THE GREEK AND ROMAN WORLDS

The classical civilization of Greece and Rome dominated the Mediterranean

world from the sixth century B.C.E. until the sixth century C.E. Both drew heavily
upon the traditions and achievements of the ancient Near East, but each
represented a distinct departure from this earlier world. Together, however, Greece
and Rome constituted the seedbed out of which subsequent western civilizations
would develop.
Beginning in the eight century B.C.E., Greek civilization took shape in warring,
particularistic, and fiercely independent city-states that grew up around the Aegean
and Adriatic Seas. But it was not until the end of the fourth century B.C.E., when the
conquests of Alexander the Great created an empire that stretched from Greece
through Persia to India and Egypt that Greek civilization became the common
cultural currency of the Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds.
In central Italy, the city of Rome was slowly extending its dominion over the
Italian peninsula. In the last two centuries B.C.E., Rome had extended its rule
throughout the entire Mediterranean world and into Western Europe. By the end of
the first century C.E., Rome had built an empire larger even than Alexanders. In an
extraordinary triumph of organization, discipline, and cultural adaptability, the
Romans maintained that empire, substantially intact, for the next four hundred
years.
THE GREEK EXPERIMENT
THE DARK AGE OF GREECE (1150-800 B.C.E.)
Pottery and burial remains suggest a world that remained static and backward, cut
off from the centers of Near Eastern civilization, in which even Greek communities
had little economic contact with each other.

The Parthenon- is the largest and most famous Athenian temples, the Parthenon is
considered the classic example of Doric architecture. Its columns were made more
graceful by tapering them in a slight curve toward the top. Its friezes and pediments
were decorated with lifelike sculptures of prancing horses, fighting giants, and
confident deities.

ART HISTORY ON-DEMAND > Cultures and Civilizations

Many accepted traditions of Western culturein philosophy and government as well
as in art and architecturewere first defined in Greece centuries ago. The Greek
concept of beauty was based on a pleasing balance and proportion of form. The
design of graceful columned Greek temples has influenced architecture from the
Renaissance to modern times. Greek sculpture established an ideal standard for the
human form that served as a model for artists in ages to come.
Early Influences

People have lived in the area of Greece for thousands of years. Two great cultures
developed in the region during the Bronze Age (about 3000-1100 B.C.). One was
located on the island of Crete. It is called the Minoan culture after the legendary
King Minos. The other was located on the Greek mainland. It is known as the
Mycenaean culture after the city of Mycenae. The Mycenaean culture flourished
slightly later than the Minoan and was greatly influenced by it.
At the end of the Bronze Age, the Mycenaean culture disappeared. Many of the old
sites were burned down or abandoned. New settlements were established. For
several hundred years the area entered what has been called the Dark Ages. People
continued to live in the area, but in smaller, isolated groups. Painted pottery, a
characteristic art form of ancient Greece, continued to be made. Few buildings of
this time survive because they were made of wood and mud brick.
The Geometric Period (900-700 B.C.)
After about 900 B.C., a rebirth occurred. Small settlements grew into cities.
Sanctuaries (places of worship) were founded. And people began to create art in
great quantities once again throughout the region.
In pottery painting, a new style of decoration developed. It was based on geometric
designs--triangles, dots, and straight and angled lines. Human figures were
introduced by the 700's B.C. They first appeared on large pots used as burial

monuments. These early, primitive silhouette figures marked the first depiction of
people in Greek art. As artists began to portray the natural curves of the human
body, the angular figures were gradually replaced with more rounded and realistic
shapes.
Architecture during this period still consisted of small structures of wood or mud
brick. Sculpture was mainly small figurines.
The Orientalizing Period (700-600 B.C.)
Beginning about 700 B.C., Greek art was greatly influenced by art from Egypt and
other advanced civilizations in the Near East (part of western Asia, which was once
known as the Orient). In a remarkably short time, the geometric style of vase
painting was replaced by a bolder, more expressive style as artists experimented
with Eastern images. These foreign influences are particularly evident in art
produced in the city of Corinth. Potters there made colorful vases decorated with
animal figuressuch as owls or roaring lionsas well as rosettes and other Eastern
designs.

The Archaic Period (600-480 B.C.)

It was during the Archaic period that Greek art and architecture attained its
distinctive style. In some ways this style was a combination of the old geometric
style and the newer influences from the East.
Architecture
After about 600 B.C., the Greeks began building temples to honor their gods. Greek
temples were built in three different styles, or orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
Each of these styles is best identified by the distinctive design of its columns and
capitals (the decorated tops of the columns).
The Doric order was developed by the Dorian tribes on the Greek mainland. It had a
simple, sturdy, and relatively undecorated design. Unlike the other orders, Doric
columns had no base. The Ionic order was developed by the Ionian Greeks living
along the coast of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). It was more delicate and ornate
than the Doric order. And it had longer and more slender columns that were often
topped with a spiral or scroll-shaped capital. The Corinthian order developed in the
city of Corinth during the classical period, well after the Doric and Ionic styles. It is a
variation of the Ionic. But its capitals have carved acanthus leaves instead of scrolls.
Inside the Greek temple was a smaller, freestanding structure called a cella. The
cella was surrounded by a row of columns (a colonnade). Inside the cella was a
statue of the god to whom the particular temple was dedicated.
Sculpture

