Vermiculture in Egypt:

Current Development
and
Future Potential

Vermiculture in Egypt:
Current Development
and
Future Potential

Written by:

Mahmoud Medany, Ph.D.

Environment Consultant
Egypt

Edited by:

Elhadi Yahia, Ph.D.

Agro industry and infrastructure Officer
Food and Agriculture Organizatioon
(FAO/UN)
Regional Office for North Africa
and the Near East, Cairo, Egypt

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Regional Office for the Near East
Cairo, Egypt

April, 2011

ii

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ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5

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FAO 2011

Table of contents
Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iv
List of Photos............................................................................................................................ vi
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... viii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2
1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt .............................................................. 3

1.1. Historical background ...................................................................................... 3

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms ........................................................ 4
1.3. Types of earthworms ........................................................................................ 6
1.4. Vermicomposting species ................................................................................. 6
1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt ................................................................. 7
1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting ............................................................... 8
2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt ............................... 10

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting ......................................... 10

2.1.1. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2. Worm Food ............................................................................................... 11
2.1.3. Moisture .................................................................................................... 14
2.1.4. Aeration .................................................................................................... 14
2.1.5. Temperature control ................................................................................ 15
2.2. Methods of vermicomposting ......................................................................... 16
2.2.1. Pits below the ground .............................................................................. 16
2.2.2. Heaping above the ground ...................................................................... 17
2.2.3. Tanks above the ground .......................................................................... 17
2.2.4. Cement rings............................................................................................. 18
2.2.5. Commercial model ................................................................................... 18
2.3. The trial experience in Egypt ......................................................................... 20
2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:........................................................................... 20
2.3.2. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 20
2.3.3. Food ........................................................................................................... 21
2.3.4. Moisture .................................................................................................... 22
2.3.5. Aeration .................................................................................................... 22
2.3.6. Temperature ............................................................................................. 23
2.3.7 Harvesting .................................................................................................. 23
3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate ......................................... 26
3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines ....................................................................................... 26

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba .............................................................................. 28

3.3. Vermicomposting in India.............................................................................. 29
3.4. Vermicompost teas in Ohio, USA ............................................................... 32
3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom .......................................................... 33
4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices in Egypt: gap analysis. . 34

4.1. On-farm organic waste ................................................................................... 34

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt ................................................ 35
4.2. Urban wastes ................................................................................................... 35
4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt .......................... 35
4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem .................. 36
4.2.3. Waste generation rates ............................................................................... 37
4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are .............................................. 39
iv

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options ................................................ 40

4.3.1. Feeding animals ........................................................................................ 40
4.3.2. Compost .................................................................................................... 40
4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration ................................................................. 40
5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt. ................................. 45

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt .................................................................................... 45

5.2. Fertilizer statistics ............................................................................................. 46
5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt....................................................... 48
5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting .................................................................. 49
5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes ................................................... 50
5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth ...................................................... 50
5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt .................. 51
6. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute
desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms in
aquaculture industries. ...................................................................................................... 53

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed ......................................................................... 53

6.2. Worm meal ...................................................................................................... 54
6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future ..................... 56
7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and environmental effects
of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane emissions. .................................................... 62

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost ....................................................................... 62

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt .................................................. 64
7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes .............................................................. 66
7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment ........................................... 69
8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gas
emission reductions........................................................................................................... 71

8.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 71

8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt ................ 73
8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM ........................................................... 74
8.4. The national regulatory framework .............................................................. 75
9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture as a means of
greenhouse gas emission reduction. .................................................................................. 76

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt ............................................................................... 76

9.1.1. Municipal solid waste ................................................................................ 76
9.1.2. Agricultural wastes .................................................................................. 77
9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes ......................................... 77
9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes .............................. 79
References ............................................................................................................................... 80
Annex 1 ................................................................................................................................... 85
General information and FAQ ................................................................................................. 85

List of Photos
Photo 1.1
Photo 2.1
Photo 2.2
Photo 2.3
Photo 2.4
Photo 2.5
Photo 2.6
Photo 2.7
Photo 2.8
Photo 2.9
Photo 2.10
Photo 2.11
Photo 2.12
Photo 2.13
Photo 2.14
Photo 3.1
Photo 3.2
Photo 3.3

Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops
to be grown.
Open pit vermicomposting - Kirungakottai.
Open heap vermicomposting.
Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India
Cement ring vermicomposting
Commercial vermicomposting unit
Earthworms used in Egypt
Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki.
Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be
mixed in the rotating machine.
The locally manufactured shredding machine.
The shaded growing beds.
Harvesting of castings.
Harvested adult worms from the growing beds.
Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them.
Worm eggs.
Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame.
Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba .
Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, to
promote micro-enterprises and generate income.

4
16
17
18
18
19
20
21
21
22
23
24
24
25
25
27
29
30

List of Figures
Figure 2.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3

Commercial model of vermicomposting developed by ICRISAT

Trends of production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of
nutrients) of fertilizers in Egypt
Consumption of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total
fertilizers in Egypt.
Egypts GHG emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in mega
tones of carbon dioxide equivalent.
Egypts GHG emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega
tones of carbon dioxide equivalent.
Layout of the vermifilter.

vi

19
47
48
68
69
70

List of tables
Table 1.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 3.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
Table 6.5

Table 6.6
Table 6.7
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 7.3
Table 9.1

Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their

regions of origin.
Common bedding materials.
Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed.
Summary for production of vermicompost at farm scale in
Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India.
Municipal solid waste contents 2000-2005.
Distribution of waste according to the sources.
Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates
2007/2008 in tons.
Egypts Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period
2007-2012.
Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates.
Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic
materials percentages For the year 2008.
Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types.
The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt.
Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and
agriculture wastes in Egypt.
Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matter).
Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN).
Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal
(Eudrilus eugeniae).
Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied
(average value of triplicate sample analyzed).
Average values (SD) of physico-chemical parameters of water,
primary productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and
fish production of Cyprinus carpio (Ham.) in various treatments.
Composition (% dry matter) of tested proteins sources or
supplements for fish feeds.
Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or
supplement as compared to fish meal (FM).
Summary of greenhouse gas emissions for Egypt, 2000.
Egypts greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000.
Egypts greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000.
Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes.

vii

5
11
12
31
36
37
38
42
43
44
46
47
52
55
55
55
58
59

60
61
65
67
68
78

Abbreviations
AF
ARC
ARE
AS
CA
CDM
CER
CH4
CO
CO2
CO2e
COPx
DAP
EEAA
EU
FAO
GHG
GIS
GTZ

Africa
Agricultural Research Center of Egypt
Arab Republic of Egypt
Asia
Central America
Clean Development Mechanism
Certified Emissions Reductions
Methane
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Equivalent carbon dioxide
Conference of parties number x
Diammonium phosphate
Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency
Europe
Food and Agriculture Organization
Greenhouse gas
Geographic Information System
German Technical Cooperation Agency

GWP
ha
HFC
ICRISAT
IPCC
JA
MA
ME
MSW
MSW
Mt
N2O
NA
NH3
NOx
NSS
OC
PFC's
SA

Global Warming Potential

Hectare, 10 thousand square meters
Hydrofluorocarbon
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
Japan
Madagascar
Mediteranean
Municipal Solid Waste
Municipal Solid Waste
Million tons
Nitrous oxide
North America
Ammonia
Nitrogen oxides
National Strategy Studies
Oceania
Perfluorocarbons
South America

viii

SF6
SWM
Tg
UNCED
UNDP
UNFCCC
USA
USA
VF
VOC
VSS
WWTP

Sulphur hexafluoride
Solid Waste Management
Teragrams
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Development Program
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The United States of America
Unites States of America
Vermifiltration: filtration utilizing earth worms
Volatile Organic Compound
Volatile suspendedsolids
Wastewater treatment plant

ix

Introduction
The total amount of solid waste generated yearly in Egypt is about 17 million tons
from municipal sources, 6 million tons from industrial sources and 30 million tons
from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted,
2% recycled, 2% land-filled and 88% disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites.
Agricultural wastes either burned in the fields or used in the production of organic
fertilizers, animal fodder and food or energy production. National efforts are being
exerted to minimize burning the agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity for
maximizing the economical benefits of organic wastes by utilizing the earth worms as
"biological machines" utilizing the waste for valuable commodities.
Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for Egypt revealed that the total
emissions in the year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2e
in 1990, representing an average increase of 5.1% annually. Estimated total
greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sector
produces the least quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt, without the organic residues
burned from the agriculture sector, which when added together can be in a higher
rank. Converting organic wastes, whether municipal or agricultural, into
vermicompost can substantially reduce the greenhouse gas emission that could be paid
back through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.
From another perspective, proper handling of wastes, especially organic, in mega
cities such as Cairo, will reduce the environmental impact on both public and
government. Any effort lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availability
of organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact on
agriculture in Egypt, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter
contents. The benefits of converting organic wastes into compost to be added to the
soil apply also to similar countries in the Middle East and North Africa.
As general information regarding the utilization of earthworm in composting:
- One thousand adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram.
- One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day.
- Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month.
- Two thousand adults can be accommodated in one square meter.
- One thousand earthworms and their descendants, under ideal conditions, could
convert approximately one ton of organic waste into high yield fertilizer in one
year.
The purpose of this work is to investigating current development of vermiculture
under the Egyptian conditions, and to discuss its potential as an effective means of
converting the carbon and nitrogen in domestic and agricultural organic wastes into
bio-available nutrients for food production, and the potential of vermiculture as means
of reduction the greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on the
environment.

Executive Summary
Vermiculture in Egypt dates since Cleopatra. However, the Green Revolution, with its
dependence on fossil fuelled large scale machinery and operations, together with the
damming of the Nile, has in recent times all but removed the environment in which
compost worms, most commonly Eisenia Foetida, can thrive.
The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in
2007/2008, including municipal solid waste (garbage) and agricultural wastes.
Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with
the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service
institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per
capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3
kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living
standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60%
food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and
the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others.
Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated
at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and
the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Final destinations of municipal
solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2%
landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps.
The organic wastes in cities can be as large as 10-15 thousand tons per day. After the
swine flu and the government decision to get rid of all swine used to live on the
organic wastes in the garbage collection sites near the cities, earth worms could be the
alternate biological machines that could handle the wastes with greater revenues and
cleaner production. There is a great opportunity for all municipal waste systems to
adapt the vermicompost in their operation.
Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons
per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal
fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. Vermiculture is
also a valuable system for converting most of the organic waste into vermicompost.
With rural awareness and training, vermicompost could be produced in all villages.
The target groups of this book are all growers, including organic agriculture growers,
as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to the large
scale urban solid waste operations. The very rich and valuable organic vermicompost
produce will assist in enriching the soil, especially sandy and newly reclaimed soil,
with organic matter and fertilizers in the form of proteins, enzymes, hormones, humus
substances, vitamins, sugars, and synergistic compounds, which makes it as
productive as good soil.

1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt

1.1. Historical background
The importance of earthworms is not a very modern phenomenon. Earthworms have
been on the Earth for over 20 million years. In this time they have faithfully done their
part to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is simple but very
important. They are natures way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues
back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancient
civilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil.
The ancient Egyptians were the first to recognize the beneficial status of the
earthworm. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra (69 30 B.C.) said, Earthworms are
sacred. She recognized the important role the worms played in fertilizing the Nile
Valley croplands after annual floods. Removal of earthworms from Egypt was
punishable by death. Egyptian farmers were not allowed to even touch an earthworm
for fear of offending the God of fertility. The Ancient Greeks considered the
earthworm to have an important role in improving the quality of the soil. The Greek
philosopher Aristotle (384 322 B.C.) referred to worms as the intestines of the
earth.
Jerry Minnich, in The Earthworm Book (Rodale, 1977), provides a historical
overview which indicates that at the end of the last Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago,
earthworm populations had been decimated in many regions by glaciers and other
adverse climatic conditions. Many surviving species were neither productive nor
prolific. In places where active species and suitable environments were found, such as
the Nile River Valley, earthworms played a significant role in agricultural
sustainability. While the Niles long-term fertility is well known and attributed to rich
alluvial deposits brought by annual floods, these materials were mixed and stabilized
by valley-dwelling earthworms. In 1949, the USDA estimated that earthworms
contributed approximately 120 tons of their castings per year to each acre of the Nile
floodplain (Tilth, 1982).
Egypt has historically had some of the most productive and fertile land in the world.
The Nile River not only provides water critical for agriculture, but in times past, the
annual flooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich soil onto the land. In recent years,
the Aswan High Dam has virtually eliminated the annual flood which has resulted in a
loss of the beneficial soil deposits leading to a need for organic material on lands used
for agricultural production in Egypt.
Charles Darwin (1809 1882) studied earthworms for more than forty years and
devoted an entire book (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of
Worms) to the earthworm. Darwin said, it may be doubted that there are many other
animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world as have
these lowly organized creatures.

For three millennia (3,000 years), the thriving civilization of ancient Egypt was
strikingly successful for two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundant
water to the otherwise parched lands of the region; and 2) the billions of earthworms
that converted the annual deposit of silt and organic matter, brought down by the
annual floods into the richest food-producing soil anywhere. Those Egyptian worms
are thought to be the founding stock of the night crawlers that slowly spread
throughout Europe and eventually came to the Western Hemisphere with the early
settlers (Burton and Burton, 2002).

Photo 1.1.
Rich fertile soil of
the
Nile
Delta
enables wide variety
of crops to be
grown.
Source: Author

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms

The diversity of earthworm community is influenced by the characteristics of soil,
climate and organic resources of the locality as well as history of land use. The
species poor communities are characterized by extreme soil conditions such as low
pH, poor fertility, low fertility litter or a high degree of soil disturbance. The most
significant soil factors affecting the distribution of different species of earthworm are
the C/N ratio, pH and contents of Al, Ca, Mg, organic matter, silt and coarse sand
(Ghafoor et al., 2008).
Europe is the original home of some of most common and productive earthworm
species: Lumbricus rubellus (the red worm or red wiggler); Eisenia foetida (the
brandling, manure worm or tiger worm); Lumbricus terrestris (the common night
crawler); and Allolobophora ealignosa (the field worm). The first two species are the
major earthworms of commerce, whose ideal living environments are manure or
compost heaps. The night crawler and field worms, on the other hand, both prefer
grasslands and woodland margins. The main types in Egypt are Alma nilotico and A.
stuhlmannt. Details of distribution of types will be discussed later in this chapter.
Over 3500 earthworm species have been described worldwide, and it is estimated that
further surveys will reveal this number to be much larger. Distinct taxonomic groups
of earthworms have arisen on every continent except Antarctica, and, through human
transport, some groups have been distributed worldwide (Hendrix and Bohlen, 2002).
Earthworms are classified within the phylum Annelida, class Clitellata, subclass
Oligochaeta, order Opisthophora. There are 16 families worldwide (Table 1.1). Six of

these families (cohort Aquamegadrili plus suborder Alluroidina) comprise aquatic or

semiaquatic worms, whereas the other 10 (cohort Terrimegadrili) consist of the
terrestrial forms commonly known as earthworms. Two families (Lutodrilidae and
Komarekionidae, both monospecific) and genera from three or four others
(Sparganophilidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, and possibly Ocnerodrilidae) are
Nearctic.
No native earthworms have been reported from Canada east of the Pacific Northwest
or from Alaska or Hawaii, although exotic species now occur in all of these regions.
Native earthworms in the families Ocnerodrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, and
Megascolecidae occur in Mexico and the Caribbean islands.
Table 1.1. Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their regions of
origin.
Family
Region of origin
Limicolous or aquatic
Alluroididae
AF, SA
Syngenodrilidae
AF
Sparganophilidae
NA, EU
Biwadrilidae
JA
Almidae
EU, AF, SA, AS
Lutodrilidae
NA
Terrestrial
Ocnerodrilidae
SA, CA, AF, AS, MA
Eudrilidae
AF
Kynotidae
MA
Komarekionidae
NA
Ailoscolecidae
EU
Microchaetidae
AF
Hormogastridae
ME
Glossoscolecidae
SA, CA
Lumbricidae
NA, EU
Megascolecidae
NA, CA, SA, OC, AS, AF, MA
Note: AF = Africa, AS = Asia, CA = Central America,
EU = Europe, JA = Japan, MA = Madagascar, ME = Mediteranean,
NA = North America, OC = Oceania, SA = South America
Source: Hendrix and Bohlen (2002)

1.3. Types of earthworms

Earthworm is a common polyphagous annelid and plays an important role in the soil
ecosystem.
Although all species of earthworms contribute to the breakdown of plant-derived
organic matter, they differ in the ways by which they degrade organic matter.
According to their habitat types and ecological functions, earthworms can be divided
into three types: the anecic, the endogeic, and the epigeic.
Anecic (Greek for out of the earth) these are burrowing worms that come to the
surface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within the
mineral layers of the soil. Example: the Canadian Night crawler (Munroe, 2007).
These species are of primary importance in pedogenesis.
Endogeic (Greek for within the earth) these are also burrowing worms but their
burrows are typically more shallow. Such species are limited mainly to the plant
litter layer on the soil surface, composed of decaying organic matter or wood, and
seldom penetrate soil more than supercially. The main role of these species
seems to be shredding of the organic matter into ne particles, which facilitates
increased microbial activity.
Epigeic (Greek for upon the earth), they are limited to living in organic materials
and cannot survive long in soil; these species are commonly used in vermiculture
and vermicomposting. All earthworm species depend on consuming organic
matter in some form, and they play an important role, mainly by promoting
microbial activity in various stages of organic matter decomposition, which
eventually includes humication into complex and stable amorphous colloids
containing phenolic materials. An example is Eisenia fetida, commonly known as
(partial list only): the compost worm, manure worm, redworm, and red
wiggler. This extremely tough and adaptable worm is indigenous to most parts of
the world.
1.4. Vermicomposting species
To consider a species to be suitable for use in vermicomposting, it should possess
certain specific biological and ecological characteristics, i.e., an ability for colonizing
organic wastes naturally; high rates of organic matter consumption, digestion and
assimilation of organic matter, able to tolerate a wide range of environmental factors;
have high reproduction rate, producing large numbers of cocoons that should not have
a long hatching time, and their growth and maturation rates from hatchling to adult
individual should be rapid. It should be strong, resistant and survive handling. Not too
many species of earth worm have all these characteristics.
Those species used in vermiculture around the world are mainly litter species that
include, but are not limited to: Eisenia fetida Tiger Worm, as mentioned earlier, and
its sibling species E. andrei Red Tiger Worm; Perionyx excavatus Indian Blue;
Eudrilus eugeniae African Nightcrawler; Amynthas corticis) and A. gracilis
Pheretimas (formerly known a P. hawayana); Eisenia hortensis and Eisenia veneta
European Nightcrawlers; Lampito mauritii Mauritius Worm.

