Biodegradable Multiphase Systems Based On Plasticized Starch - A Review

JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCEw
Part CPolymer Reviews

Vol. C44, No. 3, pp. 231274, 2004
Biodegradable Multiphase Systems Based on

Plasticized Starch: A Review
Luc Averous*
ECPM (LIPHT), Strasbourg Cedex 2, France
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
1.
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
2.
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Concepts: Biodegradability and Renewability . . . .
2.1.1. Biodegradability and Compostability . . . . .
2.1.2. Renewability and Sustainable Development .
2.2. Biodegradable Polymers Classifications . . . . . . . .
2.3. Biodegradable Polyesters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1. Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2. Agro-Resources Based Polyesters . . . . . .
2.3.2.1. PLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2.2. PHAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3. Petroleum-Based Polyesters . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3.1. PCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3.2. PEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3.3. Aliphatic Copolyesters . . . . . . .
2.3.3.4. Aromatic Copolyesters . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
233
233
233
234
234
235
235
235
235
239
240
240
241
241
241
*Correspondence: Luc Averous, ECPM (LIPHT), 25 rue Becquerel, 67087 Strasbourg Cedex 2,
France; Fax: 33-3-90-24-27-16; E-mail: averousl@ecpm.u-strasbg.fr.
231
DOI: 10.1081/MC-200029326
Copyright # 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1532-1797 (Print); 1532-9038 (Online)

www.dekker.com
Averous
232
2.4.
Agro-Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1. Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.1. Polysaccharides . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.2. Lignins and Ligno-Celluloses
2.4.2. Native Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
242
242
242
243
243
3.
PLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. PLS Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. Molten State Behavior . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Solid-State Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1. Crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2. Plasticizer and Water Interactions
3.4.3. Post Processing Aging . . . . . . .
3.4.4. PLS Properties . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.5. PLS Issues and Strategies . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
245
245
247
247
249
249
250
250
250
253
4.
PLS-BASED MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . .

4.1. Structures Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Biodegradable PLS-Based Blends . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1. Blends Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2. Blends Compatibilization . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Biodegradable PLS-Based Multilayers . . . . . .
4.3.1. Interfacial Instabilities . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2. Interfacial Adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. Biodegradable PLS-Based Composites . . . . . .
4.4.1. Cellulose Fibers Reinforcement . . . . . .
4.4.2. Lignin Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3. Nanocomposites and Mineral Microfillers
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
253
253
254
256
257
258
258
259
260
260
261
261
5.
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
ABSTRACT
The aim of this review is to show the relationships between the structure, the process,
and the properties of biodegradable multiphase systems based on plasticized starch
(PLS), the so-called thermoplastic starch. These mutiphase materials are obtained
when associating association between plasticized starches and other biodegradable
materials, such as biodegradable polyesters [polycaprolactone (PCL), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactic acid (PLA), polyesteramide (PEA), aliphatic, and aromatic
copolyesters], or agro-materials (ligno-cellulosic fiber, lignin etc.). Depending on
materials (soft, rigid) and the plastic processing system used, various structures
Multiphase Systems Based on PLS
233
(blends, composites, multilayers) can be obtained. The compatibility problematic