The Archaic period saw a rapid development in the portrayal of the human figure. At
the beginning of the period, sculptors began to carve life-sized and larger figures of
men and women for use in sanctuaries and grave monuments. These figures had
stiff upright postures. Males were typically portrayed nude. Their arms were close to
their sides and one leg was extended slightly forward in a style adopted from
Egyptian sculpture. Females were clothed in elaborately draped garments. Like all
Greek sculpture, the statues were painted with many colors.
By the end of the period, sculpture had become much more realistic. Poses were
less stiff and more natural. The drapery on female figures better reflected the shape
of the underlying body. Figures were also more idealized. This means they were
meant to depict the ideal male or female form.
Painting
Although the art of wall painting was popular in ancient Greece, few examples
remain today. However, many examples of vase painting have survived. By the
Archaic period the depiction of human and animal figures had reached new heights.
Two different techniques were used for vase painting at this time. The earliest is
called black-figure painting. It was invented in Corinth in the 600's B.C. Figures were
painted with liquid clay, which turned a glossy black when fired in a special oven
called a kiln. The black silhouettes were then given details by incising, or scratching,
lines through them to reveal the red clay body of the vase. Details were emphasized
by white or red paint.
About 530 B.C., a new technique, red-figure painting, reversed this color scheme.
Backgrounds were painted black and the figures--more natural and lifelike than
those in black-figure painting--were left in the color of the clay. Details were added
with diluted black paint. Additional colors were rarely used. Scenes from mythology
and, later, everyday human life were popular. Many vases were signed, indicating a
pride in craftsmanship.
On other vases, the whole background was sometimes painted an ivory white. The
figures stood out more strikingly on this white background. Details were highlighted
by the use of red, blue, yellow, or brown. These white-ground vases are rarer than
black- or red-figured ones.

The Classical Period (480-323 B.C.)

Scholars date the beginning of the classical period with the invasion of Greece by
the Persians and its end with the death of Alexander the Great. During the second
half of the 400's B.C., Athens, which had emerged as the most powerful Greek citystate, was the center of Greek art. Even after its defeat by the city of Sparta in the

Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.), Athens' artistic achievements continued to

influence Greek art.
Architecture
The Parthenon was built between 447 and 432 B.C. on the ruins of an earlier temple
destroyed by the Persians. It is considered the greatest example of the Doric order.
Larger than the standard temple, it measures 228 feet (70 meters) long and 1011/2
feet (31 meters) wide. It has eight columns across the front and back, and 17 down
each side. The Parthenon was built entirely of marble. It was decorated with
magnificent sculptures portraying various battles, a procession of Athenians
honoring the Greek goddess Athena, and scenes from Athena's life. Although now a
ruin, the Parthenon still stands today, dominating Athens' Acropolis (the highest
point of the city). (For more information on the Parthenon, see the Wonder Question,
What are the Elgin Marbles? accompanying this article.)
The Erechtheum was built on the Acropolis about 20 years after the Parthenon. It
has the slim proportions and decorative details typical of the Ionic order. Unlike
most other temples, the Erechtheum has porches extending from both sides. One of
the porches is the famous Porch of the Maidens. It has columns in the shapes of
female figures.
Another notable Doric temple is the temple of Apollo at Bassae. Built between 420
and 400 B.C., its interior contains the earliest known Corinthian columns. After the
400's B.C., architects continued to work with the Doric and Ionic orders. But they
tended to add ornamentation and experiment further with combining the orders in a
single building.
Among the other architectural forms created by the Greeks during this period were
the stoa and the theater. The stoa was a long roofed hall or promenade that had a
solid back wall and a colonnade at the front. The structure was used as a shopping
center, a law court, or simply a shelter from the weather. Stoas were also used to
enclose spaces, such as markets. Theaters were an important part of every Greek
city. They were usually situated against a hill where the audience could sit to watch
the performances. Performances were dedicated to Dionysus, the god of wine.
Sculpture
Few original sculptures of the classical period survive. Much of what is known about
the great sculptors of this age comes from copies made by the Romans. The
Romans also recorded the names of many Greek artists in their writings.
The growing interest in realism, as well as in the idealization of the human body,
can be seen in a famous early classical sculpture called the Discus-Thrower. It was
carved about 450 B.C. by Myron of Thebes. But it is known today only from a Roman
copy. The athlete is caught in mid-movement, at the instant he is about to hurl the
discus. Another famous example is the Charioteer (about 470 B.C.). This life-size
bronze statue was discovered at the great sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. Bronze was