Additional species used in Australia are Anisochaeta buckerfieldi, Anisochaeta spp.

and Dichogaster spp.
Other worm species involved in vermicomposting are of Family Enchytraeidae
(enchytraeid or pot worms), microdriles (small aquatic worms), free-living
nematodes (roundworms) (Blakemore, 2000).
In recent years, interactions of earthworms with microorganisms in degrading organic
matter have been used commercially in systems designed to dispose agricultural and
urban organic wastes and convert these materials into valuable soil amendments for
crop production. Commercial enterprises processing wastes in this way are expanding
worldwide and diverting organic wastes from more expensive and environmentally
harmful ways of disposal, such as incinerators and landlls (Padmavathiamma et al.,
2008).
1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt
The Nile basin is subdivided into three Obligataete subregions: the main (Lower)
Nile, from the Delta to Kartoum (Characterized by Alma nilotico and A. stuhlmannt),
the Upper Nile from Kartoum to Centeral and East Africa (Characterized by A. emini),
and the Ethiopian subregion (Characterized by Eudrilus).
In Egypt Species and locations newly investigated include Allolboplora
(Aporrectodea) caliginosa, associated with the aquatic Eiseniella tetraedra in spring
near the St. Catherine monastery in South Sinai, and Allolboplora (Aporrectodea)
rosea (Eisenia rosea) on the slops of the Mountain of Moses, and near Monastery.
Allolobophoru jassyensis is found in the Delta and Eiseniella tetraedra in Sinai
(Ghabbour, 2009).
The scarcity of earthworm in Egyptian soils is mostly attributable to the aridity of the
climate and to the fact that the majority of cultivated land is under the plough (arable).
In an arid, almost rainless country like Egypt, earth worm, which are highly sensitive
to water loss, cannot move easily from a less to a more favorable place in or on dry
ground. Earthworms are scarce in Egypt because of acreage of favorable soils (e.g.
orchards and forest) is very small. Moreover, in other places (e.g. arable land soils)
the favorable conditions are transient. These favorable conditions are:
1. An undisturbed soil.
2. A regular and adequate water supply.
3. A fine soil texture (to raise the availability of water).
4. A regular and adequate supply of organic matter.
There are several well known species in Egypt, such as Aporrectodea caliginoosa that
can survive in sand dunes soils but numbers decreased with increased proportions of
gravel and sand.
Quantitative sampling for earthworms by hand-sorting was carried out in fourteen
localities in Beheira Governorate and adjacent areas by El-Duweini and Ghabbour
(1965). They collected five different species: 1- Gordiodrilus sp., 2- Pheretima
califonica ; 3-Pheretima Elongate; 4- Allolbophora caliginoosa f. trapezoids and 5Eisenia rosea f. Biomastoides. A number of juvenile lumbrivids found in cattle

enclosure could not be ascribed with certainty to either of the latter two species and
are therefore recorded separately.
1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting
Vermiculture is the process of breeding worms. Growers usually pay for their
feedstock, and the worm castings are often considered a waste product. Vermiculture
is the culture of earthworms. The goal is to continually increase the number of worms
in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. The worms are either used to expand a
vermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the same or other
purposes.
Vermicomposting, is a simple biotechnological process of composting, "Vermi" is a
Latin word meaning "worm" and thus, vermicomposting is composting with the aid of
worms, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of
waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting differs from
composting in several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms and
earthworms that are active at 1032C (not ambient temperature but temperature
within the pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than composting;
because the material passes through the earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fully
understood transformation takes place, whereby the resulting earthworm castings
(worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified
with pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, through
a type of biological alchemy, are capable of transforming garbage into valuable
material (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicomposting is to
produce vermicompost as quickly and efficiently as possible. If the goal is to produce
vermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be maintained all of the
time. If the goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enough
that reproductive rates are optimized.
It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matter
during a composting or a vermicomposting process, regardless of the type of organic
matter used, but knowledge of the chemical and biochemical properties of such
extracellular enzymes is very scanty (Bentez et al., 2000).
Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manage
organic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010).
Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is
the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm.
Vermicast is very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain high
amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castings
contain: 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1 times
more calcium than found in good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure,
drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. Vermicast can hold close to nine times their
weight in water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter and helps inducing
flowering and fruit-bearing in higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of
pests and diseases (Venkatesh and Eevera, 2008 ).

1.7. Compost vs. vermicompost

Composting, generally defined as the biological aerobic transformation of an organic
byproduct into a different organic product that can be added to the soil without
detrimental effects on crop growth, has been indicated as the most adequate method
for pre-treating and managing organic wastes. In the process of composting, organic
wastes are recycled into stabilized products that can be applied to the soil as an
odorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, which would respond more
efficiently and safely than the fresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The
conventional and most traditional method of composting consists of an accelerated
biooxydation of the organic matter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45 to
65C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide and water.
Vermicomposts contain nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants such
as nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, and soluble potassium, calcium, and
magnesium. Vermicomposts should have a great potential in the horticultural and
agricultural industries as media for plant growth. Vermicomposts, whether used as
soil additives or as components of horticultural media, improved seed germination
and enhanced rates of seedling growth and development.
However, composting and vermicomposting are quite distinct processes, particularly
concerning the optimum temperatures for each process and the types of microbial
communities that predominate during active processing (i.e. thermophilic bacteria in
composting, mesophilic bacteria and fungi in vermicomposting). The wastes
processed by the two systems are also quite different. Vermicomposts have a much
finer structure than composts and contain nutrients in forms that are readily available
for plant uptake. There have also been reports of production of plant growth
regulators in the vermicomposts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that there should be
considerable differences in the performances and effects of composts and
vermicomposts on plant growth when used as soil amendments or as components of
horticultural plant growth media (Atiyeh et al., 2000).

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting

implementation in Egypt
The historical background, geographic distribution of earth worms, types of
earthworms, native earthworm species, formal definitions of vermiculture and
vermicomposting, and a comparison between compost and vermicompost were
introduced in the previous chapter. This chapter deals with the physical requirements
of vermiculture and vermicompost, and ends by the implementation trial of both
vermiculture and vermicompost in Egypt, including all details of this trial.
2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting
Compost worms need five basic principles: a hospitable living environment, usually
called bedding, a food source, adequate moisture (greater than 50% water content
by weight), adequate aeration, and protection from temperature extremes. These five
essentials are discussed below in more details according to Munroe (2007).
2.1.1. Bedding
Bedding is any material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat. This
habitat must have the following characteristics:
- High absorbency. Worms breathe through their skins and therefore must have a
moist environment in which to live. If a worms skin dries out, it dies. The bedding
must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well if the worms are to thrive.
- Good bulking potential. If the material is too dense to begin with, or packs too
tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. Worms require oxygen to live,
just as we do. Different materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding through
a variety of factors, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, and
the strength and rigidity of its structure.
- Low protein and/or nitrogen content (high carbon: nitrogen ratio). Although the
worms do consume their bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this be
a slow process. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and its
associated heating, creating inhospitable, often fatal, conditions. Heating can occur
safely in the food layers of the vermiculture or vermicomposting system, but not in
the bedding.
Some materials make good beddings all by themselves, while others lack one or more
of the above characteristics and need to be used in various combinations. Table 2.1
provides a list of some of the most commonly used beddings and provides some input
regarding each materials absorbency, bulking potential, and carbon to nitrogen (C:N)
ratios.

10

Table 2.1. Common Bedding Materials:

Bedding Material
Horse Manure
Peat Moss
Corn Silage
Hay general
Straw general
Straw oat
Straw wheat
Paper from municipal waste stream
Newspaper
Bark hardwoods
Bark -- softwoods
Corrugated cardboard
Lumber mill waste -- chipped
Paper fiber sludge
Paper mill sludge
Sawdust
Shrub trimmings
Hardwood chips, shavings
Softwood chips, shavings
Leaves (dry, loose)
Corn stalks
Corn cobs
Source: Munroe (2007).

Absorbency
Medium-Good
Good
Medium-Good
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
Medium-Good
Good
Poor
Poor
Good
Poor
Medium-Good
Good
Poor-Medium
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor-Medium
Poor
Poor-Medium

Bulking Pot.
Good
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium-Good
Medium
Medium-Good
Medium
Medium
Good
Good
Medium
Good
Medium
Medium
Poor-Medium
Good
Good
Good
Poor-Medium
Good
Good

C:N Ratio
22 - 56
58
38 - 43
15 - 32
48 - 150
48 - 98
100 - 150
127 - 178
170
116 - 436
131 - 1285
563
170
250
54
142 - 750
53
451 - 819
212 - 1313
40 - 80
60 - 73
56 - 123

Researchers in Canada made an experiment to determine the feasibility of mixing

municipally generated fiber wastes (e.g., non-recyclable paper, corrugated cardboard,
and boxboard) with farm wastes (animal manures) and processing the mixture with
worms (large-scale vermiculture) to produce a commercially viable compost product
for farms. The results show that the greatest worm population increases were in the
pure shredded cardboard or in the high-fiber-content cow-manure mixes, but that
biomass changes were more positive in the chicken-manure series (GEORG, 2004).
2.1.2. Worm Food
Compost worms are big eaters. Under ideal conditions, they are able to consume more
than their body weight each day, although the general rule-of-thumb is of their
body weight per day. Table 2.2 summarizes the most important attributes of some
worm food that could be used in an on-farm vermicomposting or vermiculture
operation.

11

Table 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed.

Food
Advantages
Disadvantages
Notes
Good nutrition; natural Weed seeds make
All manures are partially
Cattle manure food, therefore little
pre-composting
decomposed and thus ready
adaptation required.
necessary.
for consumption by worms.
Poultry
High N content results High protein levels
manure
in good nutrition and a can be dangerous to
Some books suggest that
high value product.
worms, so must be
poultry manure is not
used in small
suitable for worms because
quantities; major
it is so hot; however,
adaptation required
research in has shown that
for worms not used to worms can adapt if initial
this feedstock. May
proportion of PM to
be precomposted but
bedding is 10% by volume
not necessary if used
or less.
cautiously.
Sheep/Goat
Good nutrition.
Require
manure
precomposting (weed
With right additives to
seeds); small particle
increase C:N ratio, these
size can lead to
manures are also good
packing, necessitating
beddings
extra bulking
material.
Rabbit manure N content second only
Must be leached prior Many U.S. rabbit growers
to poultry manure,
to use because of high place earthworm beds
therefore good
urine content; can
under their rabbit hutches
nutrition; contains
overheat if quantities to catch the pellets as they
very good mix of
too large; availability drop through the wire mesh
vitamins & minerals;
usually not good
cage floors.
ideal earthworm feed.
Fresh food
Excellent nutrition,
Extremely variable
Some food wastes are
scraps (e.g.,
good moisture content, (depending on
much better than others:
peels, other
possibility of revenues source); high N can
coffee
grounds
are
food prep
from waste tipping
result in heating; meat excellent, as they are high
waste,
fees.
& high-fat wastes can in N, not greasy or smelly,
leftovers,
create anaerobic
and are attractive to
commercial
conditions and odors, worms; alternatively, root
food
attract pests, so
vegetables (e.g., potato
processing
should not be
culls) resist degradation
wastes)
included without
and require a long time to
precomposting.
be consumed.
Precomposted Good nutrition; partial Nutrition less than
Vermicomposting
can
food wastes
decomposition makes with fresh food
speed the curing process
digestion by worms
wastes.
for
conventional
easier and faster; can
composting
operations
include meat and other
while increasing value of
greasy wastes; less
end product.
tendency to overheat.

12

Food
Bio-solids
(human
waste)

Advantages
Excellent nutrition
and excellent product;
can be activated or
non-activated sludge,
septic sludge;
possibility of waste
management revenues

Seaweed

Good nutrition; results

in excellent product,
high in micronutrients
and beneficial
microbes
Higher N content
makes these good feed
as well as reasonable
bedding.

Legume hays

Grains (e.g.,
feed mixtures
for
animals, such
as chicken
mash)
Corrugated
cardboard
(including
Waxed)

Fish, poultry
offal; blood
wastes; animal
mortalities

Excellent, balanced
nutrition, easy to
handle, no odor, can
use organic grains for
certified organic
product.
Excellent nutrition
(due to high protein
glue used to hold
layers together);
worms like this
material; possible
revenue source from
WM fees
High N content
provides good
nutrition; opportunity
to turn problematic
wastes into highquality product

Disadvantages
Heavy metal and/or
chemical
contamination (if
from municipal
sources); odor during
application to beds
(worms control fairly
quickly); possibility
of pathogen survival
if process not
complete
Salt must be rinsed
off, as it is
detrimental to worms;
availability
varies by region
Moisture levels not as
high as other feeds,
requires more input
and monitoring
Higher value than
most feeds, therefore
expensive to use; low
moisture content;
some larger seeds
hard to digest and
slow to break down

Notes
Vermitech Pty Ltd. in
Australia has been very
successful with this
process, but they use
automated systems; EPAfunded tests in Florida
demonstrated that worms
destroy human pathogens
as well as does
thermophillic composting
(Eastman et al., 2001).
Beef farmer in Antigonish,
Nova Scotia, Canada, are
producing certified organic
vermicompost from cattle
manure, bark, and seaweed
Probably best to mix this
feed with others, such as
manures
Danger: Worms consume
grains but cannot digest
larger, tougher kernels;
these are passed in castings
and build up in bedding,
resulting in sudden
overheating.

Must be shredded
(waxed variety)
and/or soaked (nonwaxed) prior to
feeding

Some worm growers claim

that corrugated cardboard
stimulates worm
reproduction

Must be
precomposted until
past Thermophillic
stage

Composting of offal, blood

wastes, etc. is difficult and
produces strong odors.
Should only be done with
in- vessel systems; much
bulking required.

Source: Munroe (2007).

13

2.1.3. Moisture
The bedding used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if the worms are to have a
livable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breathing devices. They
breathe through their skin, which needs to remain moist to facilitate respiration. Like
their aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live for months completely submerged in
water, and they will die if they dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-content
range for materials in conventional composting systems is 45-60%. In contrast, the
ideal moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 7090%. Within this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums:
Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between the
moisture content and the growth rate of earthworms. E. andrei cultured in pig manure
grew and matured between 65 and 90% moisture content, the optimum being 85%.
Until 85% moisture, the higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, as
measured by the increase in biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly
accelerated the development of sexual maturity, whereas not all the worms at 65-75%
developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturity
had greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lower
moisture contents. Canadian researchers in Nova Scotia tested moisture contents with
different bedding materials, i.e. organic materials included shredded corrugated
cardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost,
biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure and dairy cow manure in a variety of
combinations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growth
and reproductive response (GEORG, 2004).
The moisture content preferences of juvenile and clitellate cocoon-producing (adult)
E. fetida in separated cow manure have been investigated. It ranged from 50% to 80%
for adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levels
from 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred in earthworms at a moisture
content from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%.
The tolerance limit for low moisture conditions on the growth of E. fetida was
reported to be below 50% for up to 1 month (Reinecke and Venter, 1987). While
Gunadi et al. (2003) found that the earthworm growth rate was fastest in the separated
cattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight of
earthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate of E. fetida was in the
separated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%.
2.1.4. Aeration
Worms require oxygen and cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absence
of oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease in the feedstock or excessive
moisture combined with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas of
the worm bed, or even the entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill the
worms very quickly. Not only are the worms deprived of oxygen, they are also killed
by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloom
under these conditions. This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or other
greasy wastes in worm feedstock unless they have been pre-composted to break down
the oils and fats.

14

2.1.5. Temperature control

Controlling temperature to within the worms tolerance is vital to both
vermicomposting and vermiculture processes.
2.1.5.1. Low temperatures
Eisenia can survive in temperatures as low as 0oC, but they dont reproduce at singledigit temperatures and they dont consume as much food. It is generally considered
necessary to keep the temperatures above 10oC (minimum) and preferably 15oC for
vermicomposting efficiency and above 15oC (minimum) and preferably 20oC for
productive vermiculture operations.
2.1.5.2. Effects of freezing
Eisenia can survive having their bodies partially encased in frozen bedding and will
only die when they are no longer able to consume food. Moreover, tests at the Nova
Scotia Agricultural College (NSAC) have confirmed that their cocoons survive
extended periods of deep freezing and remain viable (GEORG, 2004).
2.1.5.3. High temperatures
Compost worms can survive temperatures in the mid-30s but prefer a range in the 20s
(oC). Above 35oC will cause the worms to leave the area. If they cannot leave, they
will quickly die. In general, warmer temperatures (above 20oC) stimulate
reproduction.
Hou et al. (2005) studied the influence of some environmental parameters on the
growth and survival of earthworms in municipal solid waste. Earthworms attained the
highest growth rate of 0.0459g / g-day at a temperature of 19.7C. The shortest growth
period was 52 days at 25C, with the largest growth rate 0.0138 g /g-day. At 15C,
20C and 25C, the fastest growth rate appeared, respectively, in 53 days, 34 days and
27 days, with the growth rate 0.0068, 0.0123 and 0.0138 g /g-day.
Activities in all soil organisms follow a typical seasonal fluctuation. This cycle is
related to optimal temperature and moisture, such that a peak in activity usually
occurs in the spring as temperature and moisture become optimal after cold winter
temperatures. In systems where snow accumulates on the soil surface, such that the
soil does not actually freeze, fungal activity may continue at high levels throughout
the winter in litter. Decomposition may continue at the highest rates through the
winter under the snow in the litter. In systems where moisture becomes limiting in the
summer, activity may reach levels even lower than in the winter. When temperatures
remain warm in the fall and rain begins again after a summer drought, such as in
Mediterranean climates, a second peak of activity may be observed in the fall. If these
peaks are not observed, this suggests inadequate organic matter in the soil.

15

The growth of E. fetida in organic matter substrates with different moisture

contents and temperatures has been studied by various authors in the laboratory. This
species gained weight maximally and survived best at temperatures between 20C
and 29C and moisture contents between 70% and 85% in horse manure and activated
sludge (Kaplan et al., 1980). Edwards (1988) reported that the optimum growth of E.
fetida in different animal and vegetable wastes occurred at 25-30C and at a moisture
content range of 75-90%, but these factors could vary in different substrates.
2.1.5.4. Wormss response to temperature differentials.
Compost worms will redistribute themselves within piles, beds or windrows
according to temperature gradients. In outdoor composting windrows in wintertime,
where internal heat from decomposition is in contrast to frigid external temperatures,
the worms will be found in a relatively narrow band at a depth where the temperature
is close to optimum. They will also be found in much greater numbers on the south
facing side of windrows in the winter and on the opposite side in the summer.
Edwards (1988) studied the life cycles and optimal conditions for survival and growth
of E. fetida, D. veneta, E. eugeniae, and P. excavatus. Each of these four species
differed considerably in terms of their responses and tolerance to different
temperatures. The optimum temperature for E. fetida was 25 C, and its temperature
tolerance was between 0 and 35C. Dendrobaena veneta had a rather low temperature
optimum and rather less tolerance to extreme temperatures. The optimum
temperatures for E. eugeniae and P. excavatus were around 25 C, but they died at
temperatures below 9C and above 30C. Optimal temperatures for cocoon
production were much lower than those for growth for all these species.
2.2. Methods of vermicomposting
2.2.1. Pits below the ground
Pit of any convenient dimension can be constructed in the backyard or garden or
in a field. It may be single pit, two pits or tank of any sizes with brick and mortar with
proper water outlets. The most convenient pit or chamber of easily manageable size is
2m x 1m x 0.75m. The size of the pits and chambers should be determined according
to the volume of biomass and agricultural waste. To combat the ants from attacking
the worms, it is good to have a water column in the centre of the parapet wall of the
vermin-pits.

Photo 2.1.
Open Pit Vermicomposting
Source: Kirungakottai
(http://www.icasaweb.google.com)

16

2.2.2. Heaping above the ground

The waste material is spread on a polythene sheet placed on the ground and then
covered with cattle dung. Sunitha et al. (1997) compared the efficacy of pit and heap
methods of preparing vermicompost under field conditions. Considering the
biodegradation of wastes as the criterion, the heap method of preparing vermicompost
was better than the pit method. Earthworm population was high in the heap method,
with a 21-fold increase in Eudrilus eugenae as compared to 17-fold increase in the pit
method. Biomass production was also higher in the heap method (46-fold increase)
than in the pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was also
higher in the heap method (51 kg) than in the pit method (40 kg). On the contrary,
Saini (2008) compared the efficacy of pit and heap methods under field conditions
over three seasons (winter, summer and rainy) using, Eisenia fetida. A pit size of 2
0.5 0.6 m (length width depth); and heap of size 2 0.6 0.5 m (length width
hight) were prepared with the same amount of mixture. The pits and heaps were
made under shady trees, in open field having a temporary shed made of straw, raised
on pillars, to prevent them from direct sunlight and rainfall. The pits had brick linings
and plastered bottoms. The pits and heaps carrying the organic waste mixture were
covered with gunny bags and were watered at 10 liter/pit or heap daily, except on
rainy days, to maintain moisture. On the basis of the results of three seasons, it was
concluded that summer and winter were better for the pit method, whereas the rainy
season favored the heap method for vermicomposting, utilizing Eisenia fetida.
However, if the annual performance of the two methods is compared, the pit method
produced more worms and more biomass. Therefore, on the latter grounds, the pit
method of vermicomposting is more suitable than the heap method in the semi-arid
sub-tropical regions of North-West India.