between these hetero-materials is analyzed. These starchy products show some interesting properties and have some applications in different fields: packaging, sports,
catering, agriculture and gardening, or hygiene.
Key Words: Plasticized starch; Agro-polymer; Multiphase system; Biodegradable
polyester; Structure; Plastic processing.
1.
INTRODUCTION
It is widely accepted that the use of long-lasting polymers for short-lived applications
(packaging, catering, surgery, hygiene), is not entirely adequate. This is not justified when
increased concern exists about the preservation of ecological systems. Most of todays
synthetic polymers are produced from petrochemicals and are not biodegradable. These
persistent polymers are a significant source of environmental pollution, harming wildlife
when they are dispersed in nature. For example, the effects of plastic bags are well known
to affect sea-life.[1] Besides, plastics play a large part in waste management, and the collectivities (municipalities, regional, or national organizations) are becoming aware of the
significant savings that the collection of compostable wastes would provide. Besides,
valorizing the plastics wastes presents some issues. Energetic valorization yields some
toxic emissions (e.g., dioxin). Material valorization implies some limitations linked to
the difficulties to find accurate and economically viable outlets. In addition, material valorization shows a rather negative eco-balance due to the necessity, in nearly all cases, to
wash the plastic wastes and to the energy consumption during the process phases
(waste grinding and plastic processing). For these different reasons, reaching the conditions of conventional plastic replacements by degradable polymers, particularly for
packaging applications, is of major interest for the different actors of the socio-economical
life (from the plastic industry to the citizen).
The potential of biodegradable polymers and more particularly that of polymers
obtained from agro-resources such as the polysaccharides (e.g., starch) has long been
recognized. However, to this day, these agro-polymers largely used in some applications
(e.g., food industry) have not found extensive applications in the packaging industries to
replace conventional plastic materials, although they could be an interesting way to overcome the limitation of the petrochemical resources in the future. The fossil fuel and gas
could be partially replaced by greener agricultural sources, which should also participate
in the reduction of CO2 emissions.[1]
2.
2.1.
2.1.1.
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
Concepts: Biodegradability and Renewability
Biodegradability and Compostability
According to ASTM standard D-5488-94d, biodegradable means capable of undergoing decomposition into carbon dioxide, methane water, inorganic compounds, or
Averous
234
biomass in which the predominant mechanism is the enzymatic action of micro-organisms

that can be measured by standard tests, over a specific period of time, reflecting available
disposal conditions. There are different media (liquid, inert, or compost medium) to
analyze biodegradability. Compostability is material biodegradability using compost
medium. Biodegradation is the degradation of an organic material caused by biological
activity, mainly micro-organisms enzymatic action. This leads to a significant change
in the material chemical structure. The end-products are carbon dioxide, new biomass
and water (in the presence of oxygen: aerobia) or methane (oxygen absent: anaerobia),
as defined in the European Standard EN 13432:2000. Unfortunately, depending on the
standard used (ASTM, EN), different composting conditions (humidity, temperature
cycle) must be realized to determine the compostability level.[2] Then, it is difficult to
compare the results using different standard conditions. We must also take into account
the amount of mineralization as well as the nature of the residue left after biodegradation.[3] The accumulation of contaminants with toxic residues and chemical reactions of
biodegradation can cause plant growth inhibition in these products, which must serve as
fertilizers. Actually, the key issue is to determine the environmental toxicity level for
these by-products, which is known as eco-toxicity.[4]
Some general rules enable the estimating of the biodegradability evolution. An
increase of parameters such as the hydrophobic character, the macromolecular weight,
the crystallinity or the size of spherulites decreases biodegradability.[5] On the contrary,
the presence of polysaccharides (blends) favors biodegradation.
2.1.2.
Renewability and Sustainable Development
Renewability is linked to the concept of sustainable development. The UN World

Commission on Environment and Development in our Future defines sustainability as
the development which meets the needs of the present time without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. According to Narayan,[1] the manufactured products, e.g., packaging, must be designed and engineered from conception to
reincarnation, the so-called cradle-to-grave approach. The use of annually renewable
biomass, like wheat, must be understood in a complete carbon cycle. This concept is
based on the development and the manufacture of products based on renewable and biodegradable resources: starch, cellulose, etc. By collecting and composting biodegradable
plastic wastes, we can generate much-needed carbon-rich compost: humic materials.
These valuable soil amendments can go back to the farmland and reinitiate the carbon
cycle. Besides, composting is an increasing key point to maintain the sustainability of
the agricultural system by reducing the consumption of chemical fertilizers.
2.2.
Biodegradable Polymers Classifications
Biodegradable polymers are a growing field.[6 8] A vast number of biodegradable

polymers have been synthesized or are formed in nature during the growth cycles of all
organisms. Some micro-organisms and enzymes capable of degrading them have been
identified.[6,9,10]
Depending on the evolution of the synthesis process, different classifications of the
different biodegradable polymers have been proposed. Figure 1 shows an attempt at
Figure 1.
235
Classification of the biodegradable polymers.
classification. We have four different categories. Only, three categories (a c) are obtained
from renewable resources:
a.
b.
c.
d.
polymers from biomass such as the agro-polymers from agro-resources (e.g.,

