining blood
volume and blood pressure.
Androgenic steroids (androgen hormones) - these hormones have minimal effect on the development of
male characteristics.
The adrenal medulla produces:
Epinephrine (also called adrenaline) - this hormone increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions,
facilitates blood flow to the muscles and brain, causes relaxation of smooth muscles, helps with conversion of
glycogen to glucose in the liver, and other activities.
Pancreas The hormones secreted by the endocrine tissue in the pancreas are insulin and glucagon (which
regulate the level of glucose in the blood) and somatostatin (which prevents the release of the other two
hormones gonads) the ovaries and the testes
Thymus gland - The thymus, an organ of the lymphatic system, helps protect the body from foreign invaders,
such as viruses and bacteria. However, unlike other lymphatic organs, the thymus does not filter lymphatic
fluid to cleanse the body of toxins. Its primary function involves producing an array of highly specialized cells
vital to the immune response.
Pineal gland - function of the pineal body/gland is endocrine. This contributes the alertness or consciousness
of one's self and produces "melatonin" which regulates the sleep/wake patterns, and even seasonal functions
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A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a cell or group of cells to affect the functioning of other cells,
organs and glands. Hormones are carried through the circulatory system to locations which are often far
removed from the place of hormone production.
Actions of Hormones
The amount of hormone produced by a gland is controlled in several different ways:
1. neurons can stimulate a gland to secrete hormones through chemical mediators

2. glands such as the adrenal medulla can respond to impulses from the sympathetic nervous system
3. one gland can produce a hormone which stimulates production of hormones in another gland, and
4. a gland can respond to the levels of chemicals, other than hormones, in the blood.
Some hormones, such as adrenalin, affect all cells almost equally. Others affect specific cells to a greater
degree, as with lactogenic hormone in stimulating the production of milk. Still others, such as thyroid
hormone is secreted from the thyroid gland and is essential for normal metabolic processes and mental and
physical development.
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Nervous System
Endocrine and Nervous Systems
The endocrine system and the nervous system are the two major communicating and coordinating systems of
the body.
Nervous system
Controls and coordinates activities of various parts of the body systems by means of electrical impulses and
chemical substances sent to and received from all parts of the body. The fundamental unit is the neuron or
nerve cells.
The Nervous system is divided into two main parts: the Central Nervous System (CNS) consisting of the brain
and the spinal cord and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consisting of twelve pairs of cranial nerves and
31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Nervous tissue consists of two main types of cells which are responsible for carrying the electrochemical
impulses that stimulate responses throughout the body the neuron and the neuroglia. The Neuron varies in
size and consist of the nerve or cell body, an axon that carries the impulse away from the cell and dendrites
that carry the impulse to other nerve cells. The Neuroglia forms the supporting network of tissue.
There is a potential or minute gap between each nerve ending. This gap requires for the transfer of the impulse
by way of electrochemical transmission across the gap or neuromuscular junction called a synapse. The axon
is covered with a sheath of fatty tissue called the myelin sheath and impulses are conveyed up the length of
the sheath by jumping across the deposits of fatty sheath to the cell body.
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The Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into specialised parts responsible for specific
neurological function.
Cerebrum is largest part of the brain (88 percent of brains total weight) and occupies both the anterior and
medial aspect of the cranial fossae. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal
fissure. These hemispheres are responsible for both sensory and motor activity learning, memory, reason
and intelligence. The outer layer of the cerebrum is referred to as the cerebral cortex and is covered in furrows
and convolutions which increase the surface area.
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The cortex itself is divided into six lobes which take on the names of the
bones that protect them:
the frontal lobe,
the left and right temporal lobes,