Photo 2.2.
Open heap vermicomposting
Source: Department of Agriculture,
Andaman & Nicobar:
(http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm)

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground

Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, local
stones, asbestos sheets and locally available rocks were evaluated for vermicompost
preparation (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

17

Photo 2.3.
Commercial vermicompost operation
at KCDC Bangalore, India.
Source: Basavaiah (2006)

2.2.4. Cement rings

Vermicompost can also be prepared above the ground by using cement rings. The size
of the cement ring should be 90 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height (Nagavallemma et
al., 2004).

Photo 2.4.
Cement ring
vermicomposting.
Source: Nagavallemma et al.
(2004)

2.2.5. Commercial model

This model contains partition walls with small holes to facilitate easy movement
of earthworms from one chamber to another (Figure 2.1). Providing an outlet at one
corner of each chamber with a slight slope facilitates collection of excess water. The
four components are filled with plant residues one after another. Once the first
chamber is filled layer by layer along with cow dung, earthworms are released. Then
the second chamber is started filling layer by layer. Once the contents in first chamber
are decomposed the earthworms move to the chamber 2, which is already filled and
ready for earthworms. This facilitates harvesting of decomposed material from the
first chamber and also saves labor for harvesting and introducing earthworms. This
technology reduces labor cost and saves water as well as time (Twomlow, 2004).
Water is saved by reducing evaporation from the surface during handling from one
room to another in limited distances with minimum exposure to drier air outside.
Tanks can be constructed with the dimensions suitable for operations. with small
holes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one tank to the other.

18

Photo 2.5.
Commercial vermicomposting unit
Source: Ecoscience
Research Foundation:
(http://www.erfindia.org)

Vermicomposting based on the use of worms results in high quality compost. The
process does not require physical turning of the material. To maintain aerobic
conditions and limit the temperature rise, the bed or pile of materials needs to be of
limited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth and activity of
worms. Composting period is longer as compared to other rapid methods and varies
between six to twelve weeks.

Figure 2.1.
Commercial model of
vermicomposting
developed by
ICRISAT.
Source: Twomlow,
2004.

19

2.3. The trial experience in Egypt

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:
Four types of earthworms were brought to Egypt from Australia. from Australia:
Lumbriscus Rubellus (Red Worm), Eisenia Fetida (Tiger Worm), Perionyx Excavatus
(Indian Blue), and Eudrilus Eugeniae (African Night Crawler).

Photo 2.6.
Earthworms used in
Egypt
Source: Auther

2.3.2. Bedding
Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aiming at increasing the
population and known as breeding vermiculture. The other type is the growing system
aiming at converting organic matter into vermicompost.
Commercially available perforated plastic containers, generally used for harvesting
fruits and vegetables, each has the dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long and 20cm
height were used for the breeding system. The first 5cm from the bottom was lined by
a mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard and 1/3 shredded newspaper, as bedding
material. The cardboard and newspaper were wetted in a bucket of water; and
allowing the excess water to run out before using. The next layer was 5cm of pH
neutral castings spread evenly, then 1-2kg/m of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2
days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded
newspaper to keep moisture.
The growing system was made of brick, with the dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height,
and 3m long, and 0.5m between beds. The bottom of the beds was insulated by 20cm
cement layer with a slight slope in order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo
2.7).
The sequence of layers for the growing beds was the same as the breeding system
except that the base of the bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, and
the worms spread over the surface were the juvenile worms only.

20

Photo 2.7.
Trial vermicompost set up at
Dokki.
Source: Author

2.3.3. Food
For the feeding of the breeding boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure and fresh kitchen
scraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed well
in the mixing unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added in one strip along
lengthwise wall in a maximum 5cm thick and 10cm wide. The feed was supplied
again only when first strip is finished, and the new feed is added along opposite wall.
As for the growing beds, the feed varies over time. Potato wastes from the
manufacturers as potato peels were brought into the site to be dried and used as
needed. Plant wastes from the location were shredded and mixed with animal manure
to be composted for 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was the base feed that
goes to the mixing unit with available fruits and vegetable wastes were brought from
the nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on the surface of the beds.

Photo 2.8.
Mixture of food wastes and shredded
plant material ready to be mixed in the
rotating machine.
Source: Author

In order to facilitate the work, a shredding machine was manufactured locally (Photo
2.9) to prepare large plant material before mixed with other fruit or vegetable wastes
using a rotating mixing machine.

21

Photo 2.9.
The locally manufactured shredding
machine.
Source: Author

2.3.4. Moisture
The rule of thump is to check manually for moisture on a daily basis to ensure that is
not too dry, and when watering it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh water
was used. The breeding boxes were rearranged to make the first on the top to become
the first from the bottom in order to avoid moisture variations between the boxes.
The instructions were:
- Water little and often only the newspaper on the surface should be wet.
- Water after checking the bed surface if already damp, skip one watering.
- Water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation.
- Use a spray or mist, not jets of water.
2.3.5. Aeration
The aeration was maintained as the bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient bedding
material, and the surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a
problem mainly if watering is not done properly leading to too wet conditions.
Only the newspaper on the surface should be wet, and as mentioned earlier, water
should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. Beds
must be mixed if:
- The bed smells bad.
- The bed is too wet.
- The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch.
- The worms are not distributed evenly on the surface.
- The section of bed turned only when there is no food on the surface of
the bed, and to a depth of 10-15cm only.

22

2.3.6. Temperature
The location of the growing beds was selected in order to avoid strong winds. A
shading roof made of reed mats was installed in order to prevent direct solar radiation
over the beds in summer. The mats were removed during the winter.
Narrower mats were used to cover the beds, as they shade the growing beds, and also
protect from birds, cats or dogs.
The breeding boxes were laid under grape vines grown in a shaded greenhouse. In
winter, the vines were pruned allowing sun to penetrate, while in summer the shading
screens and the shade of the green leaves of the vines were pleasant, not only
temperature wise, but also moisture as well. No other temperature control measures
were used and this made growing and breeding conditions maintained stable over both
summer and winter without major reduction in worms activities. Temperatures
maintained by daily checking. The general practice was to turn the beds or boxes
when conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must
be mixed gently in order to allow air flow between the layers. In such cases,
precomposted food must be used to prevent over heating from organic matter
decomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side to
another horizontally, and from the bottom to be close to surface and close or far from
the food according to the comfortable combination of moisture and humidity. In such
dynamic situations, temperature varies over time of the day, season, type of organic
material, the covering material, as well as uniformity of the beds.

Photo 2.10.
The shaded growing beds at Dokki
greenhouse station.
Source: Author

2.3.7 Harvesting
Harvesting is an important procedure for the success of vermiculture operations.
Regardless of the harvesting target, it should be done quickly and simply. The target
of harvest could be castings, adult worms or babies and eggs.
a- Harvesting castings is performed according to the following steps:
- Selecting a growing bed.

23

Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed.
Waiting 1-2 days
Scooping out from the centre of the bed some castings.
Checking for eggs and worms these should be very limited.
Collecting castings from centre of bed.
Spreading castings to dry.
When castings clump and crumble, pack into plastic bags with pinprick holes

Photo 2. 11. Harvesting of

castings.
source: Basavaiah (2006)

b- Harvesting adult worms is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a growing bed.
- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure inside 70% shade-cloth along
centre of bed.
- Waiting 1-2 days.
- Collecting worms and castings from side walls.

Photo 2. 12.
Harvested adult worms from the
growing beds.
Source: Author

24

Checking size of worm should be approaching reproductive state and

clitellum should be noticeable.
Placing adult worms in breeding beds.
Checking castings for eggs - replace in growing bed.

Photo 2. 13.
A couple of adult worms, with clear
clitellum in both of them.
Source: Author

c- Harvesting babies is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a breeding bed.
- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure or thin fruit peels (not citrus)
inside 90% shade-cloth along centre of bed.
- Waiting1-2 days.
- Emptying contents straight into growing bed, under newspaper cover.
- Checking for babies that may be caught in shade-cloth.
d- Harvesting eggs is performed according to the following steps:
- Selecting a breeding bed.
- Baiting one side of the bed.
- Wait 1-2 days.
- Scooping out the bed on the opposite side of the bait.
- Checking for adult worms and replace in bed.
- Placing contents directly in growing bed.
- Placing new bedding and food on empty side of breeding bed.
Photo 2.14.
Worm eggs.
Source: Author

25

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate

The previous two chapters covered the historical background as well as the trial The
Philippines, Cuba and India are examples of countries with similar overall conditions
to Egypt Their technologies are simple and could be easily adapted to the local
conditions. The United States of America is the model example of advanced
technologies in vermiculture. Such examples will broaden the readers choice with
what could be done in the future. Unfortunately, vermicompost and vermiculture are
very limited in MENA region, Most of the studies look at utilization of local species
to produce vermicompost. For example, Aldadi et al. (2005), Nourbakhsh (2007) and
Yousefi et al. (2009) had some studies in Iran aiming for waste water treatment.
Therefore, the following examples were selected to broaden the picture of commercial
production. One could adapt or modify any of them or even create a newer version.
3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines
The worms used are Lumbricus rubellus and/or Perionyx excavator. The worms are
reared and multiplied from a commercially-obtained breeder stock in shallow wooden
boxes stored in a shed. The boxes are approximately 45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm and have
drainage holes; they are stored on shelves in rows and tiers. A bedding material is
compounded from miscellaneous organic residues such as sawdust, cereal straw, rice
husks, bagasse, cardboard and so on, and is moistened well with water. The wet
mixture is stored for about one month, being covered with a damp sack to minimize
evaporation, and is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete,
chicken manure and green matter such as water hyacinth is added. The material is
placed in the boxes and should be sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow and
should be able to retain moisture. The proportions of the different materials will vary
according to the nature of the material but a final protein content of about 15% should
be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary and the boxes should
be kept at temperatures between 20oC and 27oC. At higher temperatures, the worms
will aestivate and, at lower temperatures, they hibernate. The excess worms that have
been harvested from the pit can be used in other pits, sold to other farmers for the
same purpose, used or sold for use as animal feed supplement, used or sold for use as
fish food or, may even be used in certain human food preparations (Misra and Roy,
2003).
African night crawler was introduced in the Philippines in the 1970s for the
production vermicastings as an organic fertilizer. Its use today remains focused for
this purpose. Recently, with rising cost of imported fishmeal, a study explores on the
commercial farming of the species, specifically on its production economics, and the
technical challenges in husbandry and operation (Cruz, 2005). This project was
funding assistance of the DOST-PCAMRD1 . The site chosen was a flat but slightly
inclining area (around 3%) of approximately 1,000 m2. It is partially shaded by
mahogany trees in the morning and the afternoon. The soil is clay loam with nearly
neutral pH. Water used for the experiment was provided from an adjacent deep well.
1

Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, (Department of Science and
Technology)

26

A total of 8 units of 1 m x 5 m earthworm plots were constructed on bare

ground utilizing roofing material as sidewalls. The sidewalls had a total height of
around 40 cm, of which 3-4 cm was sunk on the ground. Wooden stakes supported
these sidewalls. Each plot was sub-divided into two units of 1 m x 2.5 m beds for ease
of management. The unit was provided with a hapa net lining, to prevent the worms
from digging beneath the substrate and escaping. Plots were covered with a plastic
sheet to protect it from direct sunlight and rain. A horizontal wooden beam stretching
the length of plot and held by vertical poles provided the support for the plastic sheet
cover. Earthworm plots were kept covered with a plastic canopy, and opened only
during inspection or when watering was done.

Photo 3.1.
Earthworm plots showing plastic
covers and support frame
Source: Wormsphilippines.com

Several types of substrates were used in the study; these were sugarcane bagasse,
mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, and cow manure. The plots were watered every
3-6 days, depending on the weather. During the dry months, watering was routinely
done every 3 days.
Based on the data and experience gathered in this study, the cost and return
projection for a larger scale earthworm farm are based on the following key
assumptions:
-

3 full-time workers with a salary of PhP150 (3.33$)/day

Crop cycle of 60 days (2 months), or 6 production cycles/yr
Total of 52 units of 2.5 m2 area earthworm plots
Stocking of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month)
Harvesting of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month)
Earthworm stocking biomass of 3 kg/plot and harvest biomass of 9 kg/plot,
fter 60 days (200% biomass gain)
Total substrate volume of 600 kg/plot/crop cycle based on two 300 kg
loadings
70% recovery of vermicastings from total substrate weight
20% recovery of vermi-meal from total earthworm biomass

The total operational cost for 52 plots for a 2 month crop cycle is estimated at
PhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), including the cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost
assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated in 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of

27

vermicastings produced per crop is 21,840 kg based on a production of 420 kg/plot

(from 600 kg x 70% recovery). The total gross production of earthworm biomass per
crop is 468 kg, based on a yield of 9 kg/plot (from the 3 kg starter and 6 kg of biomass
gain). At the selling price of 0.11$/kg of vermicastings and 0.22$/kg for the
earthworms biomass, gross sales for one crop cycle is estimated at 2356.11$ and
1035.62$, respectively. This would provide the venture a net profit of around 742.73$
every 2 months, and a rate of return of 249.83% annually. The study suggests a
potential for developing the use of earthworms in farm-made moist feeds. Such type
of feed is simple to produce and is proven to work well when properly formulated and
processed. In as much as the production technology for earthworm farming can be
readily adopted at the village level, where organic raw materials abound and where
labor is cheap.
3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba
In Cuba, different methods are used for worm propagation and vermicomposting. The
first and most common is cement troughs, two feet wide and six feet long, much like
livestock watering troughs, used to raise worms and create worm compost. Because of
the climate, they are watered by hand every day. In these beds, the only feedstock for
the worms is manure, which is aged for about one week before being added to the
trough.
First, a layer of three to four inches of manure is placed in the empty trough, then
worms are added. As the worms consume the manure, more manure is layered on top,
roughly every ten days, until the worm compost reaches within a couple inches of the
top of the trough, about two months. Then the worms are separated from the compost
and transferred to another trough.
The second method of vermicomposting is windrows, where cow manure is piled
about three feet across and three feet wide, and then it is seeded with worms. As the
worms work their way through it, fresh manure is added to the end of the row, and the
worms move forward. The rows are covered with fronds or palm leaves to keep them
shaded and cool. Some of these rows have a drip system - a hose running alongside
the row with holes in it. But mostly, the rows are watered by hand. Some of these
rows are hundreds of feet long. The compost is gathered from the opposite end when
the worms have moved forward. Then it is bagged and sold. Fresh manure, seeded
with worms, begins the row and the process again. Some of the windrows have bricks
running along their sides, but most are simply piles of manure without sides or
protection. Manure is static composted for 30 days, then transferred to rows for
worms to be added. After 90 days, the piles reach three feet high. It has been reported
that worm populations can double in 60 to 90 days.

28

Photo 3.2.
Windrows vermicomposting method:
in Havana, Cuba .
Source: newfarm.org

3.3. Vermicomposting in India

A study on production and marketing of vermicompost was carried out during 200708 in Dharwad District of Karnataka (Shivakumar et al., 2009). The study made an
attempt to analyze the economics of vermicompost production, marketing methods
followed, financial feasibility of vermicomposting and the problems faced in
vermicompost production and marketing in Dharwad District. The players involved in
vermicompost production activities are the farming sector, government organizations,
private organizations and other agencies. This has encouraged many government and
nongovernment agencies to promote vermicompost production. The rough estimates
indicate that Karnataka state produces around 40,000 to 50,000 metric tons annually.
The study pertains to Dharwad district. Two locations of the district, namely Dharwad
and Kalaghatagi were purposively selected and two villages each were randomly
selected from each location. For the economics of production, 10 vermicompost
producers, who followed traditional heap system of vermicomposting, were randomly
selected from each village. Thus, the total sample size was 40 producers. The results
revealed that 70 % of vermicompost producers were illiterate. With regard to family
type of vermicompost producers, it can be seen that as many as 60 % of them had a
family, while 40 percent had joint families. A majority of them (~70 %) had annual
income in the range of $257 to 1070$ followed by around 18 per cent of them having
income of more than $1070 per annum and the rest having annual income of less than
$257. With respect to method of production, heap method of vermicomposting was
followed by 70 % of the producers and trench method was followed by the remaining
30 %. With respect to method of production, a majority of respondents were found to
produce vermicompost using heap method because it costs considerably lower
compared to the trench method of production. The production of Vermicompost
provided part time employment for the family members and hence it generated
additional revenue for the family.
The total cost of production of vermicompost per ton was 28.6$. The total marketing
cost amounted to $4.3 per ton in channel-I (the producer-seller sold the produce to

29

users in Dharwad) and $3.2 per ton in channel-II (the producer-seller sold the produce
through BAIF to the users in Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompost
were $26 in channel-I compared to $24.5 in channel-II. The net present value for the
vermicompost production was $2136.89, the benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate
was 3.44, internal rate of return was 38% and payback period was 1.71 years.
Some islands in India such as Andaman and Nicobar islands are known for their wide
variety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, cinnamon,
nutmeg and vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required for 1000 kg of
biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required for one square meter
area. Non burrowing species are mostly used for compost making. Red earthworm
species like Eisenia foetida and Eudrillus enginae are most efficient in compost
making. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown in Table
3.1.
Women self-help groupes (SHGs) in several watersheds in India have set up
vermicomposting enterprises. By becoming an earning member of the family, they are
involved in the decision-making process, which has raised their social status. One of
the women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has also
inspired and trained 300 peers in 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Photo 3.3.
Women self-help group involved
in vermicomposting, to promote
micro-enterprises and generate
income
Source: Nagavallemma et al.
(2004)

30

Table 3.1. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale in Andaman and
Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India:
Parameters
Area (ha)
Cropping System
Vermicompost requirement
(kg/year)
Crop residue requirement (kg)
Gliricidia production from
fence (kg)
Cow dung required (kg)
Number of animals required
Total waste for composting (kg)
Earth worms required (kg)
RCC rings required
Number of units
Capital Cost / year (A)
Cost of rings $
Cost of shed $
Running cost /year (B)
Labour and Miscellaneous cost
Packaging cost
Total (A+B)
Returns / year
Vermicompost
production (kg/year)
Returns

Low lying area

Hilly area

0.08
Paddyvegetable

5.08
Coconut/
2
Areca_nut
spices

Low lying +
Hilly area
5.08
Paddy-vegetable
/ (1 ha) Coconut/
arecanut/spices (1 ha)

2500 + 5000
= 7500

2500

7500 + 2500 =10000

7750 Paddy
system +
homestead waste

1750 from
coconut or
areca_nut
plantations

3000 from paddy

system + 6500 from
plantations

1250

1250

2500

6000

2000 Kg

8000 kg

1 cow + 4 goats+
1 cow
10 poultry birds
15000
5000
7.5
2.5
6 rings
2rings
2 (3 rings +
1 (2 rings)
3 rings)
Expenditure/year

2cow
20000
10
8 rings
2 (4 rings+
4 rings)

191.8$
53.3

191.8$
53.3

255.8$
74.6$

127.9$
79.93$
452.9$

127.9$
79.93$
452.9$

159.86$
106.6$
596.8$

159.8

159.8

213.2

1438. 8$

1438. 8$

1918.2$

Net returns $ /year

985.8$
985.8$
1321.6$
Source: MBM-CARI-XIV, Vermicompost Production, central agricultural research institute, andaman
and nicobar islands,, Central Agricultural Research India.: http://cari.res.in/
1

Coconut and arecanut produces around 8100 and 6900 kg of wastes/year, respectively. Hence,
on an average, 7500 kg of wastes will be available per year for composting. If all the available
wastes are utilized for production, the requirement of cowdung will be 5500 kg/year which can be
met from one cow. Including Gliricidia, the total waste availability will be 15000 kg/year which
requires 7.5 kg of earth worms and 2 units comprising 3 rings + 3 rings for composting. The total
production will be 7500 kg of vermicompost/year. The additional quantity of 5000 kg/year
available can be sold.
2

Areca nut is the seed of the Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific,
Asia, and parts of east Africa