a favorite material from which to make statues in the early 400's B.C. However, very
few large bronze statues have survived because they were melted down long ago to
make useful objects, such as spearheads.
Classical sculpture peaked after the middle of the 400's. Two of the greatest
sculptors of this period were Phidias and Polyclitus. Phidias was known for his
sculptures of the gods. He was in charge of the sculptures created for the
Parthenon. Two colossal gold-and-ivory statues of Zeus and Athena were his
masterpieces. Both are now known only from descriptions. Polyclitus specialized in
statues of athletes. His works, such as the Spearbearer, firmly established the ideal
measurements and proportions of the body. The pose of this figure, with one leg
drawn back and the weight of the body shifted onto the other leg, continued to be
used throughout the history of art.
Relief sculpture--sculpture carved to stand out from a flat background--often
decorated temples. The long horizontal bands called friezes that ran above Ionic
columns often featured relief sculptures of human and animal figures. An example is
the frieze that runs along the outer top of the Parthenon's cella.
Between 400 and 323, the influence of Athens on Greek art declined. A variety of
differing styles emerged. The great sculptor Praxiteles introduced a soft, subtle
style. In his Hermes and the Infant Dionysus (about 340 B.C.), he portrays the gods
in graceful human form with relaxed, leaning poses. In contrast, another sculptor,
Scopas, conveyed strong emotions by his use of twisting, active poses. A third
sculptor, Lysippus, introduced a new system of proportions for the human form. He
made the head smaller and the limbs longer. Lysippus was the court sculptor for
Alexander the Great.
Painting
Except for vase painting, very little painting has survived from the classical period.
Literary works of the time note the names of individual painters as well as their use
of realism, color, shading, and perspective. (Perspective is the technique of showing
the illusion of distance on the flat surface of a painting). The work of a vase painter
of the mid-400's B.C. known only as the Niobid Painter provides evidence of some of
these techniques. The Niobid Painter did not arrange his figures in a row, as was
common in red-figure vase painting. Instead, he arranged them on different levels
and in different sizes to show perspective. During this period, red-figure painting
became more ornate as more color and even gilding (coating with gold) was used.
By about 320 B.C. red-figure vase painting had died out in Athens. Simpler nonfigured designs took its place.
Mosaics
As early as the 500's B.C., the Greeks began creating mosaics. Mosaics are pictures
formed by laying small colored stones, pieces of marble, or glass in cement. In early
mosaics, black and white river pebbles were set into cement floors to depict

animals, flowers, or scenes from mythology. The mosaics served as decorative floor
coverings in important rooms of a house.

The Hellenistic Period (323-146 B.C.)

The period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. and Rome's
conquest of Greece in 146 B.C. is known as the Hellenistic period. During this time
Greek culture continued to influence the many non-Greek people conquered by
Alexander throughout the Middle East. The Roman Empire later spread Greece's
influence throughout most of Europe and into northern Africa.
Architecture
Architects working in many parts of the Greek world continued to use all three
orders, particularly the Corinthian. The Corinthian order was used as the basis for a
similar design used throughout the Roman Empire. Architects also began combining
different styles of decoration and changing the proportions of various elements in
buildings. With the rise of great cities, urban architecture flourished. And the
invention of the stone arch offered new possibilities of construction.
Sculpture
Hellenistic sculpture reflected the variety and diversity of Hellenistic society.
Sculpture was still used for dedications and grave monuments. But art was also
used as decoration and propaganda (created to persuade others). Although the
earlier classical styles were still somewhat influential, Hellenistic sculpture
portrayed not only youthful adults in peak physical form but also children and the
very old, often in stark realism bordering on melodrama. For instance, one sculpture
portrays a boxer seated on a rock, his face and body realistically battered. Perhaps
the most original Hellenistic sculpture comes from the small kingdom of Pergamon,
on the coast of modern-day Turkey. Here the great Altar of Zeus was erected
between 200 and 100 B.C. It commemorates the victory of the Pergamenes against
an invading tribe of Gauls (a Celtic people from the area of France). A relief frieze
around the altar shows a battle of gods and giants. It suggests that the defeat of the
Gauls had the scale and drama of a mythological struggle.
Two of the most famous sculptures of ancient Greece date from about this period.
The Venus de Milo, or the Aphrodite of Melos, was carved from marble by an
unknown artist. The statue is missing its arms. But it is an outstanding example of
the idealization of the human form. The Winged Victory of Samothrace is also by an
unknown artist. It depicts the Greek goddess Nike standing on the prow of a ship
with her wings spread wide and her garment flowing in the wind.
Painting
Unlike painting from earlier periods, some original Greek paintings from the
Hellenistic period have survived to modern times. They are mainly found in the

tombs of Macedonians (people from Macedon, a region in northern Greece). The

complicated composition and the use of colors and perspective found in these works
indicate that wall paintings produced in ancient Greece at this time were of high
quality.
Mosaics
Methods of making mosaics improved during the Hellenistic period. Instead of
pebbles, small cubes of cut stone or glass were used and laid in more intricate
patterns. A famous Hellenistic mosaic found in the Roman city of Pompeii depicts
Alexander the Great leading the Macedonians against the Persians. This and other
mosaics may have been copies of Hellenistic paintings. Like the paintings, they
were colorful and complex works of art.
William R. Biers
Professor Emeritus
University of Missouri, Columbia
Author, The Archaeology of Greece: An Introduction