the left and right parietal lobes and
the occipital lobe.
Lying between the cerebrum and cerebellum is the midbrain, a collection of specialised neurons. The
midbrain acts as the relay station for ascending and descending messages travelling to the brain.
Located in the front of the cerebellum, below the midbrain and above the medulla, is the pons. This also acts
as a relay station for messages travelling to and from the brain.
Extending from the pons and continuous with the spinal cord is the medulla oblongata which contains
specialised cells associated with autonomic reflex activity.
Below the posterior portion of the cerebrum and also divided into left and right spheres is the Cerebellum. The
cerebellum consists of inner white matter and outer grey matter and is concerned with co-ordination of voluntary
muscle movement, posture and balance. A person who receives damage to their cerebellum will develop
clumsy, unco-ordinated muscular movement and gait.
The Spinal Cord extends from the upper border of C2 (atlas) to lower border of L1. When a lumbar puncture
is performed, they will take the specimens from below L2. The spinal cord is lined with nerves that convey
messages from the brain to organs and tissues, the nerve fibres exiting the spinal cord at the appropriate level.
Covering the spinal cord and brain are three tissue layers or membranes called meninges, separated by
cerebrospinal fluid. The function of the meninges is to protect the sensitive nerve fibres.
The outer, dense fibrous tissue layer is called the dura mater. It adheres to the bones of the skull and folds
back on itself projecting into the cranial cavity providing support. The middle tissue layer is called the arachnoid
mater. This is a delicate, serous membrane loosely. The third, inner tissue layer is a vascular membrane that
covers the brain and spinal cord closely and called the pia mater. The spinal portion is thicker and closely
adheres to the spinal cord.
Circulating in cavities in the centre of the brain and spinal cord (the ventricles), a clear, colourless substance
with a composition similar to lymphatic fluid water, mineral salts, glucose, plasma proteins, creatinine and
urea is the cerebrospinal fluid. Its function is primarily to protect the brain and spinal cord.
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The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is comprised of both spinal and cranial nerves. Most are composed of sensory
nerve fibres conveying impulses from organs to brain and motor nerve fibres conveying impulses from brain to
organ.
Peripheral nervous system
There are 31-pairs of spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord. The names given to groups of spinal nerves
correspond to the region of the vertebral column where they exit:
eight pairs of cervical nerves
twelve thoracic
five lumbar
five sacral
one coccygeal
The autonomic nervous system, finally, is a special subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that controls
the functioning of glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
The sympathetic nerves, which are concerned with the response of the body to stress (exercise, fear, anxiety,
and anger states), are a part of this system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary
activity controls functions of the body that are carried out automatically. The system is divided into
sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Neurones are long cords of nerve cells that pass into the central nervous system (afferent or sensory nerves)
from the sensory receptors (e.g. sensing pain, temperature) and pass out of the central nervous system
(efferent or motor nerves) to the effectors (muscles and glands). The cell body of afferent neurones is located
outside the central nervous system and the cell body of efferent neurones is located inside the central nervous
system. There is a third type of neurone called an inter neurone which are located in the central nervous system
and connect afferent and efferent neurones together.
The neurone is stimulated at the dendrite and a nerve impulse is generated which sends a charge along the
axon to the synaptic end bulbs. This destination is the point of communication between two neurones. The
synaptic end bulbs of one neurone will communicate with the dendrites of the next. The synaptic end bulbs
contain vesicles that release chemicals called neurotransmitters which will pass to the dendrites of the next
neurone.
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The neurotransmitter will be either excitatory (will start a nervous impulse in the next cell) or inhibitory (will
prevent it from being stimulated).
The nervous system uses nerve impulses that send information to and from the brain in order to maintain
homeostasis. The nervous system:
senses bodily changes (in and outside the body)
analyses this information
stores some of the information for later use
uses the information to make decisions
recalls stored information to make decisions
eventually responds to the stimuli
The nervous system consist of the:

Receptors
Sensory Neurons
Spinal Cord
Brain
Response
Peripheral nervous system
Motor Neuron
Spinal Cord
Central nervous system
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Integumentary System
The integumentary system contains the largest organ in the body skin.
The integumentary system consists of:
skin
nails
hair
sweat glands
oil glands
The integumentary system is one of the most active organs in the body .It contains the nerve endings of many
sensory nerves, one of the main excretory organs, aids in the regulation of body temperature and is a protection
for deeper organs and the invasion of micro-organisms.
The skin is divided into three basic layers the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutaneous layer. Its function
is to:
1. Protect - acts as a barrier to infiltration of foreign bodies, micro-organisms. It also provides sensory
perception.
2. Formation of Vitamin D
3. Regulation of Body Temperature
Skin functions
The skin performs the functions of:
protection from injury, chemicals, organism invasion, extensive skin dryness and sunburn damage
sensation the ability to feel pain, pressure and temperature
control of the body temperature by sweat production and blood flow
The skin is the largest organ of the body. It has two main parts:
the outer epidermis
the inner dermis
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Epidermis
The outer layer of the skin, its thickness varies depending on the location and the amount of wear and tear it
must be submitted. It contains no blood vessels or nerve endings and the surface layer of the epidermis is flat,
dead cells that are continually rubbed off and replaced by underlying cells. Hair, sebum from the sebaceous
glands and ducts of the sweat glands pass through the epidermis to reach the surface. The surface is ridged
by projections called papillae which form the characteristic pattern of our fingerprint.
The epidermis is the superficial part of the skin which varies in thickness in different parts of the body. The
thickest parts are on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. Melanin is produced in the bottom layer
of the epidermis and varies with individuals and races. It is responsible for skill colour.
Dermis
Underlying the epidermis is the tough, elastic dermis. It contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve endings
and the sebaceous and sweat glands. You will also find the hair follicle and erector pili muscle attached to the
hair follicle located in the dermis
Other characteristics of the skin include the nails that act to protect the fingertips and skin pigmentation which
is the result of the presence or absence of a substance in the skin called melanin.
The dermis is tough and elastic, and contains many structures:
Blood vessels carry oxygen, water and nutrients to the cells, and remove waste and other substances
Nerve endings provide the body with information from the outside world.
Sweat glands- each gland is supplied by a network of capillaries. Sweat provides a route for excretion of
waste materials, but the most important function is in relation to maintenance of body temperature.
Composition of sweat is water 99.4% Potassium, Sodium Chloride and Sulphate 0.2%,and Waste
substances
Sebaceous glands produce an oily water-repellent substance called sebum which keeps the hair and skin
soft and healthy.
Hair follicles produce the hair that grows over most parts of the body and plays a small part in helping
keep the body warm. There are also muscles attached to the hair follicles called arrectores pilorum (singular
arrector pili).
Nails are hard, horny outgrowths of true skin that protect the tips of the fingers and toes.
Under the dermis there is a layer of fatty tissue which helps to keep the body warm and acts as a cushion
between bones and skin.
Healing skin
Every day wear and tear such as cuts, scratches or small burns heal without leaving a mark because the
damage is repaired with new skin cells. Scars happen when the damaged area is large and deep and destroys
the layer where new skin and cells are made. When this happens general-purpose tissue is used for repair and
when this tissue heals it leaves a scar such as those seen after a bad burn accident or operation. Scar tissue
has none of the features of normal skin. It is not elastic so cannot stretch, it has no hair and cannot sweat.
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Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is important in the removal of excess fluid from the interstitial spaces where it may have
leaked out of the capillaries. The lymphatic system is also important in the immune response and in the
absorption of fats or lipids.
The main structures of the lymphatic system is the fluid component itself called the lymph, the lymph vessels,
lyphatic nodes and lymphatic tissue.
Lymph: similar to plasma, lyph flows through lymphatic vessels and transports excess frluid back into the
bloodstream.
Lyphatic vessels: comprise of capillaries and larger vessels similar in structure to blood vessels. Eventually
the vessels drain into two main ducts, the thoracic duct and the lymphatic duct.
Lymph nodes : found all over the body, the lymph drains into these nodes before returning to the blood. They
filter the material as it passes through them and foreign matter stimulates an immune response that generates
lymphocytes that produce antibodies.
Lymphatic Tissue: found in other parts of the body such as the spleen, the thymus gland and tonsils.
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Lymphatic System and Disease Resistance

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is another circulatory system. It is concerned with surveillance and the defence of the
body. It does this by:
draining the body of excessive fluid (interstitial) from the bodys tissue spaces and returning it to the
cardiovascular system
protecting the body from foreign substances, micro-organisms and cancer cells
transporting absorbed fat from the gastro-intestinal tract to the blood.
The lymphatic system consists of:
lymph (lymphatic fluid)
lymphatic vessels
lymphatic tissue
lymphatic organs (lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland)
How the lymphatic system protects the body

While the process is rather complicated we will just touch on it briefly in this learner guide. Lymph nodes are
structures located throughout the body but they are concentrated at the groin, armpits and neck. They filter the
lymphatic fluid and attempt to destroy pathogens (disease producing microbes), cell debris and other foreign
matter found in the fluid. Their locations are strategic because by concentrating in those areas mentioned, they
provide a strong defence to the core of the body in order to stop the pathogens reaching vital parts.
Once the pathogens, cell debris or foreign matter are trapped, the lymph node has two major ways of destroying
it:
phagocytose destroys the pathogen, cell debris or other foreign matter by ingesting it
immune cells uses immune cells (e.g. T cells and B cells) to form an immune response.
T cells produce an immune response by destroying infected cells and B cells produce antibodies that
deactivate the invader
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Resistance to disease
A pathogen is any organism that can cause disease. Disease can occur when the bodys homeostasis is
disturbed by a pathogen such as:
worms
fungi yeasts/moulds, candida/thrush
bacteria
viruses
prions (cause neurological destruction)
How do they get in the body?
skin (tetanus)
eyes
breathing in
ingesting (worms)
urinary tract (cystitis infection)
reproductive tract (sexually transmitted disease)
placenta
Most commonly the pathogens enter through fluids from the nose, mouth, wounds, blood and bodily excretions
(urine, faecal matter, urine, tears, and genital discharge).
Types of resistance
The body mounts a defence campaign against disease causing invaders in two ways:
1.
Specific resistance involves the production of specific cells or molecules that will target and destroy
the specific pathogen or foreign body or its effects.
2.
Non-specific resistance the body uses a variety of reactions to combat a wide variety of pathogens.
These are called non-resistance or defence and include:
Skin and mucous