31

3.4. Vermicompost teas in Ohio, USA

These aqueous vermicompost extracts or teas are much easier to transport and apply,
than solid vermicomposts, and can duplicate most of the benefits of vermicomposts
when applied to the same crops. Additionally, they can be applied to crops as foliar
sprays.
Work at The Ohio State University has shown that vermicompost teas increased the
germination, growth, flowering, and yields of tomatoes, cucumbers, and other crops in
similar ways to solid vermicomposts. The aerated, vermicompost teas suppressed
the plant diseases Fusarium, Verticillium, Plectosporium, and Rhizoctonia to the same
extent as the solid.
Vermicompost teas also suppressed populations of spider mites (Tetranychus
urticae) and aphids (Myzus persicae) significantly.
Additionally, they had dramatic effects on the suppression of attacks by plant
parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne on tomatoes both in terms of reducing the
numbers of root cysts significantly and increasing root and shoot growth and Physicochemical characteristics of the feed and optimum worm density are important
parameters for the efficient working of a vermicomposting system. The results
showed that E. fetida growth rate was faster at higher stocking densities; however,
biomass gain per worm was faster at lower stocking densities. Sexual maturity was
attained earlier at higher stocking densities. Growth rate was highest in 100% cow
dung at all the stocking densities when compared to textile mill wastewater sludge
containing feed mixtures. A worm population of 2753 worms per kg of feed was
found to be the most favorable stocking density. Even when the physical conditions
(temperature and moisture) and quality of waste (size, total organic carbon, total
nitrogen, and total available phosphorus) are appropriate for vermicomposting,
problems can develop due to overcrowding of earthworms. This study clearly showed
that when E. fetida was allowed to grow at different stocking densities the worms
grew slowly at higher stocking densities. The maximum body weight of earthworm
was higher at lower stocking densities. Maturation rate was also affected by stocking
rate. Worms attained sexual maturity earlier in crowded containers. Worms of same
age developed clitellum at different times at different population densities. The results
indicate that population of 2753 worms per kg and 48 worms per 150 g/feed
mixture is optimum (Garg et al., 2008).
Most of the research on utilization of earthworms in waste management has focused
on the final product, i.e. the vermicompost. There are only few literature references
that have looked into the process, or examined the biochemical transformations that
are brought about by the action of earthworms as they fragment the organic matter,
resulting in the formation of a vermicompost with physicochemical and biological
properties which seem to be superior for plant growth to those of the parent material.
It has been reported that the storage of organic wastes over a period of time could
alter the biochemistry of the organic matter and could eventually lead to the
stabilization of the organic waste. Nevertheless, we hypothesize that adding
earthworms to the organic wastes would accelerate the stabilization of these wastes in

32

terms of decomposition and mineralization of the organic matter, leading to a more

suitable medium for plant growth(Atiyeh et al., 2000).
3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom
In the UK, although the number of indoor or enclosed systems appears to be
increasing, most vermicomposting systems would appear to be based on either
outdoor windrows or covered shallow beds. There is very little evidence of
mechanisation and the use of labor saving equipment, such as earthworm harvesters,
is rare. The bed is approximately 5m wide, 50m long and 0.5m deep. The beds
typically comprise wooden sides covered in a woven semi-permeable fabric
containing coir or shredded wood chip bedding placed directly on the soil surface.
When installed, the bed would have been inoculated with starting culture of adult
earthworms at a density of approximately 0.5kg earthworms per m3 of bed. Up until
recently, most vermicomposting facilities were modest in size with bed areas around
1,000 m2, but there is now a trend towards much larger units, as much as ten times
this size. Very large units can process large amounts of waste, of the order of
thousands of tonnes per year, making them comparable to many of the smaller
municipal composting operations.
There is very little information available on the nature of the vermicomposting
industry in the UK and what little exists is considered to be commercially sensitive.
There are at least four major suppliers of large-scale vermicomposting systems
currently operating. In year 2000, there were around 90 individual operators with
81,000 m2 of beds. The total investment would have exceeded 1.25 million
(Frederickson, 2003).

33

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices

in Egypt: gap analysis.
The most important material for compost production is the organic material. There are
two main sources of organic matter: farm wastes and urban wastes. In order to obtain
such materials, one should understand waste management practices in the area. This
chapter covers such an important subject.
4.1. On-farm organic waste
Agricultural wastes are defined according to the relevant legislation as waste from
agriculture that includes any substances or object which the holder discards or intends
or is required to discard. The disposal of biomass represents a problem for industries
and society. It has been estimated that the off-farm disposed plant and animal wastes
are 27 and 12 million tons annually, respectively. Burning of crop residues is a
problem in Egypt, especially rice wastes. Egypt cultivates about 360.000 ha of rice
according to 2008 statistics, with a production of 6 million tons of straw.
It is up to the grower to decide the way of disposing his agriculture wastes. The most
common practice for disposing is by dumping it at municipal waste sites, dumping it
in the desert or by simply burning it. The failure of any management plan to tackle the
agriculture waste, especially rice straw, is based on the assumption that this waste is
free, and the grower has to give it away. In fact the grower realizes that the waste
becomes valuable once collected and ready for transport. On the other hand, as long
as the residues are in his property, no one could force him to hand it over. For him,
burning the residue in site has some agricultural benefits, such as use of minerals of
the ash, or getting rid of insects and diseases on above the ground as a result of
burning.
Even though the practice is well known, farmers in many parts of the world especially
in developing countries find themselves at a disadvantage by not making the best use
of organic recycling opportunities available to them, due to various constraints which
among others include absence of efficient expeditious technology, long time span,
intense labor, land and investment requirements, and economic aspects.
In rural areas, in particular, the implementation of effective solid waste management
systems is faced with a number of constraints. These constraints are related to
environmental conditions, institutional/ administrative issues, financial matters,
technical deficiencies and planning and legal limitations.
As for agriculture waste, two options for treating rice straw are recommended. The
first is to collaborate with the fresh universities graduates to collect such dispersed
produced amount in order to be used in the compost making activities, the other
option is to install small manufactures for fiber processing to produce packages for
exported crops as rice straw could be used as a virgin material.

34

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt

There is an extreme shortage of the combining, raking and baling machines,
and no enough trucks to transport the ready straw bales (economical problem).
In addition, the un-paved dirt roads that makes the transportation between
farms and market (economical and managerial problems) almost impossible.
On the other hands, agricultural co-operations have to work to provide a
storage place for the ready bales, trucks and some mechanical equipment to
overcome the previous obstacles. To facilitate such work, GIS maps should
provide the farms sites in each governorate and a full study of the road status
that will be used for the transportation.
4.2. Urban wastes
Main four systems were involved in solid waste management before the trend to
privatization; The Governmental system including Cairo and Giza "Cleansing and
Beautification Authorities". These central agencies were responsible for municipal
solid waste activities including regulation of private service delivery. In spite of
creating such powerful entities, they were not effective and faced lots of problems.
The second system is the conventional Zabbaleen (informal waste collectors) system,
which offers door-to-door service in return for the monthly fee. Thirdly, there is the
formal private sector system, which has been introduced in larger cities and some
provincial towns. Each private operator must have a collection license or a service
contract for his assigned area from the local municipality. Finally, there is Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which perform some limited solid waste
services, especially in rural areas and small cities.
4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt
The problem of solid waste management in Egypt has been growing at an alarming
rate. Its negative manifestations, as well as its direct and indirect harmful
consequences on public health, environment and national economy (particularly as
related to manpower productivity and tourism) are becoming quite apparent and acute.
In large cities like Cairo and Alexandria the problem reached such serious proportions
that they called for considerable government intervention and a series of judicious
actions in the short, medium, and long term.
In essence, the problem as described in the National Waste Management Strategy
2000- lies in the fact that:
"The present systems could not satisfy the served community needs with its various
strata for a reasonably accepted cleansing level, as well as in reducing the negative
health and environmental impacts, or in improving the aesthetic appearance".

35

The clearly evident symptoms of the problem are:

- Various levels of waste accumulations at various places and locations that
became liable to various vectors (rodents and insects) and environmental
pollution, bad smells and appearance, aside from frequent uncontrolled open
burning that all contribute to negative health and environmental impacts.
- Ineffective and environmentally non-sound handling, treatment and recycling
techniques that may pose health risks.
- Prevalent open-dump type of random solid waste disposal as well as
indiscriminate dumping leading to various associated health and environmental
hazards.
4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem
Municipal solid waste contents for the years 2000-2008 and their distribution are
illustrated in Table (4.1) and Table (4.2). The main factors contributing the solid
waste problems in Egypt could be summarized as follows:
- Actions taken in the past were not always sustainable, and the issues were not
addressed in a comprehensive and integrated manner.
-

Accurate and reliable data concerning solid waste quantities, rates of

generation, composition does not exist. Numerous attempts to quantify the
problem have been made; however, these attempts are by no means
comprehensive or rigorous.

Laws are not applicable with very weak mechanisms for enforcement.

The involvement of the private sector in SWM activities in Egypt has been
minimal till the last decade when the private sector became more involved.

Ineffective recycling activities, especially with all kinds of waste mixed

together without any plan to encourage sorting at source. Moreover, nonhazardous and hazardous wastes are mixed through the "waste cycle".

Low level of public awareness and improper behaviors and practices in

relation to solid waste handling and disposal.

Table 4.1. Municipal solid waste contents 2000, 2005 and 2008
Waste % 2000
Waste % 2005
Organic materials
45-55%
50-60%
Paper
10-20%
10-25%
Plastic
3-12%
3-12%
Glass
1-5%
1-5%
Metal
1.5- 7%
1.5- 7%
Fabrics
1.2- 7%
1.2- 7%
Others
11-30%
11-30%
Source: EEAA (2001) and (2006) and CAPMAS (2010)

36

Waste % 2008
50-60%
10-25%
3-12%
1-5%
1.5- 7%
1.2- 7%
11-30%

Table 4.2. Distribution of waste according to the sources in 2000 and 2005
Estimated quantity
Source
2000
2005
Municipal garbage
14-15 million ton
15-16 million ton
Industrial
4-5 million ton
4.5 - 5 million ton
Agricultural
23 million ton
25-30 million ton
Sludge
1.5 -2 million ton
1.5 -2 million ton
Clearing banks and
20 million ton
20 million ton
sewage outputs
Hospitals
100 -120 million ton
100 -120 million ton
Construction
and
3-4 million ton
3-4 million ton
demolition waste
Source: EEAA (2007)

4.2.3. Waste generation rates

The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in
2007/2008 as shown in Table (4-3) estimates, including municipal solid waste
(garbage), industrial waste, agricultural waste, sludge resulting from sanitation
treatment, hospital wastes, construction and demolition debris and wastes from the
cleaning of canals and drains. Municipal solid wastes (garbage) include remains of
households (about 60 %), shops and commercial markets, service institutions such as
schools and educational institutes, utilities, hospitals, administrative buildings, streets,
gardens, markets, hotels, and recreation areas, in addition to small factories and
camps.
Resource recovery reduces the quantity of raw materials needed in production
processes. It may therefore reduce dependency on imports and save foreign currency.
Reused rubber and plastics, for example, reduce the need for imported raw materials
and the reuse of organic waste as compost reduces the dependence on imported
chemical fertilizers.
Resource recovery saves natural resources, particularly in the form of raw materials
and energy. The recycling of aluminum, for example, results in energy savings 14 of
up to 96%. An environmentally sound waste disposal system should therefore involve
resource recovery as much as possible.
However, waste recovery also creates employment opportunities that can conflict with
environmental and health criteria. Although the reuse of organic waste helps to
prevent environmental degradation and pollution, the recovery methods themselves
are often not environmentally sound and may pose health hazards for workers. Within
solid waste disposal systems environmental, socio-economic and health costs are
rarely considered. The total costs of safe and environmentally acceptable solid waste
disposal are poorly documented and are therefore underestimated. However, it is
against this background that resource recovery needs to be valued and supported in
order to use the potential of recovery to its full extent and to improve existing
practices.
For many people, working in the informal waste sector is the last resort in the daily
struggle for survival. Incomes are usually minimal, and working conditions are often
appalling. Nevertheless, some traders have managed to set up a feasible business that
can earn reasonable profits. All these people provide a valuable service to society as a

37

whole; in many cities the municipal refuse collection and disposal services are
woefully inadequate, particularly in low-income areas, where waste accumulates in
the streets. Improved recovery processes could therefore reduce the amounts of waste
that need to be collected, and thus the costs of municipal waste disposal, and could
help to reduce the risk to human health.
For example, Cairo is renowned for its extensive informal waste recycling system. In
the Cairo metropolitan area, 6000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated daily.
The municipality collects about 2400 tons per day, while informal workers collect
about 2700 tons of household waste per day using a fleet of some 700 donkey carts.
The balance of 900 tons remains on the city streets, vacant lots and the peripheries of
poorly serviced low-income areas of the city.
Table 4.3. Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 2007/2008
Source (ton/month)
Governorate
Cairo
Giza
Qalyobia
Alexandria
Behira
Menofia
Gharbia
Kar ElSheih
Damitta
Daqhlia
North Sinia
South Sinia
Port Said
Ismailia
Suis
Sharqia
Beni Suif
Minia
Assuit
New valley
Sohag

Municipal

1761668
139650
27330
3281224
40860
65600
1124
14.75
47
18390.1
17160
118625
12000
45420
13406
6120
2322
2691
2046
Qena
480m3
Asswan
76003.3
16650
Red sea
12750m3
Luxor
550
5649880.15
Total
13230 m3
Source: EEAA (2007).

Industrial

Agricultural

Sludge
m3

149914
620500
2749.42
32.5
337.2
700
240
51666.7
178
53.4
382
15
90m3
6360

1296506
4099.5
20617.7
10069.6
369619
456517
2083.3
2918
45666.5
6166
409

5072500
7168
8.3
2205
369750
18250
335.3
218
416
330

Clearing
banks &
sewage
169239
3550
25000
37083.3
3186
666
250

340

1500

9.5

64.1667

0.5833

0.833333

134.46

2.55

50
833278
90 m3

250
2215326
-

120
8587.88

150
203541.8

8
53255
-

5462713 m3 37083.3 m3

Hospitals
49860
1366.5
899.57
0.5
33
31.7
244.11
35.9
243.33
11.648
32.88
33.08
14.7
290

Construction
and
demolition
811488
77100
5035.83
56
283.3
17053
760.417
975
2566
583
1919
135
12545m3
4080
1500
100m3
360
924254.55
12645 m3

The informal sector in Egypt plays a significant role in the solid waste services
including waste recycling. This sector has been growing significantly over the last
three decades. Therefore, it is essential to understand and recognize the complex role
of this sector in solid waste services and to benefit from its existing infrastructure and
expertise in any formal initiative (GTZ, 2004).

38

Over the last three decades, the informal garbage collectors have drastically
developed the volume and scope of activities they perform. Solid waste operators in
the informal sector generally perform five functions: collection, transportation,
recovery, trade, and recycling. It is usually a family business where men do the
transportation and trading and women do most of the sorting.
The waste sorting and recovery is almost entirely done in the courtyard of garbage
collectors houses. After waste collection and transportation to the Zabbaleen area,
waste is sorted into: (i) organic waste that is fed to the animals, sold to others as
animal feed, or sent for composting; and (ii) non-organic waste that is categorized
into: paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, bones, and residual non-recyclable waste.
Subsequently, another sorting process is then undertaken to sort different sub-types of
each of the main categories while non-recyclable waste is transported to the municipal
disposal site on a monthly basis. The recovered material is sold while the nonrecoverable materials are sent to the municipal dumps. Recyclable materials sorted
into categories and sub-categories of paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, and bones are
transferred to recycling workshops.
In 2000, there were more than 220 recycling workshops in the Zabbaleen area of
Cairo. About 90% own their workshop space (even if informally) while the remaining
10% rent their workshop. A workshop employs six workers on average. The average
area of the recycling workshop is 155 square meters but varies widely depending on
the recycling activity performed. Generally plastic recycling and cloth grinders use up
the most space and their workshops usually have an area more than 200 m2. Metal
recycling industries need less space.
4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are
- Governmental system: municipalities or cleaning authorities (Cairo and Giza)
collect and transfer wastes from the streets, bins, public containers, and supervises
public dumpsites and the operation of composting plants either directly or through
the private sector.
- Traditional Zabbaleen (garbage collectors) system: in this system, which date
back to the early twentieth century, collectors collect garbage from household units
and some commercial establishments, and transfer it to their communities
(Zabbaleen villages) for sorting and recycling. Although working conditions and
methods used, that are of minimal costs and do not comply with the requirements of
health and the environment, yet they are considered by clients as a considerably
good service. Further, this system achieves the highest recovery degree possible;
sometimes reach 80% of the garbage collected by Zabbaleen, which is estimated by
3000 tons per day in Cairo (about 30% of the total amount generated daily). Local
private companies: these collect and transfer garbage in a number of Egyptian cities.
They represent a developed model of the garbage collectors system, working in
limited areas under the supervision and control of municipalities or cleaning
authorities. The final disposal of wastes takes place either at the garbage collectors
communities or in public dumpsites.

39

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options

Since organic material forms all farm wastes and a large proportion of urban refuse,
ways can be sought as to use this resource more effectively. Organic material can be
reused in three ways:
- to feed animals (fodder),
- to improve the soil (compost),
- to produce energy (biogas or briquettes).
The first two options are already very common in economically less developed
countries. In Lahore, Pakistan, for example, 40% of urban refuse is collected by
farmers and used as animal feed and soil amendment.
4.3.1. Feeding animals
Raising animals is the easiest possibility; in most cases organic waste can be fed
directly to domestic animals without pretreatment, but cooking or the addition of
nutrients may sometimes be necessary. This strategy refers to diverting food not
appropriate for human consumption to animal feed. While a potentially useful outlet
for food scraps that otherwise would be disposed, this avenue tends to be limited
primarily to food processors and beer industries and may not be feasible for urban
institutions. In some cases, rural corrections facilities and land-grant colleges have the
appropriate combination of circumstances that allows for the collection and feeding of
certain food scraps to on-site animals.
4.3.2. Compost
Composting is the microbial decomposition of discarded organic materials under
controlled conditions. The end product, compost, is used as an organic soil
amendment. It promotes microbiological activity in soils necessary for plant growth,
disease resistance, water retention and filtration, and erosion prevention. Compost can
be used in various ways. As a soil amendment, compost enhances the physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil. The macro-nutrient value of compost is
typically not high relative to fertilizers. Compost enriches the soil by increasing
organic matter. Additionally, compost increases soils capacity to hold water. By
amending soil with compost, soil is better able to hold nutrients. Nutrients do not
leach as easily; rather, they are released more slowly to plants, which can reduce the
need for fertilizers. Compost can also suppress fungal diseases in soil, which can be
particularly important to the golf and nursery industries.
The utilization of earth worms, as discussed previously, could play a strong role in
converting organic wastes, whether urban or rural, into a valuable vermicompost
material.
4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration
This strategy refers sending organic materials to a disposal facility to be landfilled or
incinerated. This is considered the least desirable strategy from a social,
environmental, and sometimes economic perspective.

40

The garbage from which the recyclable items have been removed is dumped by a
mechanical front-end loader through a grid onto a conveyor belt, which transfers the
garbage to a hopper and finally to a rotating, cylindrical drum, where the compost is
sieved. At the end of the sieve, children anxiously wait for some useful remnants. The
maturity of the compost is determined by measuring the temperature.
Normally, the plant processes 30 tons (60 m3) of compost per shift per day. During the
season when land is prepared for cultivation (November to February) output is
doubled by working two shifts per day. The plant provides jobs for 11 employees (1
consultant, 1 plant manager, 1 technician, 1 electrician, 1 operation and maintenance
manager, 3 security guards, 2 drivers, and 1 messenger). Mechanical parts for the
plant can be bought in Egypt, although some electrical parts have to be imported.
Although the quality of the compost appears to be good, it has been found to contain
small pieces of glass and plastics, and large quantities of heavy metals.
The major pressures on solid waste management in Egypt are exemplified in the
increase in waste quantities generated due to the escalating population, on the one
hand, and the change in consumption patterns in towns and villages alike, on the other
hand, in addition to the lack of awareness and the wrong handling of solid wastes in
general. Various studies on ducted during the last two decades in a number of
Egyptian Governorates and cities point out to a significant decrease in municipal solid
waste collection efficiency totally lacking in some rural areas. Consequently, large
amounts of waste accumulations appeared in streets, vacant land between buildings
and different areas in cities and populated areas throughout the past years. Such areas
have become focal points of environmental pollution and represent significant
pressures on human health as well as on the environment.