membrane
Acts as a barrier or trap and expel pathogens
Antimicrobial substances
Allow communication between cells to trigger the bodys

defence system such as recognising tumours and activating
immune cells
Inflammation
Inflammation is increased blood flow to damaged area and

increased interstitial fluid to allow extra nutrients to reach the
damaged tissue, pain and loss of function reduces movement
to prevent further damage
Natural killer cells
These cells secrete chemicals that destroy invaders
Phagocytes
These ingest or engulf the target
Fever
Fever is a protective measure of raising the bodys

temperature to destroy bacteria that cannot survive above
normal body temperature. It also increases the metabolic
rate so that the immune responses are heightened, the
damage is repaired and the body recovers effectively.
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What can you do? Tips on maintaining general health
In todays hectic world that we live in, maintaining our good health care is very important for us to keep up with
todays economy lifestyle. All of us need to be healthy regardless of our age or gender. In order to be considered
us as overall wellbeing healthy, we should have a disease free body, fit and fill with abundant energy. Follow
the healthy tips illustrate below for your general health benefits.
Practice healthy living styles with proper food habits and exerciser. To achieve a healthy body, we cannot
be lazy and lethargic. We need to work hard, both physically and mentally to be fit and healthy. Exercise and
eating healthy foods is essential to promote a healthy body.
Avoid junk foods which make us lethargic and dull. Check and follow your healthy weight chart for
maintaining healthy weight to an optimum body weight in order to be healthy. You will stand a much higher
percentage of suffering from health problems if you are overweight and obese.
Consume a healthy diet, such as vegetables, fruits, fish, nuts, lean meat. Don't forget to intake 8 glasses
of liquid. Take minerals and vitamins supplement and get some healthy recipes that you prefer. Take some
healthy snacks between meals. Avoid refined and junk foods. The main source for poor health and sickness is
improper healthy eating habits. Many people suffer from sickness like diabetes, cancer, obesity and etc.
because of this. Changing your bad diet will contribute a great difference within a short period and can improve
your health benefits drastically. Try to avoid smoking and heavy alcoholic drinks, moderate alcoholic drinking
will benefit you.
Get enough sleep. Sleep allows the body to repair itself physically and psychologically. It also allows for new
information to be integrated with previously learned information. The optimal amount of sleep for most people
is about eight hours per 24 hours.
Realise that positive thinking is very essential in order to be healthy. Clear out your mind of all negative
thoughts and fill it with positive ones. You will have to remove all the depressing and negative emotions and
thoughts from your mind and replace it with healthy and positive thoughts. These positive thoughts can be
extremely energizing and always lead to good things in life. You can get involved in practices such as
meditation and yoga to get rid of the negativity and force yourself with positive thoughts.
Reduce stress and exposure to stressors.
Stressors are any stimuli that disturb homeostasis. These might be:
physical e.g. hunger, thirst, fatigue
psychological e.g. work pressure, relationship problems
sociological e.g. poor living conditions
Too much stress can suppress the bodys immune system and threaten homeostasis. Too much stress makes
you prone to illness and disease.
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Stress can be reduced by eliminating the stressor or reducing exposure to it. It can also be reduced by
undertaking some relaxing pastimes such as meditation, going to a movie or gentle exercise to suggest a few.
Just as too much stress can be hard on the body so too can too little. Too little stress can also lead to disease
so it is important to keep active and stimulated without becoming over stressed.
Protect yourself from infection. This is not always possible as you are always going to be exposed to germs
and other molecules that could make you ill. However, you can increase your strength of defence by following
the above. You can also reduce your risk of infection by maintaining good personal hygiene. Wash your hands
regularly. Use personal protective equipment, such as gloves, for situations that pose risks in both professional
and personal situations.
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Special Senses
The classification of special senses is used to describe the structures that allow for vision, taste, hearing,
smell and sensation.
In this topic we will be looking at the five senses; which are:
smell
taste
sight/vision
hearing
touch
The Ear
Composed of the external, middle and inner ear, the primary function of the ear is to pick up sound waves from
the air and interpret these sound waves into a message.
The external ear is made up of the Auricle or pinna, the external acoustic meatus and the tympanic membrane.
The middle ear is an irregular shaped, air filled cavity within the temporal bone and connected to the
nasopharynx by the eustacian tube. The role of the eustacian tube is to equalise air pressure on both sides of
the tympanic membrane. Also located in the middle ear are three ossicles that vibrate as and pass the sound
waves further down the ear.
The middle ear is separated from the inner ear by the oval window.
The inner ear contains the organs of hearing and balance. It is from here that the vibrations caused by sound
waves will be sent to the brain for interpretation.
Equilibrium and hearing

The ear
The ear is the organ of hearing and is made of three parts:
external ear
middle ear
inner ear
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External ear
The external ear (or outer ear) is made up of the:
pinna (or auricle)
auditory canal
tympanic membrane (or eardrum)
The external ear collects sound waves and directs them down the ear canal to the eardrum. Sound waves are
rapid vibrations, and they can be transmitted through air, bone or water.
The pinna or auricle consists mainly of cartilage covered by skin and has a firm elastic consistency.
The upper part of the external ear is known as the helix and the lower part of the external ear is known as the
lobule.
The external auditory canal (or meatus) is a tube approximately 2.5cm long. It leads from the pinna to the
eardrum. It contains a few hairs, and some specialised glands that secrete cerumen (earwax). These help to
prevent foreign objects from entering the ear.
The ear canal is slightly S shaped, so it needs to be straightened out before examining.
The tympanic membrane (eardrum) is a thin, semi-transparent partition made of fibrous connective tissue,
between the external auditory canal and the middle ear.
The external surface of the tympanic membrane is concave
The internal surface of the tympanic membrane is convex
Middle ear
The middle ear is an air-filled cavity across which sound is transmitted by way
of three bones called the ossicles.
They are:
malleus (hammer)
incus (anvil)
stapes (stirrup)
The cavity of the middle ear is separated from the external ear by the tympanic membrane (ear drum), and
from the inner ear by a thin body partition that contains two small openings the round window and the oval
window.
The posterior wall of the cavity communicates with the mastoid cells of the temporal bone. This explains why
middle ear infections can spread to the temporal bone, causing mastoiditis, and can also spread to the brain.
The middle ear is connected to the nasopharynx by the eustachian tube. The function of this tube is to equalise
air pressure on both sides of the eardrum. Infection can also pass this way from the nose and throat to the ear
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Inner ear
The inner ear consists of two main parts:
bony labyrinth
membrane labyrinth
The bony labyrinth is further divided into three areas:
vestibule
cochlea
semicircular canals
Within these structures is the perilymph (fluid) and the organ of corti, consisting of hair cells and other cells.
The hair cells have long hair-like processes at their free ends. Their basal (or cell) ends are in contact with
fibres of the cochlear branch of the eighth cranial nerve the vestibulocochlear nerve (also known as the
auditory nerve).
Eustachian tube
The eustachian tube equalises the pressure between
the middle ear and outer ear, that is, across both sides
of the eardrum.
If pressure on either side of the eardrum is unequal the
membranes cannot vibrate and hearing is impaired.
Abrupt pressure changes between the external and
internal air can cause rupture of the eardrum. This can
happen during the take-off or landing of an aeroplane.
The eustachian tube opens when we swallow or yawn
and allows atmospheric air to enter or leave the middle
ear until the internal pressure equals the external
pressure.
Blowing your nose properly helps to equalise middle ear pressure.
Hearing
Sound waves result from alternate compression and decompression of air. They originate from a vibrating
object, and travel through the air in much the same way as waves travel in water. Sound waves reach the ear
and are trapped and directed by the pinna into the external auditory canal. When the waves hit the eardrum
the alternate compression and decompression causes the membrane to vibrate.
The vibrations are picked up by the malleus and transmitted to the incus and then the stapes. As the stapes
vibrates (moves back and forth) it pushes the oval window in and out. The movement of the oval window then
sets up waves in the perilymph. The waves increase pressure and cause the hair cells of the organ of corti to
move.
In some way (that we dont properly understand yet) the movement of the hairs stimulates the conversion of
sound waves to nerve impulses. These impulses are then passed to the cochlear branch of the
vestibulocochlear nerve in the brain.
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Equilibrium
Equilibrium refers to balance and stability and this sense relies on the structures of the inner ear. There are
two types of equilibrium that play different roles in maintaining homeostasis:
static equilibrium
dynamic equilibrium
Static equilibrium maintains posture against gravity when we are not moving.
When the head moves against gravity the otolithic membrane shifts and the mechanoreceptors (hair cells) in
the macula detect this movement and send messages along the vestibular nerve to the brain for interpretation.
The brain is concerned with interpreting which way is up.
Dynamic equilibrium maintains posture when in motion e.g. riding in a car, or during bodily movements e.g.
playing tennis.
The receptors for dynamic equilibrium are located in the semicircular canals. Each semicircular canal is a
complex mechanoreceptor called a crista ampullaris which contains the mechanoreceptors (hair cells) for
dynamic equilibrium; when the perilymph in one of the semicircular canals moves, the hair cells in the crista
ampullaris are stimulated to send nerve impulses to the brain.
The Eye
An almost spherical structure measuring 2.5 centimetres it is located in the orbital cavity and supplied by the
optic nerve. The structures that make up the eye include:
Sclera
Lens
Cornea
Retina
Choroid
Aqueous Humor
Ciliary Body
Vitreous Humor
Iris
Vision
The eye provides us with sight. Our sense of sight is one of our most precious senses. Just think of the things
you can see that bring you so much joy the smiles of your children, the place you live, the places you have
travelled to and watching your favourite football team.
Each eyeball is positioned in a bony depression of the skull called the orbit. The orbit supports and protects
the eye.
External and accessory structures of the eye include:
- falling objects
- perspiration (sweat)
- the direct rays of the sun
- shades the eye during sleep
- protects the eye from excessive light
- protects the eye from foreign objects
- spreads lubrication secretion over the eyeball
- supports a row of eyelashes
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the eyelashes, which:

- protect the eye from airborne particles (the upper eyelashes turn upwards and are long. The
lower lid eyelashes turn downward and are short)
the lacrimal ducts, which:
- clean, lubricate and moisten the eyeball (the fluid is spread over the surface of the eye by
blinking the eyelids)
the conjunctiva, which is:
- a delicate membrane that lines the eyelids and covers the outer surface of the eyeball
Structure of the eyeball
Cornea a clear window that bends light rays entering the eye to help focus the image on the retina. This
clear membrane covers only the iris and the pupil
Sclera white part of the eye; the outer protective layer
Iris coloured part of the eye. It regulates the amount of light that is allowed into the eye, by contracting,
which changes the size of the pupil
Vitreous humour gluey fluid that fills the middle of the eye, and helps the eye to hold its shape
Retina layer at the back of the eye on which light and images are focused. The retina is covered with
special light sensitive cells that translate light waves into nerve impulses
Optic nerve transmits impulses from the retina to the brain
Pupil circular aperture (opening) in the centre of the iris, through which light passes into the eye
Optic disc is the point where the optic nerve enters the eyeball
suspensory ligaments support the lens of the eye
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The Nose
Besides the functions already discussed in the Respiratory system, the nose is also important in the detection
and interpretation of odours.
Chemical substances are dissolved in mucous and this stimulates the olfactory nerve. Impulses are transmitted
via the olfactory tract to the temporal lobe where they are transmitted.
Smell
Smell is a chemical sense that is the result of molecules interacting with smell receptors located in the nasal
cavity. The formal word for smell is olfaction and it refers to our ability to detect and identify odours that we
come into contact with. The smell or olfactory receptors are covered by nasal mucosa, which continuously
produce mucus secretions to wash the olfactory area surface in the nose. This prevents the same molecules
constantly stimulating the olfactory cilia (the small hairs protruding from the olfactory receptors). The cilia are
the first stage of the olfactory or smell pathway. When stimulated they produce a nerve impulse that eventually
travels to the brain.
They travel along the olfactory tracts before diverging into two pathways. The first pathway goes to the limbic
system. This area of the brain allows us to remember and feel emotions. It is believed this is why we sometimes
associate smells with emotions and memories. The second pathway travels to the higher cortical areas of the
frontal lobes. This connection to the cortex allows us to differentiate smells on a more logical or factual basis.
The Tongue
The surface of the tongue is covered in hundreds of taste buds. Each taste bud innervates with nerve endings
of the glossopharyngeal, facial and vagus nerves and are stimulated by chemical substances in solution.
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There are four basic tastes sweet, sour, bitter and salty.
The Tongue
Taste
Taste is a sensory function of the central nervous system. It is a chemical sense caused by the interaction of
food/drink molecules with taste receptors. The formal word for taste is gustation and it refers to the ability to
detect the flavours of food and drink (or other objects) being dissolved in our mouths with the help of saliva. As
food is dissolved it comes into contact with our taste buds (specialised receptors on the surface of our tongue),
soft palate, pharynx and epiglottis. Our taste buds are constantly renewed as the basal cells constantly produce
new supporting cells which eventually develop into the gustatory or taste receptor cells.
The taste buds, once activated, stimulate the afferent neurone and pass the sensation of the taste through
several cranial nerves into the brain. These impulses pass through the cranial nerve to:
medulla oblongata
limbic system
hypothalamus
thalamus
primary gustatory area
The primary gustatory area allows conscious awareness of the taste, e.g. sweet, salty, sour or bitter.
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Reproductive Systems
The reproductive systems of the male and female are the body systems responsible for the procreation of life.
They allow the processes by which individuals produce offspring and pass on generic material to occur.
The reproductive system is divided into the structures that comprise the male and female reproductive
organs. The primary function of this system is to produce off-spring for the continuation of the human species.
Whether it be for sexual development and behaviour or for the maintenance of reproductive function, hormones
have an important role in both the male and reproductive systems
89
Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of the following organs:
Gonads (testes)
Ducts (epididymis, ductus vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra)
Accessory sex glands (prostrate glands, seminal glands, bulbo-urethral glands)
Penis
Scrotum: a pouch of pigmented skin divided into two halves with a teste, an epididymis and the testicular
end of the spermatice cord, located in each half
Testes : The testes are the male organs that allow the production of sperm cells. The testes are housed outside
the body in a pouch of skin called the scrotum. This is because sperm production occurs at a temperature
slightly below body temperature. Sperm cells are the cells of the male body that fertilise the egg of the female
body which subsequently results in pregnancy.
Epididymis: tubules that combine to form a single tubule (epididymis) in the upper section of the testes.
Deferent Ducts: (Vas deferens) the epididymis exits the scrotum as the deferent duct in the spermatic
cord. They transport through [peristalitic movements, the spermatazoa and fluid to the male urethra.
Spermatic Cord: a spermatic cord leaves each testicle. The cord consists of an artery, vein, lymph vessel,
vas deferens and nerves.
Seminal vesicles: these are two small puches located on the posterior surface of the urinary bladder which
secrete seminal fluid.
Ejaculatory Ducts: the point where both the seminal vesicles and deferent duct unite and continue to join
the urethra.
Prostate Gland: this gland surrounds the urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder and secretes prostatic
fluid.
90
Penis: The penis is an erectile structure. It allows urine and semen to travel out of the body via the urethra.
When erect, the penis is rigid and can be placed in the females vagina. This is called sexual intercourse.
Sexual stimulation results in the ejaculation of seminal fluid containing millions of sperm into the vagina of the
female. Now the sperm is in the female reproductive tract and has the potential to travel towards the egg,
fertilise it and produce a pregnancy.
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Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive organs
The external female reproductive (genital) organs have two functions, to:
allow sperm to enter the body
protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms
The female genital tract has an opening to the outside which means disease-producing micro-organisms
(pathogens) can enter and cause infections. These pathogens are usually transmitted during sexual activity.
The internal genital organs form a pathway called the genital tract. This pathway runs from the ovaries (from
which eggs are released) through the fallopian tubes (where fertilisation of an egg can take place) through the
uterus (where the embryo can develop into a foetus) to the birth canal (vagina), from which a fully developed
baby can be delivered. Sperm can travel up the tract and eggs can travel down the tract.
External
Labia Majora: two large folds of skin that form the boundary of the vulva.
Labia Minora: two smaller folds of skin between the labia majora.
Clitoris: corresponds to the male penis in that it contains erectile tissue.
Vestibule: the cleft between the labia minora
Hymena: thin layer of mucous membrane which partially occludes the opening to the vagina.
Vestibular: Glands
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Internal
Vagina: the vault into which the erect penis is received during sexual intercourse. It is lined with mucous
membrane for lubrication
Uterus: this is a three tissue layered, strongly muscled organ profusely lined with blood vessels. The layers
are called perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium. The parts of the uterus include the fundus and body.
The cervix is the structure that protrudes through into the vagina.
Uterine Tubes: Also called the Fallopian Tubes, they are an open ended tube that extends from the sides of
the uterus to an ovary. Finger-like projections called fimbiae pick up the ova as it is released from the ova and
carry it towards the uterus.
Ovaries: these are the female gonads or reproductive glands. They are attached to the upper wall of the uterus
by a ligament. The ovaries contain the ovum in various stages of maturation that will be released throughout
the reproductive life of the female.
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Breasts/Mammary Glands
These are the accessory glands of the female reproductive system. In males they exist in a rudimentary form.
The development of breasts in the female occurs during puberty in response to the production and release of
hormones.
Breasts are comprised of glandular tissue, fibrous tissue and fatty tissue in varying quantities, with a pigmented
section of erectile tissue called the nipple.
Menstrual Cycle
If fertilisation of an ovum occurs, it will embed itself in the endometrium, and the uterus increases in size to
accommodate the developing embryo. However if fertilisation does not occur, the endometrium will be shed.
This process is known as menstruation and occurs approximately every 28 days. The menstrual cycle has
three phases:
Menstruation
Proliferative Phase
Secretary Phase
Ovulation and menstruation