41

Table 4.4. Egypts Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 20072012.
The cost of the program / million Egyptian pound
Improve
Remove
Establish
Establish
Governorate
process of
Accumulaintermediate recycle
collections &
tions
station
centers
transportation
Cairo
--13
13
30
Alexandria
15
17
5
5
Giza
--30
30
10
Kalyobiya
--19.5
19.5
10
Dakahilya
60
56.5
16
10
Gharbeya
52
31.5
16
10
Monofiya
6
33
10
10
Beheira
8
47
13
10
Kafr-ELShiekh 6
27
10
15
Sharkia
10
48.5
10
10
Damietta
3
26
10
10
Fayoum
3
20.5
4
5
Bani Suif
3
22
5
5
Menia
10
28.5
6
10
Assiut
3
28.5
6
10
Sohag
4.5
35
7
5
Qena
4.5
30.5
7
5
Luxor
2
2
3
5
Aswan
6
17
3.5
5
Ismailia
7
17.5
3
5
Port Said
6
7
2.5
5
Suez
10
7.5
2.5
5
Red Sea
7.5
14
2
5
Matrouh
--26
5
5
North Sinai
--31
4
5
South
7.5
15
3
5
New Valley
--15
2
5
total
234
666
218
220
Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

42

Improve
work in
controlled
Dumpsites
40
--10
10
--------------------------------5
5
----------70

Establish
sanitary
landfill

Total with
million
Egyptian
pound

30
--30
30
30
30
30
40
30
30
--15
30
30
30
30
30
15
15
30
----30
15
30
30
10
655

126
42
110
89
172.5
139.5
89
118
83
108.5
64
62.5
65
84.5
72.5
86.5
82
27
46.5
62.5
25.5
30
58.5
51
70
60.5
37
2063

Table 4.5. Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates.

Governorate Accumulations in m3
Cairo
500000
Alexandria
344830
Giza
500000
Behairah
600000
Qalyubia
500000
Sharqia
510000
Matruh
146429
Port Said
359040
Ismailia
350000
Fayoum
292500
Minya
951000
Sohag
281845
Luxor
107022
Total accumulation
Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

Governorate
Menoufia
Kafr_El Sheikh
Damietta
Gharbia
Dakahlia
North Sinai
South Sinai
Suez
Red Sea
Beni Suef
Assiut
Qena
Aswan

43

Accumulations in m3
280000
227000
100000
1500000
1300000
140000
512000
1168550
11885000
150000
250000
258480
385240
23598936

Table 4.6. Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic materials
percentages for the year 2008.
Governorate

Total waste
(Ton/Day)

Cairo
Alexandria
Port Said
Suez
Damietta
Behairah
Kafr_El Sheikh
Dakahlia
Ismailia
Menoufia
Gharbia

10000
2700
1014
325
1319
911
1361
3718
572
897
2960
717
1738
9062
706
924
785
187
98
343
364
164
395
917
260
337
287
43061

Sharqia
Qalyubia

Giza
Fayoum
Beni Suef
Menia
Assiut
Suhag
Qena
Aswan
Luxor
Red Sea
New Valley
Matruh
North Sinai
South Sinai
Total
Source: CAPMAS (2010)

44

% of organic
material
50%
65%
34%
50%
70%
60%
80%
70%
75%
65%
65%
70%
70%
60%
60%
65%
50%
75%
80%
90%
8%
50%
20%
25%
40%
20%
75%

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce

fertilizers in Egypt.
The concept of using earthworms to stabilize organic wastes (vermicomposting) is not
new, and is in use on varying scales in a large number of both developed and
underdeveloped countries. The capital cost of establishing systems has proven to be a
barrier to the large scale use of vermicomposting, largely due to the high value placed
on the worms themselves.
Three factors contribute to the economic sustainability of the system. The first is the
provision of a sustainable waste stabilization process, a service which can generate
ongoing income but which, at the moment, is provided at minimal cost. The second is
the creation of a saleable form of soil conditioner in the form of vermicast. The third
is the production of protein in the form of worm-meal, a valuable source of amino
acids, vitamins, long chain fatty acids and minerals for chicken and fish.
Recycling of farm waste and composting is the other alternative to use mineral
fertilizers. The increase in using compost in conventional agricultural will be coupled
by a decrease in fertilizers usage and will result in higher quality production and less
pollution hazards.
Organic agriculture could be one of the important options that have a good
opportunity in a wide zone of the newly reclaimed lands in Egypt. Wider production
of organic material will increase the opportunities of more growers to join the organic
farming.
This chapter sheds the light on the fertilizer needs in Egypt and potentiality of using
vermicompost as a fertilizer in Egypt, especially for organic farming.
5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt
Application of fertilizers for growing crops is a routine operation in modern
agriculture and one of the essential requirements for a high quantity and quality yield
under extensive agricultural systems. Fertilizers are primary input in extensive
agricultural systems, but they are considered as one of the important sources of air,
water and soil pollution as well as greenhouse gases (greenhouse gases) of climate
change.
Egypt has a long history of using mineral fertilizers. On the other hand, excessive
amounts of soluble salts in the soil can prevent or delay seed germination, kill or
seriously retard plant growth, and possibly render soils and groundwater unusable.
The degree of environmental impacts can depend on the fertilizer application method.
The Egyptian fertilizers first production was from about 75 years ago. Now, Egypt is
ranked as one of the countries that are highly consuming fertilizers in agricultural
activities. The total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2
million Mt, 32% of the total production is exported. Excessive use of such chemical
components have a harmful effect on the Egyptian environment and human health,

45

which needs to find other alternatives such as, organic agriculture that could be one of
the important options that have a good opportunity in a wide zone of the newly
reclaimed lands in Egypt. Moreover, recycling of farm waste and composting is
another alternative for renewing soil fertility that has very low organic content
(Table.5.1). Harvesting the fruits or grains, which is a small proportion of a whole
plant system, and returning the remaining plant residues after composting back to the
soil will result in a minimum need for additional minerals. Substituting any quantity
of chemical fertilizers will result in a cleaner production and environment, as well as
less emissions of greenhouse gases, and consequently the organic farming growers
can get substituted through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto
protocol, which will be discussed in more details in a separate chapter later.
Table 5.1. Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types.
Item

North
Delta

South
Delta

Middle &
Upper
Egypt

East Delta

West Delta

Soil texture

Clayey

Clayey

Loamy clay

Sandy

Calcareous

pH (1:2.5)

7.9-8.5

7.8-8.2

7.7-8.0

7.6-7.9

7.7-8.1

Percent total soluble salts

0.2-0.5

0.2-0.4

0.1-0.5

0.1-0.6

0.2-0.6

Percent calcium carbonate

2.6-4.4

2.0-3.1

2.6-5.3

1.0-5.1

11.0-30.0

Percent organic matter

1.9-2.6

1.8-2.8

1.5-2.7

0.35-0.8

0.7-1.5

Total soluble N (ppm)

25-50

30-60

15-40

10 20

10 -30

ppm available P (Olsen)

ppm available K (ammonium
acetate)

5.4 -10

3.5-15.0

2.5-16

2-5.0

1.5-10.5

250-500

300-550

280-700

105-350

100-300

Available Zn (DTPA) (ppm)

0.5-4.0

0.6-6.0

0.5-3.9

0.6-1.2

0.5-1.2

Available Fe (DTPA) (ppm)

20.8-63.4

19.0-27.4

12.4-40.8

6.7-16.4

12 - 18

Available Mn (DTPA) (ppm)

Source: FAO (2005).

13.1-45

11.2-37.2

8.2-51.6

3-16.7

10 - 20

5.2. Fertilizer statistics

The demand for food and other agricultural commodities is increasing in Egypt due to
the increase in the population and improvements in living standards. Efforts continue
to improve crop productivity and quality. Appropriate fertilization is one of the most
important agricultural practices for achieving the agricultural improvement (FAO,
2005).
The main commercial types of fertilizers used in Egypt and the percentage of active
ingredients are listed in Table 5.2.

46

Table 5.2. The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt

Element
Nitrogen

Fertilizer
- urea (46.5 percent N)
- ammonium nitrate (33.5 percent N)
- ammonium sulphate (20.6 percent N)
- calcium nitrate (15.5 percent N)
- single superphosphate (15 percent P 2 O 5 )
- concentrated superphosphate (37 percent P 2 O 5 )

Phosphate
Potassium

- potassium sulphate (48 to 50 percent K 2 O)

- potassium chloride (50 to 60 percent K 2 O)

Mixed
and -N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and/or Cu in different formulations for
compound
either soil or foliar application. The micronutrient may be in
fertilizers
either mineral or chelated form.
Source: FAO (2005).

The improvement in fertilizers production is achieved through the last decades. The
total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32%
of the total production is exported. The remaining quantity of production after
exporting is less than the demand quantity by about 43%. Therefore, Egypt
compensates the shortage in the demands by importing fertilizers by about 43% of the
total consumption. Figure (5.1.) illustrates the increasing trend of fertilizers
production and export. This increase is mainly due to the rapid agricultural horizontal
and vertical expansion.

3500
3000

1000 tonnes

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2002

2003

Production

2004

2005

Import

2006

2007

2008

Export

Figure 5.1.Production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of nutrients) trends of

fertilizers in Egypt
Source: FAO ( 2010).

47

The latest fertilizers consumption is shown in Figure (5.2) and illustrates that
phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are the highest consumed type of fertilizers under
Egyptian conditions. The most recent FAO statistics of 2010 indicated that there is an
increase in nitrogen fertilizer consumption for 2008 (1721105 ton N) and phosphorus
(229911 tons). This increase reached 60 and 61% in 2008 compared to 2002 for
nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively.
In addition, the continuous increase in fertilizers consumption is obvious and
additional increase in fertilizer demand is expected in the next few years.
Consumption in nutrients (tonnes of nutrients)
2000

250

1800
200

1000 tonnes N

1400
1200

150

1000
800

100

1000 tonnes P & K

1600

600
400

50

200
0

0
2002

2003

2004
N

2005
P

2006

2007

2008

Figure 5.2. Nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total fertilizers consumption in Egypt.
Source: FAO (2010).
5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt
The production of consistently high-quality vermicompost is especially important to
growers of high-value crops. The influence of production factors, such as the
variability in the characteristics of the organic feedstocks, the length of time of
vermicomposting, and the various parameters used as maturity indicators, are
essential aspects to be considered in developing guidelines for assessing the quality of
vermicompost. The vermicomposting industry anticipates a need for compost quality
indicators as the production, utilization and marketing of vermicompost expands.
Various organic wastes tested in past as feed material for different species of
earthworms include sewage sludge, paper mill industry sludge, water hyacinth, paper
waste, crop residues, cattle manure, etc.
Many studies were conducted in order to evaluate vermicomposting from various
waste sources as follows:

48

5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting

Home composting is a tradition in many countries, and is recommended as an
important waste management option in the European Union policy. Advantages are
that the waste does not have to be transported and that home gardens are provided
with nutrients and humus. Furthermore, it has an educational importance in improving
environmental awareness. Limiting conditions to its adoption are the availability of
space for composting and compost application, and the lack of knowledge as to the
correct composting procedure. This includes the selection of substrates that are
suitable for home composting and the provision of suitable process conditions.
In a city like Cairo, there is a possibility of producing vermicompost from individual
houses. Having the suitable amount of earthworms in a double basket system with a
perforated one inside, organic wastes could be vermicomposted without any odors or
side annoyance. Although the system is not widely established, but with the proper
awareness and public support could be implemented. This could both create an
income to the poor families, and produce considerable amount of vermicompost that
goes directly to agricultural activities. In addition, it has the following advantages:
Saves money and the environment
It reduces household garbage disposal costs;
It produces less odor and attracts fewer pests than putting food wastes into a
garbage container;
It saves the water and electricity that kitchen sink garbage disposal units
consume;
It produces a free, high-quality soil amendment (compost);
It requires little space, labor, or maintenance;
It spawns free worms for fishing.
Several options for integrating the Zabbaleen into the international companies
contracts were explored during interviews with staff members at CID, raising the
issue of local-global confrontation and the possible contribution of a privatepublic
partnership. The Zabbaleen could act as sub-contractors, as they implement a
segregation system, separating organic from non-organic waste. They could
continue to collect household waste while medical and industrial waste and landfill
management could be handled by multinational companies. Transfer stations could be
established where a major proportion of non-organic waste could be recovered and
directed to existing traders. The Zabbaleen could receive inorganic waste from
companies as input to their recycling businesses, as small communitybased
composting facilities are established. In such ways the traditional informal Zabbaleen
system could be integrated into the new privatized large-scale waste collection system
to the mutual benefit of both sides. Despite such suggestions, recent developments
have demonstrated the unlikelihood of fruitful localglobal partnerships. Instead,
international companies favour training the Zabbaleen as waged employees, while
allowing them to search landfill sites for organic waste for their pig-rearing activities
(Fahmi, 2005).

49

5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes

Vermicomposting of crop residues and cattle shed wastes can not only produce a
value-added product (vermicomposting) but at the same time acts as best culture
medium for large-scale production of earthworms.
The composting ability and growth performance of E. eugeniae were evaluated by
using a variety of combinations of crop residues and cattle dung, under laboratory
conditions. The best results in terms of nutrient enhancement in the end product were
recorded in vermicomposted beds as compared to experimental composting without
worms. Moreover, vermicompost showed higher amounts of total nitrogen, available
phosphorous, exchangeable potassium and calcium content. The ready end product
showed relatively lower C:N ratio and comparatively was a more stabilized product.
A considerable amount of worm biomass and cocoons were produced in different
treatments. However, quality of the feed stuff, used in this study was of a primary
importance, determining the earthworms growth parameter, e.g. individual biomass,
cocoon numbers, growth rate. The results suggest that crop residues can be used as an
efficient culture media for large-scale production of E. eugeniae for sustainable land
restoration practices at low-input basis (Suthar, 2008).
5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth
It is well established that earthworms have beneficial physical, biological and
chemical effects on soils and can increase plant growth and crop yields in both natural
and managed ecosystems. These beneficial effects have been attributed to
improvements in soil properties and structure, to greater availability of mineral
nutrients to plants, and to biologically active metabolites acting as plant growth
regulators.
Earthworm (Eisenia foetida) compost strongly affects soil fertility by increasing
availability of nutrients, improving soil structure and water holding capacity. It has
been suggested that earthworms can increase the velocity of decomposition of organic
residues and also produce several bioactive humic substances. These substances are
endowed with hormone like activity that improves plant nutrition and growth. Humic
acids (HAs) comprise one of the major fractions of humic substances.
An experiment was conducted to pinpoint precisely a biological mechanism by which
vermicomposts can influence plant growth positively and produce significant
increases in overall plant productivity, independent of nutrient uptake. Mixing the
container media with increasing concentrations of vermicompost-derived humic acids
increased plant growth, and larger concentrations usually reduced growth, in a pattern
similar to the plant growth responses observed after incorporation of vermicomposts
into container media with all needed mineral nutrition. Plant growth was increased by
treatments of the plants with 50500 mg/kg humic acids, but decreased significantly
when the concentrations of humic acids in the container medium exceeded 5001000
mg/kg. Although some of the growth enhancement by humic acids could have been
partially due to increased rates of nitrogen uptake by the plants, most of the results
reported exceed those that would result from such a mechanism, very considerably.
However, this does not exclude the possibility of other contributory mechanisms by

50

which humic acids could affect plant growth. There is a further alternative explanation
for the hormone-like mode of action of humic acids in these experiments. In our
laboratory, we have extracted plant growth regulators such as indole acetic acid,
gibberellins and cytokinins from vermicomposts in aqueous solution and
demonstrated that these can have significant effects on plant growth. Such substances
may be relatively transient in soils. However, there seems a strong possibility that
such plant growth regulators which are relatively transient may become adsorbed on
to humates and act in conjunction with them to influence plant growth (Atiyeh et al.,
2002).
Vermicompost has been promoted as a viable alternative container media component
for the horticulture industry. The addition of vermicompost in media mixes of 10%
and 20% volume had positive effects on plant growth. The greatest growth
enhancement was on seedlings during the plug stage of the bedding plant crop cycle.
Growth increases up to 40% were observed in dry shoot tissue and leaf area of
marigold, tomato and green pepper. The increased vigor exhibited was also
maintained when the seedling plugs were transplanted into larger containers with
standard commercial potting substrates without vermicompost. Additionally, there
were benefits apparently resulting from the nutritional content of the vermicompost.
All of the plugs were produced without the input of additional fertilization. The
potential exists for growers to use vermicompost-amended commercial potting
substrates during the plug production stage without the use of additional fertilizer
(Bachman and Metzger, 2008).
5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt
Considering urban wastes as mentioned in the previous chapter for the year 2005
ranged from 15 to 16 million tons, compostable matter in the wastes as 50-60% and
average collection efficiency as 70%. Egypt has an estimated potential of producing
from urban wastes about 1.99 million tons of compost each year containing about
21,000 ton N, 5,000 ton P, and 10,640 ton K (Table 5.2). Inappropriate solid waste
management and production of poor quality of composts are main constraint in
exploiting such large amount plant nutrients for increasing crop productivity.
On the other hand, agricultural wastes in Egypt could produce almost four times
compost material compared to urban wastes, assuming that 100% of it is organic
material and all of it is accessible to the grower. There are other advantages of this
waste, which are the availability of space and directly linked to the farm. This
minimizes the need of collection and transportation. The amounts of N, P and K that
could be produced from agricultural wastes are almost four folds of that of the urban
wastes.
From both sources, the total composted material is almost 10 million tons, containing
about 10 thousand tons of nitrogen, 20 thousand tons of phosphorus, and 41 thousand
tons of potassium. Nitrogen fertilizer obtained from organic wastes could save up to
5.9% of that consumed in 2008; while more than 10% of phosphorus fertilizers
consumed in 2008 could be saved.

51

Table 5.3. Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and agriculture
wastes in Egypt*

Waste

Ton/year
15500000

Fraction
organic
0.55

23000000

1.00

0.70

Fraction
of waste
to
be
compost Quantity, Ton
0.33
1,988,968
20,815
5,088
10,639

1.00

0.33

Fraction
efficiency
collection

Urban

Agriculture

Total

7,665,900
80,225
19,610
41,004
9,654,868
101,039
24,698
51,642

Type
Compost
N
P
K
Compost
N
P
K
Compost
N
P
K

*Estimated as the assumptions of fractions and fixed percent of N, P and K in the

compost.
Source: CAPMAS (2010)

52

6. Current animal feed protein supplements production

in Egypt and the potential to substitute desiccated
compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use
of live worms in aquaculture industries.
Production of vermicompost and vermiculture is covered in previous chapters. In
order to utilize the products and byproducts of the industry, clear end-users should be
defined in order to facilitate the development of the industry. One important possible
consumption chain is the utilization in animal and fish feed protein supplement. This
chapter handles such possibilities.
6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed
The basic reason for the poor performance of livestock in developing countries is the
seasonal inadequacy of feed, both in quantity and quality (Makkar, 2002). These
deficiencies have rarely been corrected by conservation and, or, supplementation,
often for lack of infrastructure, technical know-how, poor management, etc. In
addition, many feed resources that could have a major impact on livestock production
continue to be unused, undeveloped or poorly utilized. A critical factor in this regard
has been the lack of proper understanding of the nutritional principles underlying their
utilization.
Poultry waste has been successfully used in ruminant rations in Egypt. The total
bacterial count was considerably lower in sun dried poultry waste compared to the
oven dried waste. Aflatoxins were not detectable in the concentrate mixtures
containing poultry litter. Both feed intake and milk production in ewes was not
affected by the inclusion of 14% poultry waste as a dietary supplement, suggesting
that cottonseed meal and other high protein feed ingredients could be, at least partially
replaced, by poultry waste without any loss in productivity. The weight and age at
puberty of lambs fed a ration containing 17% poultry waste was similar to those given
a ration without any poultry waste. Similarly, poultry waste up to 20% in the diet had
no detrimental effect on growth in cattle and buffaloes and on the reproductive
performance in buffalo heifers evaluated. The inclusion of 15% poultry waste in
mixed concentrate feed decreased the cost of feed by about 10% (Makkar, 2002).
It is an ancient practice in China to feed earthworms to livestock and poultry, i.e. to
dig earthworms from fields to feed chickens and ducks or to graze chicken and ducks
to feed on earthworms at ease. Earthworms are rich in nutrients with high protein.
According to measurements, the crude protein in dry earthworms reaches about 70%,
while in wet earthworms about 10-20%. The amino acids of earthworm protein are
complete, especially the contents of Glutamic acid, Leucine and Lysine, among which
Arginine is higher than fish meal, and Tryptophan is 4 times higher than in blood
powder, and 7 times higher than in cow liver. Earthworms are rich in Vitamin A and
Vitamin B. There is 0.25mg of Vitamin B1 and 2.3mg of Vitamin B2 in each 100 g of
earthworms. Vitamin D accounts for 0.04%-0.073% of earthworms wet weight. In
view of the great effects of El Nio, fish meal from Peru can not meet the market

53

demand in the world. Thus earthworms are the best substitute with the functions of
supplements, anti-diseases and allurement. Earthworms are used as additive to
produce pellet feeds in the USA, Canada and Japan, which account for 50% of the
pellet feed market. However, when earthworms are used as feeds, one must note that
earthworms degrade quickly and should be processed within several hours by hot
wind or freeze drying. In general earthworms contain more pollutants than fish meal
because it is hard to clean residues from the epidermis and seta of earthworms. Some
people realize that it is better to feed earthworms in wet. For fowls, the earthworm
amount could reach 50% and for swamp eel 100% (Kangmin, 2005).
6.2. Worm meal
Worm meal or vermin-meal is an excellent source of protein and nutrients.
Earthworms typically contain over 80% moisture and can be fed directly to animals.
To preserve the worms and process them into to a more convenient food they can be
dried and ground up into worm meal.
In addition to the protein, worms are a valuable source of essential amino acids and
vitamins. The fats in worms are highly unsaturated and no additional antioxidants
need to be added to the worm meal to preserve it.
Worm meal may replace fish meal and meat and bone meal. Broilers fed with
earthworm meal consumed 13% less feed for the same weight gain than those fed
with ordinary broiler diet, but given live in earthworms matured 15 days earlier than
the control group without earthworms (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2000).
Earthworms are the best bait for anglers. Pay attention to the palatability of various
species of earthworms. It is said that Eisenia foetida can produce a substance fish do
not like. In Australia they culture 3-4 species of earthworms: red wiggler Lumbricus
rubellus, Indian blue Perionyx excavatus, African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae, and
Eisenia foetida. Table (6.1) shows the different composition of several earth worms.
Different fish prefer different species of earthworms as bait, the palatability of
earthworms is out of question. Table (6.2) shows the richness of vermin meal with
essential amino acids, while Table (6.3) demonstrate the macro and trace mineral
contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae).
The protein content of earthworms is complete, containing 8-9 essential amino acids
for human beings, including 9-10% tasty glutamic acid. Compared with other meat,
the protein of earthworms is higher than meat and the lipid, 2% lower than meat.
From the view point of health, earthworms might be one of ideal food with high
protein and low lipid for human beings. In southern China and Taiwan people used to
eat earthworms. There are many dishes of earthworms: mince meat of earthworm as
stuffing for dumplings to increase delicacy and prevent it from going bad. It is said
that spiced sauce from ROK has a big market in SEA. For human consumption a
worm farm should use beer spent grains or mushroom spent substrate to feed
earthworms. The Edible Fungi Scientific Center in Qingyuan as well as Shanghai
Academy of Agriculture has developed artificial logs which do not require pure
hardwood chips. Each year Qingyuan produces some 50,000 tons of used logs. This
substrate of shiitake Lentinus edodes could also generate as much as 5,000 tons of

54

earthworms and in turn can be processed to quality human food. It is said that there
are 200 kinds of food from earthworms in the U.S.A (Kangmin, 2005). Earthworms
are the future of seafood. Not yet, but they will be (Shiner, 2009).
Table 6.1. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matters)
Eisenia
Lumbricus
foetida
terrestils
Moisture
83.3
81.1
Crude protine
57.4
56.1
Crude fat
13.2
2.1
Ash
10.8
28.7
Crude fiber
0.7
N-free extract
18.2
13.1
Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l(2000).

Allolobophora
longa
78.3
50.4
1.4
35.2
12.9

Neries sp.
47.0
25.2
6.6
-0.6
20.6

Eudrilus
eugeniae
85.3
56.4
7.9
13.1
5.9
17.8

Table 6.2. Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN)
Eisenia
Lumbricus
foetida
terrestils
Arginine
3.67
3.17
Histidine
1.39
1.38
Isoleucine
2.85
2.20
Leucine
4.90
4.11
Lysine
4.16
3.52
Methionine
0.83
1.11
Phenylalanine
2.65
2.02
Theronine
3.07
2.48
Tryptophan
0.67
0.44
Valine
3.11
2.30
Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l( 2000).

Allolobophora
longa
3.15
1.01
2.24
3.57
3.43
0.5
2.65
2.11
2.46

Eudrilus
eugeniae
4.95
1.58
2.82
5.22
4.50
1.04
2.47
3.22
0.63
3.39

Table 6.3. Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus
eugeniae)
Calcium
%
Phosphorus
%
Sodium
%
Iron
mg/kg
Zinc
mg/kg
Copper
mg/kg
Cadmium
mg/kg
Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual (2000).

1.5
0.9
0.2
100.0
122.5
7.8
21.0

The key to the multi-pronged success of earthworms as aquaculture fodder is their diet
of organic wastes. Land-based pollution, such as festering animal manure, is an
enormous problem for coastal fisheries impacted by runoff. Britain alone produces 84
megatons of cow manure, 9 megatons of pig waste and 5 megatons of chicken waste
each year, much of which flows to the coast as runoff. This pollution is a significant
contributor to the declining productivity of wild fish stocks, as fish struggle to cope
with their heavily contaminated environment. Earthworms solve this problem by
converting land animal wastes into high-protein aquaculture feed. Earthworms
convert cow manure into dry matter at a remarkable 10 percent clip, such that
Britains 84 megatons of cow manure could produce 8.4 megatons of dehydrated

55

earthworms, delivering a protein punch of 5.9 million tons. The recipe is

uncomplicated: find crap, add worms, wait, then harvest, dry and grind.
The rock-solid implications of earthworms for aquaculture have already been verified.
Two species of worms were fed to a group of trout, a classic intensive aquaculture
species, while another group was fed commercial trout pellets made from fishmeal.
The results were splendid: the earthworm-fed fish grew as well or better than their
fishmeal-fed counterparts. Another study indicated the effectiveness of earthworm
feed on tilapia aquaculture, finding that tilapia actually grew better with earthworm
supplements than with fishmeal.
Using earthworms as fish feed presents a truly novel method for reducing the impact
of aquaculture on marine ecosystems. The benefits are threefold. Earthworms eat
polluting manure, improving water quality of coastal fisheries and aiding in recovery
from over-fishing. Eliminating fishmeal from aquaculture diets will also significantly
reduce overall stress on wild fisheries as well as allow for production cost control
independent of the price of wild fish. Thirdly, and not insignificantly, earthworms can
be used in place of fishmeal to feed land animals such as cows, pigs and chickens. At
present, land animal consumption accounts for a great deal of fishmeal intake, and
transitioning livestock to an earthworm diet will take huge pressure off wild fisheries.
Earthworms are a triple-win solution to intensive aquacultures appetite for fishmeal.
The worms are by no means a silver bullet as they cannot solve all of aquacultures
problems immediately. Pollution from intensive crustacean aquaculture will remain a
serious threat to coastal habitats until the lagoons are either moved inland or farmed
less intensively. This is to say nothing of mollusk aquaculture, a genuine champion of
sustainable protein production.
Earthworms, with an important high protein component, are used to feed chickens,
pigs, rabbits, and as a dietary supplement for ornamental fish or other fish species
difficult to raise and Some authors claim that in breeding of aquarium fish it is
essential to use a variety of food.
Vermicompost produced in ecological boxes can be used for feeding plants and the
created biomass can be a highly nutritious food for animals, because it consists of 58
71% protein, 2.39.0% fat depending on earthworm species and the way earthworms
are fed with organic waste.
6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future
Aquaculture is a booming global industry: from 2002 to 2006, world aquaculture
production increased from 40.4 million metric tons to 51.7 million metric tons. Over a
three-decade span from 1975 to 2005, aquaculture production grew tenfold. During
this same span of time, however, wild capture fell from 93.2 to 92.0 million metric
tons. The inherent exhaustibility of the oceans necessitates that economically efficient
and environmentally responsible aquaculture fill the gap between supply and demand
for finfish and shellfish worldwide.

56

Genetic contamination and pollution, both chemical and biological, are serious
blemishes on the face of responsible aquaculture; however, the solution is simple.
Floating or land-based solid-wall tanks, such as those already in use in British
Columbia, eliminate escapes altogether. Wastes and uneaten feed, all collected within
the tank, are pumped through a filter, eliminating their respective eutrophying and
polluting effects. The real problem with status quo aquaculture isnt genetic
contamination or pollution, but rather the inefficiency and un-sustainability of
fishmeal as used for fish feed.
Carnivorous finfish aquaculture, the type employed in salmon and tuna farming,
typically depends on fishmeal, an oily paste made from ground fishes such as
mackerel and sardines, for feed. Each pound of farmed fish for human consumption
demands many pounds of fishmeal throughout the farming process, presenting a
serious barrier to the expansion of responsible aquaculture. Tilapia, a onetime dining
hall staple, is only 25 percent calorie efficient, meaning that it takes four tons of
fishmeal to grow only one ton of tilapia. Sardines and mackerel serve as important
sources of protein worldwide and as the diet of larger, commercially valuable stocks.
New sources of feed must be developed in order to facilitate industrial expansion and
ease aquacultures strain on the worlds over-fished oceans.
Organic manures if not decomposed completely before application in aquaculture
pond may deteriorate the water quality as they utilize oxygen during decomposition.
Therefore, the amount of any organic manure to be added in the pond mainly depends
upon its biological oxygen demand (BOD), as their excessive use may cause severe
dissolved oxygen depletion in the pond and results in production of toxic gases like
CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., and can spread parasitic diseases.
A study suggests higher potential of utilizing vermicompost as compared to cow dung
and hence can be used more effectively for manuring semi-intensive carp culture
ponds without affecting the hydro biological parameters. In developing country like
India, agriculture and livestock work in integration, where livestock waste (mainly
cow dung) is the most commonly used organic manure in agriculture and aquaculture.
Hence, the small scale on farm integration of vermicomposting of livestock and
agriculture waste with the rural aquaculture (extensive/semi-intensive) holds ample
scope for developing economically and ecologically sustainable farming system for
the socio-economic upliftment of rural population in developing countries (Kaur and
Ansal, 2010).
The research on Carassius auratus, showed that a 10% supplement of E. fetida
earthworms in food, given to those fish, caused a doubling of their biomass. The
research on P. reticulata, fed on earthworms only, also showed benefits. Compared to
the group fed with Bio-vit, the fish were characterized by a larger number of broods
and larger numbers of surviving fry. From this research it can be seen that E. fetida is
a highly nutritious food that is eagerly eaten by all age groups of the examined species
of fish. For the advocates of the ecological box, it means another possible use of one
of its products. That is because in addition to using the vermicompost, it gives another
possibility of feeding selected aquarium fish with the produced biomass of
earthworms. The results of the research not only indicate the possibility of reducing

57

the cost of fish-keeping, but also better results of that culture (Kostecka and Paczka,
2006).
Three meals were formulated from the earthworm (Endrilus eugineae) and maggot
(Musca domestica) and fish (Engraulis encrosicolus). These meals were evaluated as
a potential replacement for fishmeal. This is because fishmeal could be very
expensive at times. The three meals were used in feeding the catfish (Heterobranchus
isopterus) for 30 days. On the basis of weight increment, the best growth performance
was produced by maggot meal. It was followed by earthworm and fish meals,
respectively. Based on food conversion ratio maggot meal was again the best,
followed by earthworm and fish meals respectively. The importance of supplementary
feeding was evidenced in the higher weight increment in fish that were fed than those
that were not fed. Maggot and earthworm meals could therefore be a whole or partial
replacement for fishmeal. The difficulty in the harvesting or rearing maggots and
earthworms may however reduce this potential (Yaqub, 1991).
The use of vermicompost in pisci-culture is gaining its increased recognition for the
conservation of energy and optimum but economical utilization of available resources
with simultaneous pollution control. Vermicompost is hazard free organic manure,
which improves quality of pond base and overlying water as well as provides
organically produced aqua crops. The additions of manures affect the relative
abundance of the plankton and their community structure in aquatic system. Proper
combinations of inorganic nutrients (NPK) are the major factors that influence the
growth and production of plankton in a pond. Vermicompost contains all the major
organic nutrient components of N, P and K along with some necessary micronutrients
for plankton growth (Table 6.4).
In aquaculture industry, capital investment apart, there are also operating expenses,
mainly for seed, fertilizer, feed and labors. Among those, the cost of feed and
fertilizer constitute about 70% of the total expenses. For this reason there is need for
searching out chapter sources for feed and fertilizer. So, this is particularly significant
in developing nations, where fish farmers are unable to buy costly fish feed and
chemical fertilizer vermicompost forms an abundant alternative natural resource for
less expensive manure and fish feed for higher fish yield. However, the amount of
available nitrogen and phosphorus from vermicompost is less when compared with
conventional fertilizers and research should be oriented to increase its nitrogen and
phosphorus concentration through alteration of substrate composition.
Table 6.4. Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied (average
value of triplicate sample analyzed)
Parameters
Diammonium phosphate (DAP)
Vermicompost
Compost

Available N
(mgg-1)
18 0.07
1.5 0.05
1.0 0.08

Available P
(mgg-1)
46 0.05
1.4 0.08
0.55 0.09

Available K Dry weight of fertilizer

(mgg-1)
and manure used (g)
Nil
3.04
1.0 0.05
99.0
1.0 0.05
252.0

Souce: Chakrabarty et al, (2009).

Sample of soil, compost, vermicompost and DAP were analyzed for available P, N
content as well as for organic carbon. The dry weights of the fertilizer and manure

58

were ranged from 3.04 to 252.0 g in different treatments (50 kg P2O5 content basis)
(Table 6.5).
Table 6.5. Average values* (SD) of physio-chemical parameters of water, primary
productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and fish production of
Cyprinus carpio in various treatments.
Parameters

Control (T-1)

Compost
(T-2)

Temperature (C)
30.0 4.3
30.0 5.1
pH
7.06 0.4
7.26 0.6
Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1)
6.01 0.9
6.21 1.1
Ortho phosphate (mg l-1)
0.09 0.09
0.19 0.06
Organic phosphate (mg l-1)
0.08 0.19
0.27 0.15
Total phosphate (mg l-1)
0.10 0.10
0.66 0.16
NO3N (mg l-1)
0.06 0.08
0.12 0.06
Total inorganic N (mg l-1)
0.06 0.005
0.40 0.02
Total inorganic nitrogen (N)/total 1.6
0.61
phosphate (P)
Community respiration (mg C m-2h- 20.13 9.3
28.13 12.5
1
)
Final mean body weight (g)
18.24 2.3
22.25 3.6
Fertilizer/manure added (g)
0
252
Stocking density
10.00
10.00
Initial average individual length 1.40 0.02
1.40 0.02
(cm)
Initial average individual weight (g) 2.40 0.01
2.40 0.03
Final average individual length (cm) 4.20 0.03
6.80 0.06
Final average individual weight (g)
3.76 0.01
8.29 0.05
Growth increment (g sh-1day-1)
0.0151
0.0654
Production of fish (kg ha-190 day-1) 385.92
1,952.64
Total weight gain (TWG) (g sh-1)
0.57
2.45
Survival (%)
85
88
*Each average value applies to 90 days samples.
Source: Chakrabarty et al. (2009).
Where:
Absolute growth (AG) = final body weight - initial body weight
Growth increment (GI) = final body weight - initial body weight /
number of culture days after fish introduction
Total weight gain (TWG) = final body weight - initial body weight /
initial body weight

Diammonium
phosphate
(T-3)
30.0 4.9
7.14 0.1
7.74 1.0
0.52 0.10
0.20 0.14
0.88 0.25
0.28 0.03
0.80 0.04
0.90

Vermicompost
(T-4)

35.79 18.2

38.58 13.1

39.50 4.3
3.04
10.00
1.40 0.02

45.77 3.9
99
10.00
1.40 0.02

2.40 0.04
7.60 0.04
12.92 0.03
0.1169
3080.45
4.38
87

2.40 0.02
8.80 0.07
16.76 0.07
0.1595
3,970.56
5.98
90

30.00 5.5
7.43 0.6
7.02 1.2
0.30 0.14
0.35 0.21
0.68 0.21
0.16 0.04
0.62 0.03
0.91

The demand for organically cultured food for human consumption is increasing across
the globe and for this reason organic aquaculture is the need of the present time. Wide
variety of organic manures such as grass, leaves, sewage water, livestock manure,
domestic wastes, night soil and dried blood meal have been used.
6.4. Possibilities of worms as animal feed in Egypt:
For a long time, extensive fish farming was the type practiced in Egypt, where only
chemical and/or organic fertilizers were applied for promoting the natural productivity
of ponds. Agricultural by-products such as wheat bran and rice bran were used for
supplementation in some farms. As the technology of fish farming has developed,

59

aquaculture started to exert some significant demand on fish feed. In 2001, there are
twelve feed mills that produced about 68 500 tons of specialized feeds. Most of feeds
are produced for self-sufficiency to support the needs of Governmental fish farms, but
some quantities are available for sale to private sector. Because of the cost, such mills
produce fish feeds of 18-32% protein of sinking type pellets, however, higher protein
floating feeds could be produced upon request. High quality fish meal provide the
major component in the commercial fish feeds and may constitute up to 60% of the
total diet for marine species, with higher levels being used in starter and fingerling
rations. Generally, a good range of raw materials is available for fish manufacture in
Egypt. However, price and competition from the human food and animal feed
industries limits the choice. High quality feed materials are in short supply and are
expensive. Apart from fish meal (imported and indigenous), the main available
protein sources are: soybean meal (hexane-extracted), cottonseed meal (expeller),
meat meal, poultry offal meal and feather meal. Other possibilities for new feed
materials may be the wide spread marine macroalgae or fresh water weed hyacinth.
On local basis, there is a scope for their incorporation into fish feeds particularly for
tilapia and mullets. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 show the proximate composition of the tested
feed ingredients, namely: acid fish silage (AFS), fermented fish silage (FFS), soybean
meal (SBM), a mixture of FFS and SBM (MIX), green macroalga Ulva meal (UM)
and red macro-algae Pterocladia meal (PM) compared to fish meal (FM) from
different sources and their amino acid profiles, respectively.
Table 6.6. Composition (%dry matter) of tested proteins sources or supplements for
fish feeds
Ingredient

Protein

Lipid

Ash

Moisture

NFE

Fiber

DE

AFS1

72.90

13.12

12.76

73.28

1.22

164

AFS2

73.40

17.10

8.30

1.20

178

AFS3

63.00

22.10

9.68

75.00

177

FFS

56.67

12.7

20.04

0.98

135

SBMG

44.80

20.60

5.40

5.50

29.20

161

SBMB

44.00

1.80

8.00

8.94

37.26

103

SBMD

44.00

4.00

6.53

11.00

38.17

7.30

110

UM

17.44

2.5

32.85

3.69

41.47

5.47

64

PM

22.61

2.18

37.3

3.05

28.29

9.62

35

FM1

72.05

10.94

7.00

5.00

8.98

1.02

160

FMD

61.00

8.95

20.72

6.20

9.73

136

61.00
5.00
16.60
5.00
16.70
0.70
127
FMD
Source: Wassef (2005).
NFE: Nitrogen free extract, by difference; DE: Digestible energy (MJ/Kg); AFS: acid fish silage;
FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal (G: germinated; B: boilled fullfat; D:
defatted); MIX: mixture of FFS and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal (D:
domestic product; I: imported Manhaden).