About every 28 days (after a woman has
reached puberty) a mature ovum (egg) is
produced in one of the ovaries.
The ovum bursts out of a small cyst in the ovary
and passes through the fallopian tube to the
uterus.
The ovaries also produce female hormones
(called oestrogen and progesterone) which
cause the lining of the uterus to thicken and get
ready for a pregnancy.
If a sperm has fertilised the ovum, the ovum attaches itself to this thickened lining which provides the
nourishment it needs to develop into a baby.
If the ovum is not fertilised, it passes through the uterus and out of the body. The ovaries then stop making
extra hormones and the thickened uterus lining breaks down because it is no longer needed. This lining then
passes out of the vagina as blood and fluid and is known as the menstrual flow.
These menstrual periods are commonly referred to as periods. Girls start having periods during puberty,
usually somewhere between ten and 14 years old (but it can be earlier or later as not all girls are the same).
Women continue having periods to the end of their fertile life, usually when they are around 50 years old.
Many women menstruate regularly once a month. However, the time between periods can vary (especially for
young girls and for older women). Normally, an ovum is released about every 28 days, usually about 14 days
before the beginning of the next period. This is the time that a woman is most likely to become pregnant.
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Reproductive Hormones
As mentioned previously, many of the changes and events that occur
throughout the reproductive life of the male and female is effected by the
release of hormones. The hormones that play a vital part in reproduction
include:
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Testosterone
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Prolactin
Female reproductive system