60

Table 6.7. Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or
supplement as compared to fish meal (FM)
Amino acid (AA)

AFS

FFS

SBM

MIX

UM

PM

FM

Indispensable (IAA)
Arginine (ARG)
03.62
02.86
05.59
06.20
05.85
04.46
05.88
Histidine (HIS)
02.36
01.33
04.30
02.48
02.80
02.70
02.48
Isoleucine (ILE)
02.66
01.87
03.64
03.27
03.47
04.53
04.41
Leucine (LEU)
04.43
03.73
06.09
00.51
05.21
05.92
05.71
Lysine (LYS)
05.27
03.95
04.49
05.44
05.62
06.90
04.42
Methionine (MET)
01.81
01.35
01.25
02.22
04.40
03.26
02.50
Phenyl-alanine (PHE)
02.36
02.30
04.30
03.06
04.45
04.78
03.87
Threonine (THR)
02.60
01.41
02.97
03.74
03.94
04.23
03.76
Valine (VAL)
03.01
02.41
03.86
03.94
07.46
06.69
04.75
Tryptophan (TRP)
00.63
00.36
00.72
00.80
Total IAA
28.75
21.57
36.94
31.58
43.20
43.47
38.58
Dispensable (DAA)
Aspartic Acid (ASP)
05.97
15.20
11.54
10.59
02.04
Serine (SER)
02.62
04.15
04.48
04.08
00.66
Glutamic Acid
08.81
13.03
09.35
10.22
03.30
(GLU)
03.50
03.14
05.53
07.49
04.13
Glycine (GLY)
03.74
03.54
07.19
07.23
01.47
Alanine (ALA)
02.04
04.03
03.31
03.65
01.47
Tyrosine (TYR)
02.60
04.46
05.15
04.64
Proline (PRO)
00.73
01.13
01.27
01.51
00.97
Cysteine (CYS)
30.01
48.68
47.82
49.41
12.57
Total (DAA)
58.76
85.62
91.02
92.88
51.15
Total amino acids
Source: Wassef (2005).
AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal; MIX: mixture of FFS
and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal.

There is still a great opportunity for Egypt to use the tremendous amount of organic
wastes to be used as meal not only for poultry, rabbits, ducks, and geese, but also for
aquaculture and large animals. The only missing part is to create awareness and to
develop capacity building programs in a well established demonstrated sites
representing different geographic regions of the country.

61

7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices

and environmental effects of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane
emissions.
The main beneficiaries of this work are the agriculture producers in general and
organic farming producers specifically. Previous chapters covered all aspects of
production of vermicompost and vermiculture. As an organic grower interest, the
environmental positive impacts of utilizing such methods of production, it is
important to understand how vermicompost contribute to improve reducing the
production of greenhouse gases, and consequently help mitigating the global
warming. This chapter aims at highlighting on-farm and urban organic waste
management practices and the environmental effects of those practices.
7.1. Emissions from vermicompost
Composting has been identified as an important source of CH4 and N2O. With
increasing divergence of biodegradable waste from landfill into the composting
sector, it is important to quantify emissions of CH4 and N2O from all forms of
composting and from all stages. The study focused on the final phase of a two stage
composting process and compared the generation and emission of CH4 and N2O
associated with two differing composting methods: mechanically turned windrow and
vermicomposting. The mechanically turned windrow system was characterized by
emissions of CH4 and to a much lesser extent N2O. However, the vermicomposting
system emitted significant fluxes of N2O and only traces amounts of CH4. High N2O
emission rates from vermicomposting were ascribed to strongly nitrifying conditions
in the processing beds combined with the presence of de-nitrifying bacteria within the
worm gut (Hobson et al., 2005).
Different other reports from several countries stated that any possible emissions of
greenhouse gases by earthworms from soil or vermicomposting systems is extremely
small when compared with the well-documented emissions of nitrous oxide, methane
and carbon dioxide from inorganic fertilizer manufacture, landfills, manure heaps,
lagoons, crop residues in soils and manure from pigs and cattle in housed systems.
While there will be N2O emissions from all these sources, there is no justification for
suggesting that environmentally-friendly and energy-efficient systems for producing
vermicomposts and composts should be restricted because of their potential to
produce greenhouse gases. The global production of nitrogenous greenhouse gases in
agriculture should be compared from all sources before vermicomposting is publicly
condemned in such a sensational way (Edwards, 2008).
Recent research has shown that certain types of vermicomposting can generate
significant amounts of N2O. These initial findings indicate a need for more research to
be conducted before any sound recommendations on vermicomposting can be given.
Since the amount of emissions from composting depends on the specific composting
method used and on how well the process is managed, it is not possible to give a

62

definitive answer to the question of how much composting contributes to climate

change. Most studies on emissions from composting have been carried out in
developed countries where conditions differ from the target countries of this study.
Nevertheless, several environmental agencies have concluded that when composting
is done properly, it generates very small amounts of greenhouse gases (IGES, 2008).
Chan et al. (2010) investigated greenhouse gas emissions from three different home
waste treatment methods in Brisbane, Australia. Gas samples were taken monthly
from 34 backyard composting bins from January to April 2009. Averaged over the
study period, the aerobic composting bins released lower amounts of CH4 (2.2 mgm2 -1
h ) than the anaerobic digestion bins (9.5 mgm-2h-1) and the vermicomposting bins
(4.8 mg.m-2.h-1). The vermicomposting bins had lower N2O emission rates (1.2 mg m-2
h-1) than the others (1.51.6 mgm-2h-1). Total greenhouse gas emissions including
both N2O and CH4 were 463, 504 and 694 mg CO2e m-2h-1 for vermicomposting,
aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion, respectively, with N2O contributing
>80% in the total budget. The greenhouse gas emissions varied substantially with
time and were regulated by temperature, moisture content and the waste properties,
indicating the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emission through proper
management of the composting systems. The results suggest that home composting
provides an effective and feasible supplementary waste management method to a
centralized facility in particular for cities with lower population density such as the
Australian cities.
In terms of greenhouse gas emissions during the maturation process, the windrow
composting process was characterized by emission of CH4. Emission of greenhouse
gases from vermicomposting was predominantly N2O with comparatively little CH4
emitted, demonstrating that sufficiently aerobic conditions were maintained in the
vermicomposting beds to inhibit CH4 production. The global warming potential of the
vermicomposting maturation system was estimated to be approximately 30 times
greater than that for the windrow composting system. The emission of greenhouse
gases from these types of composting systems requires further investigation.
Vermicomposting by worms decreases the proportion of 'anaerobic to aerobic
decomposition', resulting in a significant decrease in methane (CH4) and volatile
sulfur compounds which are readily emitted from the conventional (microbial)
composting process. Vermi-composting of waste organics using earthworms therefore
has a distinct advantage over the conventional aerobic composting as it does not allow
the greenhouse gas methane (CH4) to be formed. Molecule to molecule, methane is a
20-25 times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2. Earthworms can play a good
part in the strategy of greenhouse gas reduction and mitigation in the disposal of
global organic wastes as landfills also emit methane resulting from the slow anaerobic
decomposition of waste organics over several years. However, recent research done in
Germany has found that earthworms produce a third of nitrous oxide (N20) gases
when used for vermicomposting. Molecule to molecule N:0 is a 296 times more
powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). This needs further study (Daven
and Klein, 2008).

63

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt

Total emissions for 2000 amounted to about 193 megaton of carbon dioxide
equivalent1. With the total emissions for 1990 amounting to about 117 megaton of
carbon dioxide equivalent., The average greenhouse gases emissions increase is about
5% annually. In this respect, the estimated total greenhouse gases emissions for 2008
are about 288 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent. Egypts specific greenhouse
gases emissions for 2000 amounted to 2.99 megaton of carbon dioxide per capita,
while direct CO2 emissions per capita in 2000 amounted to 1.98 ton per capita.
The total greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 of carbon dioxide, methane, nittrogen
oxide, Perfluorocarbons, haloflorocarbons, sulpher hexafloride (excluding emissions
from land use change), for the world amounted to 29,910 megaton of carbon dioxide..
The total 1990 emissions of Egypt amounted to about 117 megaton of carbon dioxide,
based on emissions of dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide (EEAA, 1999). These figures
denote that the share of Egypt in the total World emissions in 1990 was 0.4%.
Egypts total emissions are about 193 dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide, including
emissions of manure management, agriculture soil, and field burning of agricultural
residues, and emissions from some sources of sub-categories, such as methane
emissions from aerobic waste water treatment plants, nitrogen oxide emissions from
domestic wastewater and emissions from incineration, all of which were not included
in the 1990 figures. Moreover, more updated figures for activity data were used for
solid waste generation and wastewater generation for the year 2000. Based on this and
taking into account the world total emissions for the year 2000, amounting to 33,017
megaton of carbon dioxide equivalen, Egypts share in the total world emissions for
2000 was 0.58% (EEAA, 2010).

Each of the greenhouse gases has a global warming potential (GWP) value compared to CO2, which has global
warming potential=1. All quantities of green house gases are converted to CO2 equivalent quantities by
multiplying the weight of such gas by its GWP to obtain the CO2 equivalent weight.

64

Table 7.1. Summary of greenhouse gases emissions for Egypt, 2000, as of its Second
National Communications1 submitted in July 2010.
Greenhouse gases
Source & Sink
Categories

CO2
(Kt)

CH4
(Kt)

N2O
(Kt)

PFCs
(Kt)

SF6
(Kt)

HFCs
(Kt)

Total
(Mt
CO2e)

Total National
Emissions & Removals

128,227

1,877

79

160
(tons)

5
(tons)

28
(tons)

193.3

ALL ENERGY
(Fuel Combustion &
Fugitive)

106,629

447

581
(tons)

--

5
(tons)

--

116.3

105,161

559
(tons)

--

5
(tons)

--

105.5

--

5
(tons)

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Fuel combustion
Petroleum & energy
transformation industries

41,436

Industry

26,987

Transport

27,120

Small combustion
Agriculture
Fugitive emissions from
fuels
Oil & Natural Gas

9,389
229

930
(tons)
680
(tons)

130
(tons)
180
(tons)
222
(tons)
25
(tons)
2
(tons)

1
188
(tons)
10
(tons)

1,469

444

22
(tons)

--

--

--

1,469

444

22
(tons)

--

--

--

10.8

INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES

21,594

--

16

160
(tons)

--

28
(tons)

27.8

Cement production

17,251

--

--

--

--

--

--

31

--

--

--

--

--

--

Iron and steel industry

1,576

--

--

--

--

--

--

Nitric acid production

--

--

16

--

--

--

--

Aluminum production

--

--

--

160
(tons)

--

--

--

Ozone Depleting Substitutes

--

--

--

--

--

28
(tons)

--

Ammonia production

2,736

--

--

--

--

--

--

Lime production

As per Kyoto Protocol, Egypt submitted it's Second National Communication for Climate Change to
the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) in June 2010.

65

Greenhouse gases
Source & Sink
Categories

CH4
(Kt)

N2O
(Kt)

AGRICULTURE

--

599

62

Agriculture soils

--

--

33

--

--

--

--

Enteric fermentation

--

385

--

--

--

--

--

Manure management

--

28

28

--

--

--

--

Rice cultivation

--

--

--

--

--

--

Field burning of
agricultural residues

--

68

--

--

--

--

WASTE

832

10
(tons)

--

--

--

17.5

Solid waste disposal on land

--

557

--

--

--

--

--

Wastewater treatment

--

275

10
(tons)

--

--

--

--

Waste incineration

--

--

--

--

--

--

118

PFCs
(Kt)

SF6
(Kt)

HFCs
(Kt)

Total
(Mt
CO2e)

CO2
(Kt)

31.7

Source: EEAA (2010).

7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes

The global N2O emission from crop residue has been estimated at 0.4 tera gram
nitrogen per year, using the IPCC default emission factor of 1.25% of applied residue
N emitted as N2O. However, this default emission factor is based on relatively few
experimental studies. Recent experiments showed that the emission factor for crop
residues can vary considerably with residue quality, particularly the carbon/nitrogen
(C/N) ratio and the amount of mineralizable N. Generally, higher emissions follow
incorporation of residue with lower C/N ratios. It could be concluded that earthworm
activity has the potential to increase N2O emissions from crop residues up to 18-fold;
that the earthworm effect is largely independent of bulk density; and that earthworm
species, specifically, impact N2O emissions and residue stabilization in soil organic
matter. However, earthworm-mediated emissions of N2O mostly resulted from residue
incorporation into the soil, and disappeared when plowing of residue into the soil was
simulated. Our results suggest that, irrespective of earthworm activity, farmers may
decrease direct N2O emissions from crop residues with a relatively low C/N ratio by
leaving it on top for a few weeks before plowing it into the soil. However, field
studies should confirm this effect, and possible trade-offs to other (indirect) emissions
of N2O should be taken into consideration before this can be recommended (Rizhiya
et al., 2007).

66

Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on vermicomposting has
been developed at the Ohio State University. This has included experiments
investigating the effects of vermicomposts on the germination, growth, flowering, and
fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell peppers and tomatoes, as well as on a wide
range of flowering plants including petunias, marigolds, bachelors button,
chrysanthemums, impatiens, sunflowers, and poinsettias. A consistent trend in all
these growth trials has been that the best plant growth responses, with all needed
nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicomposts constituted a relatively small
proportion (10% to 20%) of the total volume of the container medium mixture, with
greater proportions of vermicomposts in the plant growth medium not always
improving plant growth. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural container
media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were similar to those
reported when composts were used instead (Atiyeh et al., 2000).
Table (7.2) and Figure (7.1) present Egypts total greenhouse gas emissions by gas
type, for the year 2000, while Table (7.2) and figure (7.2) present Egypts total
greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000.
Table 7.2. Egypts greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000.

Gas
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
Methane, CH4
Nittrogen oxide, N2O
Perfluorocarbons, PFC
Sulpher hexafluoride, SF6
Haloflorocarbons, HFC's
blend
TOTAL
Source: EEAA (2010).

Emissions
(mega ton CO2
equivalent)
128.2
39.4
24.4
1.1
0.1
0.1
193.3

67

Emissions
(%)
66.3
20.4
12.6
0.6
0.1
0.1
100

SF6; 0.11; 0%

PFC; 1.04 ; 1%

HFC's blend; 0.05; 0%

N2 O; 24.36 ; 13%
CH4 ; 39.44 ; 20%

CO2; 128.22 ; 66%

Figure 7.1. Egypts greenhouse gases emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in
mega ton CO2 equivalent.
Source: EEAA (2010).

Table 7.3. Egypts greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000
Emissions
Emissions
Sector
(mega ton CO2
(%)
equivalent)
105.5
55
Fuel Combustion
10.8
6
Fugitive Fuel Emissions
Agriculture
31.7
16
Industrial Processes
27.8
14
Waste
17.5
9
TOTAL
193.3
100
Source: EEAA (2010).

68

Waste; 17.49; 9%
Agriculture; 31.72;
16%
Fuel Combustion;
105.51; 55%

Industrial Processes;
;
27.77; 14%
Fugitive fuel;
10.81; 6%
Fuel Combustion

Fugitive fuel emissions Industrial Processes

Agriculture

Waste

Figure 7.2. Egypts greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega
ton CO2 equivalent.
Source: EEAA(2010).
Table (7.3) and figure (7.2) show the change of sectors contribution to Egypts total
inventory. It is clear that the total greenhouse gas emissions of Egypt increased in
2000 to be 165% of that in 1990. During this period Egypts population increased by
123% with an increase in the GDP of 277% (Ministry of Economic Development,
2007). The ratio of GDP, at the 1981/82 fixed prices, for the year 2000 to that for
1990 is 151%, denoting that the increase in greenhouse gas emissions seems to be
correlated to the GDP increase rather than the population growth. It is clear that
emissions from agriculture are the second after fuel combustion and before industrial
processes.
7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment
There is another important use that helps the environment which is the use of
vermiculture as a biological filter for domestic waste water. use of earthworms in
filtration systems, which has been termed vermifiltration (VF) (Xing et al., 2010).
Since then, several studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of vermifilters in
domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment, and swine
wastewater treatment processes, as well as in simultaneous sludge reduction
processes. However, less attention has been given to the use of vermifilters to dispose
of excess sludge directly. Moreover, most studies conducted to evaluate VFs have
only focused on the contamination purification efficiencies, but the interactions
between earthworms and microorganisms, which are very important for understanding
the sludge stabilization mechanisms involved in VFs, have not been fully investigated.
A study was conducted to explore the feasibility of using a VF to stabilize sewage
sludge while focusing on elucidating the earthwormmicroorganism interactions
responsible for the decomposition of organic matter in the vermifilter. Additionally,
this investigation sought to identify the primary mechanism by which sewage sludge
stabilization in the vermifilter occurs based on the chemical and spectroscopic

69

properties of the treated sludge, the microbial community in the biofilm, and the
earthwormmicroorganism interactions in the vermifilter reactor. The results of this
study provide useful information regarding the use of a vermifilter for the optimal
sewage sludge treatment. A cylinder shaped vermifilter (30 cm in diameter and 60 cm
in depth) that was naturally ventilated was equipped with a 0.5-inch polypropylene
pipe with holes to ensure uniform distribution of the influent (Figure 7.3). The
vermifilter contained a 0.5 m filter bed of ceramic pellets (69 mm in diameter). A
layer of plastic fiber was placed on the top of the filter bed to avoid direct hydraulic
impact on the earthworms and to ensure an even influent distribution. The influent
sludge was introduced to the vermifilter via a peristaltic pump. After passing through
the filter bed, the treated sludge entered into a sedimentation tank below the
vermifilter and the supernatant in the sedimentation tank was recycled.

Figure 7.3. Layout of the Vermifilter

Source: Zhaoa et al. (2010).
The vermifilter may be an efficient technology for stabilization of excess sludge from
domestic Waste Water Treatment Plants. The volatile suspended solids (VSS)
reduction in the VF reached 56.266.6%, which met the criteria for aerobic and
anaerobic sludge stabilization (>40%). The presence of the earthworms in the VF
induced an additional 25.1% reduction in volatile suspended solids. On average, the
earthwormmicroorganism interactions were responsible for approximately 46% of
the improvement in the VSS reduction. Moreover, a detailed characterization of
sludge and earthworm cast samples revealed that earthworms in the VF improved the
microbial activity by transforming insoluble organic materials into a soluble form and
selectively digesting the sludge particles of 10200 m to finer particles of 02 m,
while enhancing the bacterial diversity in the biofilm. Additionally, improved sludge
settleability with a compact structure and low SVI values (3345 mL/g) were
achieved in the presence of earthworms, which was favorable for further sludge
processing (Zhaoa et al., 2010).

70

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on

greenhouse gas emission reductions
Vermicompost is one of the activities that could mitigate the greenhouse gases
(GHGs) that cause global warming. Both urbane wastes and agricultural residues
produce considerable amounts of greenhouse gases as described in the previous
chapter. According to the environmental regulations, the reduction of greenhouse
gases could be a source of financial benefits for vermicompost producers. Therefore,
this chapter deals with examples of reducing the emissions through vermicomposting,
which may assist the firms working in this business to sell their carbon reduction in
what is called "carbon market". Every ton of CO2e reduced could be sold with around
10 Euros according to pre-signed contract. The mechanism that regulates such activity
is the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto prorocol. Under the CDM
industrialized countries can purchase greenhouse gas emission reductions from
developing countries to help meet their obligations under the Kyoto Protocol.
8.1. Background
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) proposed under article 12 of the Kyoto
Protocol is an important potential instrument to promote foreign investment in
greenhouse gas emission reduction options while simultaneously addressing the issue
of sustainable development.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the Kyoto Protocol programs
for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Under the CDM, an
industrialized country with a greenhouse gas reduction target can invest in a project in
a developing country without a target and claim credit for the emissions that the
project achieves. German companies, for instance, invested in a wind power project in
Egypt, thus replacing electricity that would otherwise have been produced from coal.
Egypt then sold the credit for the emissions that have been avoided to Germany
which, in turn, used them to meet its own greenhouse gas reduction target.
Both sides benefit from CDM projects. For industrialized countries, the CDM greatly
reduces the cost of meeting the reduction commitments that they agreed to under the
Kyoto Protocol. Developing countries receive financial and technical assistance in
upgrading their energy infrastructure and can sell certified emission reductions for
profit. This diversification of external earnings will reduce oil-exporting countries'
dependence on the highly volatile world oil price.
Egypt is striving to develop efficient, transparent and strong criteria and institutions
for the marketing, approval and control of CDM projects, thus making the country
attractive for international CDM investors and ensuring the efficient implementation
of CDM projects. The private sector will play an important role in this process, be it
as project hosts, in project design and implementation, or in the verification of
emission reductions. Donors and governmental authorities are the potential facilitators
of CDM projects. Environment 2007 therefore intends to increase awareness and
bring together businesses and the various financing institutions in order to ensure their
full participation in the CDM process.

71

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC was

agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. This agreement aims at the stabilization of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, at a level that would prevent dangerous changes
to the climate.
The UNFCCC adopted Kyoto Protocol at the third conference of parties (COP3) in
Kyoto, Japan in 1997. The Protocol sets binding commitments by 39 developed
countries and economies in transition, listed in Annex B, to reduce their greenhouse
gas emissions by an average of 5.2 per cent on 1990 levels (the first commitment
period, 2008 - 2012).
The UNFCCC divides countries in two main groups: Annex I parties that include the
industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition /EITs (the
Russian Federation, the Baltic States and several other Central and Eastern European
countries). All the others are called non-Annex I countries.
Annex I countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol can invest in projects that both
reduce greenhouse gases and contribute to sustainable development in non-Annex I
countries. A CDM project provides certified emissions reductions (CERs) to Annex I
countries, which they can use to meet their greenhouse gas reduction commitments
under the Kyoto Protocol. Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol sets out three goals for the
CDM: i) To help mitigate climate change; ii) To assist Annex I countries attain their
emission reduction commitments, and iii) To assist developing countries in achieving
sustainable development.
In addition to contribute towards sustainable development, CDM project candidates
looking for approval under the CDM must lead to real, measurable reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions, or lead to the measurable absorption (or sequestration) of
greenhouse gases in a developing country. The six greenhouse gases and gas classes
coming from varied sources of the economy are: carbon dioxide "CO2" (source: fossil
fuel combustion; deforestation; agriculture); methane "CH4" (source: agriculture; land
use change; biomass burning; landfills); nitrous oxide "N2O" (source: fossil fuel
combustion; industrial; agriculture); hydrofluorocarbons "HFCs" (source: industrial
/manufacturing); perfluorocarbons "PFCs" (source: industrial/manufacturing); sulphur
hexafluoride "SF6" (source: electricity transmission; manufacturing(.
The baseline for a CDM project is the scenario used to show the trend of
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that would occur in the absence of the
proposed CDM project. The baseline basically shows what would be the future
greenhouse gas emissions without the CDM project intervention. Each CDM project
has to develop its own baseline. Once a baseline methodology has been approved by
the Executive Board, other projects can use it too. For small-scale projects, guidance
is provided on standard baselines.
Greenhouse gas emissions from a CDM project activity must be reduced below those
that would have occurred in the absence of the project. It must be shown that the
project would not have been implemented without the CDM. Without this
additionality requirement, there is no guarantee that CDM projects will create

72

incremental greenhouse gas emissions reductions equivalent to those that would have
been made in Annex I countries, or play a role in the ultimate objective of stabilizing
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.
CERs generated by CDM projects that are used by Annex 1 countries to meet their
Kyoto targets allow emissions in these countries to rise. Therefore if CERs are
awarded to activities that would happen without the CDM project, i.e. for reductions
that would occur anyway, Annex 1 emissions are allowed to rise without a
corresponding cut elsewhere, thereby raising global emissions. The only winners are
the buyers of cheap credits, because host countries do not receive new investment and
climate change is not being mitigated.
CDM projects assist developing countries to achieve sustainable development.
Industrialized countries have developed domestic policies to comply with the Kyoto
Protocol. This has led to a growing demand for carbon credits. Developing countries
may supply such carbon credits. While many factors influence the size and stability of
the global market, facts indicate that this market would move billions of dollars a
year, increasing foreign investment capital flow in developing countries.
According to the Kyoto Protocol, investments in various sectors of non-Annex I
countries may qualify for CDM credits in 1) energy fuel combustion: energy
industries; manufacturing industries and construction; transport; other sectors; 2)
Fugitive emissions from fuels: solid fuels; oil and natural gas; 3) industrial processes:
mineral products; chemical industry; metal production; other production; production
and consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexaflouride; 4) solvent; 5) agriculture:
enteric fermentation; manure management; rice cultivation; agricultural soils;
prescribed burning of savannas; filed burning of agricultural residues; 6) solid waste
disposal on land; wastewater handling; waste incineration; 7) land-use, land-use
change, and forestry: afforestation; reforestation; avoided deforestation for thermal
energy in small-scale projects.
8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt
Clean Development Mechanism is one of Kyoto Protocol three mechanisms which
include Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading. The aim from applying CDM is
the implementation of projects reducing greenhouse gas emissions from different
sectors such as industry, waste recycling, transport, switching to usage of natural gas
as a fuel, and afforestation to absorb greenhouse gas. These projects contribute to
achieving sustainable development goals, create job opportunities, produce additional
financial return from selling carbon reduction certificates as a result.
During 2007, NCCC held 6 meetings (3 for the Egyptian Bureau for CDM (EB-CDM)
and the Egyptian Council for CDM (EC-CDM)). Seventeen CDM projects have been
approved and Letters of No-Objection (LoN) have been issued (first phase of project
approval). Such projects include:
1. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Delta Fertilizers and Chemical
Industries.

73

2. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, KIMA Chemical Industries.
3. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Nasr Fertilizers and Chemical
Industries.
4. Fuel switching and reduction of clinker, National Cement Company.
5. Fuel switching in industrial processes, El-Delta Steel Company.
6. Equipment replacement and fuel switching, El-Max Salinas Company,
Alexandria.
7. Land filling, treatment, and recycling, Southern Region, Cairo Governorate.
8. Installation of cogeneration unit operating by gas recovered from the industrial
processes, Alexandria Carbon Black Company.
9. Replacement of fuel oil by natural gas, Dakahlia Spinning and Weaving
Company.
10. Replacement of light oil and coke gas by natural gas as a fuel for furnaces, Nasr
Forging Company.
11. Fuel Switching from Light Oil to Natural Gas in Spring and Transport Needs
Manufacturing Co.
12. Methane Reduction by Composting of Municipal Waste from Cairo North and
West.
13. Capture and flaring of biologically-generated methane from Abu Zaabal
landfills,Qalyubia.
14. Replacement of light oil by natural gas, Damietta Spinning and Weaving
Company.
15. Reduction of sodium carbonate, Nile Oils and Detergents Company.
16. Reduction of CO2 emissions, Egypt for Oils and Soap Company.
17. Switching fuel from heavy oil to natural gas, El-Nasr Wool and Selected Textile
Company (STIA).
8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM
Egypt has participated to the National Strategy Studies (NSS) Program, launched by
the Government of Switzerland and the World Bank in 1997.
This program has assisted Egypt in the development of the CDM Strategy which was
undertaken in collaboration with the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).
The Egypts NSS on the CDM aims at mainstreaming environment into the relevant
sectors and minimizing the environmental impacts of development, through
identification of priority policies and planning for their implementation.
1- Ratification on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, the issuance of Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment,
and the participation in various international workshops and conferences
related to climate change to avoid having any international obligations on
developing countries, including Egypt .
2- Ratification of Kyoto's Protocol, and the establishment of the Egyptian
Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA);

74

consisting of the Egyptian Bureau and the Egyptian Council for Clean
Development Mechanism.
3- Ministry of Electricity and Energy: establishment several projects in the field
of New and Renewable Energy (Wind - Solar - Hydro - Bio), and encouraging
Energy Efficiency Projects .
4- Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs: establishing guiding schemes for
private sector to encourage investments in the field of clean energy projects,
waste recycling, and afforestation .
5- Maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms through
implementing Clean Development Mechanism Projects .
In addition to the State's concern in maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol
Mechanisms, especially Clean Development Mechanism, it established the
Egyptian Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism
(DNA-CDM), instantly after ratifying the protocol and its entrance into force in
2005. The DNA has achieved tangible progress in several sectors, 36 projects
have been approved within the framework of the Mechanism. This is including the
sectors of: New and Renewable Energy, Industry, Waste Recycling, Afforestation,
Energy Efficiency, and Fuel Switching to Natural Gas. This is for an estimated
total cost of 1200 Million US Dollar. These projects are considered as a source for
attracting foreign investments, providing employment opportunities, and
contributing in the implementation of Sustainable Development plans in Egypt.
8.4. The national regulatory framework
The law number 4 of 1994 and its executive regulation contain the national policy and
regulatory framework governing the growth and competitiveness of the agro residue
based biomass sector. In the protection of air environment from pollution section
article (36) said that in carrying out their activities, establishments subject to the
provisions of this law are held to ensure that emissions or leakages of air pollutants do
not exceed the maximum limits permitted and Article (38) Concern about dump, treat
or burn garbage and solid waste, while Article (42) talk about the consideration which
should be given by the competent bodies, according to their activities, when burning
any type of fuel or other substance, and the Precautions, Permissible limits, and
Specification of Chimneys While Article (45)Talk about the necessary precautions
and procedures laid down by the Ministry of Manpower and Employment to prevent
the leakage or emission of air pollutants inside the work. Annex I contain the
executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 which governing the growth and
competitiveness of the agro residue based biomass sector.

75

9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture

as a means of greenhouse gas emission reduction.
In the waste sector, the Egyptian relevant ministries, in collaboration with concerned
governorates, have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to
improve the process of collection, reuse and recycling of waste, yet there are several
barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These include financial constraints
for the mitigation of greenhouse gass emissions from the waste sector; the significant
dependence on external financial support, as grants and concessionary loans,
complicating the planning process and slowing down implementation; limited public
awareness about the economic benefits of reuse and recycling of waste leads, leading
to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider waste management activity as a
viable option; the need of technology transfer and high investments for some waste
treatment options, such as anaerobic digestion; the weak enforcement of existing laws
and regulations for violations in handling waste.
9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt
9.1.1. Municipal solid waste
Waste in Egypt can be considered as constituted of solid waste and wastewater. The
total annual amount of solid waste produced in Egypt is about 17 Mt according to the
year 2000 estimates. The amount of accumulated solid waste (i.e. waste not collected
and dumped in disposal sites but rather dumped on roads and empty lands) was
estimated to be about 9.7 Mt for the year 2000, with a total volume of 36,098,936 m3
(EEAA 2007). This solid waste can be categorized into municipal waste, industrial
waste, agriculture waste, waste from cleaning waterways and healthcare waste.
Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with
the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service
institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per
capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3
kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living
standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60%
food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and
the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others.
Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated
at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and
the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Various studies indicate low
waste collection efficiencies, varying between less than 35% in small provincial
towns to 77% in large cities.
Final destinations of municipal solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being
composted, 2% recycled, 2% landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open
dumps. In this respect, 16 landfills exist in Egypt: 7 in the Greater Cairo Region, 5 in
the Delta governorates and 4 in Upper Egypt. Their capacities range between 0.5 and

76

12 Mt per day. They are usually operated by private entities. Recently, 53 sites have
been identified for new landfills, and the construction of 56 composting plants
throughout the country is underway.
9.1.2. Agricultural wastes
Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons
per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal
fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes.
9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes
As a non-annex I country, Egypt is not required to meet any specific emission
reduction or limitation targets in terms of commitments under the UNFCCC, or the
Kyoto protocol. However, mitigation measures are already in progress. Egypt is fully
aware that greenhouse gas emissions reduction, particularly by major producers, is the
only measure that could ensure the mitigation of global warming and climate change.
The mitigation measures in this section are based on those described in national plans
and country studies documents (Table 9.1).
Six main criteria have been selected for prioritization of mitigation measures in the
waste sector according to Egypt's Second National Communication. These entail
investment costs; payback periods; greenhouse gases emission reductions potentials;
duration of implementation; priority in national strategies/programs; and contribution
to sustainable development. Mitigation options, concluded from a multi-criteria
analysis, were combined for each sub-sector in order to generate a number of
scenarios for solid waste and wastewater. The lowest greenhouse gas emitting
scenario was selected for implementation during the period 2009 to 2025.
Mitigation measures under one or more of appropriate treatment categories, the
associated emission reduction potential, and investment costs calculated for 25 years
lifetime in simple linear amortization cost, are summarized in tables (III.6) and (III.7)
for solid waste and wastewater, respectively (EEAA, 2007).

77

Table 9.1. Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes.

Emission
reduction
potential
(ton CO2e per
ton MSW)

Mitigation Measure

0.38

Composting and recycling facilities

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with
electricity generation only,
composting, and recycling
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with
substitution in cement kiln,
composting, and recycling facilities
Anaerobic digestion with recycling
(flaring biogas)
Anaerobic digestion with recycling
facilities (with electricity
generation)
Source: EEAA (2010).

< 0.3

< 0.3
0.342
0.547

Investment cost
(US$/ton MSW)

0.92
2.07

1.97

12.16
16.16

The Egyptian relevant ministries, in close collaboration with concerned governorates,

have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to improve the
process of dealing with waste reduction, reuse, recycling and/or proper disposal.
These plans and programs lead to the reduction in emissions from the waste sector.
Yet there are several barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These
comprise the following:

Although financial support for mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions from

the waste sector in Egypt has increased significantly over the last years, it still
represents a clear constraint in the implementation of the intended programs.

The significant dependence on external financial support, as grants and

concessionary loans, complicates the planning process, and slows down
implementation.

The limited public awareness about the economic benefits of mitigation options
in the waste sector leads to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider
waste management activity as an economically viable option.

Technology transfer represents another barrier mainly in anaerobic digestion

technologies as it needs high capital investment and skills to operate correctly.
Some technologies are designed on site-specific bases, which are not optimal for
other regions. Highly local skilled experts and extensive studies are needed for
proving the suitability and applicability of the technology according to different
varying local conditions in Egypt.

All parties in the waste sector are relatively of limited environmental

management experience and the mechanisms for coordination with EEAA are
not well established. Furthermore, privatization of the waste sector lacks clear

78

modalities for partnership, particularly with regards to private-public

partnership.
Weak enforcement of existing laws and regulations for violations in handling
waste reduces the opportunity for achieving the goals of the planned programs.

9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes

As the activities of agriculture are too complicated and the share of emission from all
agriculture activities is almost 16%, it was not mentioned in the mitigation options for
the National Communication of Egypt. Although no studies have been reported on the
mitigation from the agricultural wastes, vermicompost could save considerable
amounts of greenhouse gases from reducing the amount of crop residues burned.
Further studies are still required to elaborate on this subject.

79

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Annex 1
General information and FAQ
WORM FACTS

SMALLEST: Less than an inch

LARGEST: 22 Foot found in South Africa
An earthworm has a brain, five hearts, and breathes through its skin
An earthworm produces its own weight in casts everyday
There are over 1 million earthworms in one acre of soil
Earthworms can burrow as deep as fifteen feet
Earthworms are 82% protein and are a food source for many people around the
world
Eating earthworms can reduce cholesterol, as the basic essential oil of
earthworms is Omega 3
Benefits of Earthworms
Increased moisture absorption
Improved soil aeration and drainage
Leaching counteracted by nutrient-rich castingsbrought to the surface
Nutrients are pre-digested, making them readily available to microorganisms
and plants
Worm castings form aggregates which improve soil structure
Castings neutralize soil by buffering acid and alkaline conditions
Worm tunnels create fertile channels for the growth of plant roots
The bottom line: Earthworms increase crop yields while building soil fertility
reserves.
FAQ Compost Worm Do compost worms also eat normal earth or only rotting organic material?
Although the compost worms Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei are not commonly
found in mineral grounds, scientific investigations show that they also eat mineral
earth. However, they select an organic enriched fraction from the bulk soil
(approximately by a factor 2), which is also typical for soil dwelling worms.
Therefore, compost worms can also be used to clean contaminated mineral grounds.
Can compost worms be used for decontamination of mineral soils?
Yes, because they eat mineral soils too. Experiments were done with the harbour
sludge of Rotterdam.
Eisenia andrei is commonly used in standard toxcicity tests and in bioassays for
contaminated soils (Cortet et al., 1999).

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How long will the material ingested by the compost worm be in his gut?
In adult compost worms (Eisenia andrei) appr. 3 to 4 hours, in juvenile worms appr.
11 to 13 hours. The scientists expected the opposite (a longer retention time for adult
worms).
For Eisenia foetida 2.5 h were measured at 25C, independent from the weight or the
length of the worm. At 18C the retention time was about 3.5 hours.
Lumbricus terrestris shows a retention time of 20 hours. Other worm species 11 to 13
hours (Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora caliginosa).
How do compost worms multiply?
Like all earthworms, compost worms have female and male gender organs
(hermaphrodite). If they pair off, the genitals come mutually to narrow contact. These
are localized in the wide rings (clitellum) of adult worms. This ring walks in the
course of the next days on and on to the back and is shored up, in the end, so that a
yellowish cocoon originates which has the form a lemon. After a certain time, out of
this small mites are slipping.

How often does a conception take place with the mating of compost worms?
It comes to 61% of the matings to the transfer of sperm. Of it a mutual transfer of
sperm takes place in 88.2% of the cases, in 9.8% the transfer occurred only in one
direction. Merely in one case a self conception occurred.
Is a self-fertilization also possible with compost worms?
Although reported very often with earthworms, a self-sperm transfer could be clearly
documented in 2003 for the first time. This occurs very seldom and was observed with
Eisenia foetida. Self conception is an extreme form of inbreeding. The genetic
diversity is lowered what normally leads to a reduction in fitness of the species. For
this reason mechanisms of self-incompatibility have been developed in many species.
Which compost worm multiplies faster? Eisenia foetida or Eisenia andrei?
Scientific investigations from the year 2003 showed that Eisenia andrei multiplies
much faster under the elective conditions of the study. The percentage of the worms,
that produced cocoons was substantially higher (33% compared with 3.5%). Also the
number of the produced cocoons was higher with Eisenia andrei, likewise the slip rate
of the mites from the cocoons. The life ability of the cocoons was possibly equally
high with both species.

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What do eat compost worms?

Fungi are probably a primary source of food for many earthworm species. Rotting
material from plants, which is richly colonized with it, is the most popular "meal" for
the worms.

Slows the composting process down because the fungi in the compost are eaten
by the worms?
On the contrary, in the general, it is even accelerated. More diverse fungal
communities inhabited earthworm-processed substrates than were found in fresh
substrates. This, although it is generally believed that fungal hyphae are destroyed and
may be a preferred food source for earthworms. Worms probably accelerate the
composting process by both grazing and dispersal, and indirectly by their effects on
the substrate (burrowing and casting).
Can earthworms nibble at living roots?
No! The earthworms to which also the compost worms belong, attack no living roots.
They live on the dead plant material colonized richly with micro-organisms. In
addition, they have no tools (teeth, grater plates or other things) by which they could
nibble at roots. The earthworm in the flowerpot or plant patch does not harm the
plants.
Are certain fungi preferred by earthworms as food?
Earthworms can make a good distinction between the different kinds of fungi.
Lumbricus terrestris prefers Fusarium oxysporum and Mucor hiemalis, other tested
mushrooms are only sometimes eaten or are avoided even completely. In case of the
compost worm Eisenia foetida it was shown, that the black melanine containing
fungus C. cladosporioides was the most attractive in contrast to Aspergillus niger
which was the least attractive. For Eisenia andrei still no investigations were done.
Does a quicker worm composting take place if the plant leftovers are inoculated
with certain fungi before?
This is possible, however, for the normal leisure gardener too exaggeratedly and also
not necessary. Investigations proved that a previous addition of A. flavus accelerates
the growth of Eisenia andrei. Mucor sp. should accelerate the growth with five other
earthworms. Nevertheless, with Eisenia andrei M. circinelloides shows the opposite
effect.
What role do composting worms play besides the use as humus producer, fish
bait and animal food?
The compost worms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei play an important role in the
ecotoxicological assessment of compounds in soil and are the recommended OECD

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earthworm test species. This species has been used to examine the relative toxicity
and predict the short and long-term effects of toxic substances on earthworm
populations in field soil. The composting worm (Eisenia fetida) is representative of
three other species of earthworms (Allolobophora tuberculata, Eudrilus eugenia, and
Perionyx excavus). For Eisenia fetida a very large toxicological literature database is
existing.

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