The female reproductive organs are responsible for the production of eggs (the female reproductive cells) and
(after fertilisation of the egg) they are involved in the development and birth of the foetus which is essential
for survival of the species.
Each woman has two ovaries, one on each side, and two fallopian tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus
(womb) and the vagina.
The ovaries store many thousands of tiny eggs, called ova.
One end of each Fallopian tube lies close to the ovary and
the other is attached to the uterus (which is about the size
and shape of a small pear).
The vagina is a muscular, elastic passage leading out of the

body from the uterus. It is the passage through which a
baby is born.
The point where the lower part of the uterus connects with
the upper part of the vagina is called the cervix, or the neck
of the uterus (womb).
In front of the external opening of the vagina is the clitoris,
the sensitive part associated with a womans sexual
feelings.
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Bibliography
http://biology.about.com/od/organsystems/ss/cardiovascular-system.htm
http://www.wikihow.com/Have-a-Good-General-Healthy-Body
http://www.allaboutbutterflies.com/subjects/anatomy/digestive/label
Community Services and Health Industries Skills Council Ltd, www.cshisc.com.au
Enable learning guides
Aspire learning resources
Phlebotomy Essentials 5th Ed MaCall.Tankersley
Google images
Authors own resources Di Godden
96

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HLTAP301B

Recognise healthy body systems

Elements and Performance Criteria

Some useful resources

Phlebotomy Essentials (5th Ed) Ruth Mc Call, Cathee M Tankersley, 2012

Other Resources which may be found useful:

Oxford Nursing Dictionary 6th Edition

Introduction to Recognise Healthy Body Systems in a Health

Concepts of good health

Diagram: Influences on Health

Positive feedback systems

Optimal levels of fluid and pressure

Chronic (ongoing, long-term) high blood pressure can result in:

Anatomy and Physiology

Introduction to the human body

The Anatomical Position

Anatomical Divisions of the Body

Head & Neck

comprises the skull and upper portion of the vertebral column

comprises the thorax, abdomen and pelvis

comprises the upper and lower limbs

Cavities of the Body

The dorsal cavity is divided into two subsidiary cavities:

Regions of the Abdominal & Pelvic Cavities

Regions of the Abdomen

Planes of the Human Body

Planes of the Body

Cells, tissues and organs

The cell is the functional unit of all living matter.

The function of the other organelles are detailed in Table below.

convert nutrients into energy

function in the process of cell division

act as reservoirs for cell secretions; or digestive

synthesise and secrete protein chemicals

temporary storage of secretory substance

Characteristics of Living Matter

Ability to move using energy

To take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide

Digestion & Absorption

To break down and absorb nutrients to produce

The removal of wastes from the digestive process

The duplication or replacement of itself.

The ability of the cell to respond to stimuli.

Growth & Repair

The ability to repair damages and develop to maturity.

Characteristics of Living Matter

Muscular tissue provides movement by contracting and relaxing.

This allows control of the bodys activities.

closely together and

Types of Connective Tissue

Endocrine: secrete hormones into the bloodstream (ductless) i.e. Pituitary

Cells, tissues and organs

how the body is organised from a cellular level to a structural level

smell, taste, vision, equilibrium and hearing

heart, blood vessels, arteries, veins & capillaries, blood

lungs, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea

muscles, ligaments, joints, bones

glands which release & control hormones

brain, spinal cord, nervous tissue

digestive tract and associated organs

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

male and female sexual organs and genitalia

skin, hair, glands and nails

Thrombocytes (platelets) are responsible for the clotting of blood.