starch, cellulose),
polymers obtained by microbial production, e.g., the polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs),
polymers conventionally and chemically synthesized and whose monomers are
obtained from agro-resources, e.g., the polylactic acid (PLA),
polymers whose monomers and polymers are obtained conventionally, by
chemical synthesis.
We can also classify these different biodegradable polymers into two main families: the
agro-polymers (category a) and the biodegradable polyesters (categories b d).
2.3.
2.3.1.
Biodegradable Polyesters
Presentation
Figure 2 shows the chemical structures of various biodegradable polyesters. Table 1

shows main polyesters, which are commercially available. Besides, physical and mechanical properties of some commercial polyesters are given in Table 2.
2.3.2.
Agro-Resources Based Polyesters
2.3.2.1. PLA
Lactic acid can be produced in different ways: chemical or biological, i.e., by fermentation of carbohydrate from lactobacillus.[11] The enantiomeric monomers (D and L ) are
polycondensed via its cyclic dimer (lactide) by ring-opening polymerization (ROP) to a
high molecular weight polymer.[10,12,13]
Averous
236
Figure 2.
Chemical structures of different biodegradable polyesters.
Compared to the other biodegradable polyesters, polylactic acid (PLA) is the product
that at the present time has one of the highest potentials due to its availability in the market
and its low price.[14 16] For instance, Cargill Dow has developed processes that use corn
and other feedstock to produce different PLA grades (NatureWorksw).[18] For this
company, the estimated production in 2002 is 100 ktons. Actually, it is the highest production of biodegradable polyester. In 2004, its price is around 3 E/kg. Different

Table 1.
237
Classification of main biodegradable polyesters, commercially available.
Agro-resources based polyesters

PLA
PHA
PHB, PHBV
PHB, PHBV
PHBHx, PHBO, PHBOd
Petroleum-based polyesters
PCL
PEA
Aliphatic copolyesters (e.g., PBSA)
Aromatic copolyesters (e.g., PBAT)
Trade name
Company
Natureworks
Lacty
Lacea
Heplon
CPLA
PLA
Cargill-Dow LLC (USA)

Shimadzu (Japan)
Mitsui Chemicals (Japan)
Chronopol (USA)
Dainippon Ink Chem. (Japan)
Galactic (Belgium)
Biopol
Biocycle
Nodax
Monsanto-Metabolix (USA)a
Copersucar (Brazil)
Procter & Gamble (USA)
CAPA
Tone
Celgreen
BAK
Bionolles
EnPol
Skygreen
Lunare SE
Eastar Bio
Ecoflex
Biomax
PHEE
Solvay (Belgium)
Union Carbide (USA)
Daicel (Japan)
Bayer (Germany)a
Showa Highpolymer (Japan)
Ire Chemical Ltd (Korea)
SK Chemicals (Korea)
Nippon Shokubai (Japan)
Eastman Chemical (USA)
BASF (Germany)
Dupont (USA)
Dow Chemicals (USA)a
The production of these polyesters has been stopped.
companies such as Mitsui Chemicals (Japan), Galactic (Belgium), or Dainippon Ink

Chemicals (Japan) produce smaller PLA outputs.
Properties of PLA are highly related to the ratio between the two mesoforms D and L .
Commercially available, we can find 100% L -PLA which present a high crystallinity
(C-PLA) and copolymers of poly(L -lactic acid) and poly(D ,L -lactic acid) which are
rather amorphous (A-PLA).[17 19] PLA can show crystalline polymorphism[20] which
can lead to different melting peaks[21] with a main transition at 1528C for the D ,L -PLA
(see Table 2). Furthermore, PLA can be plasticized using oligomeric lactic acid (OLA),
citrate ester,[22] or low molecular weight polyethylene glycol (PEG).[21,23] Table 3
shows the evolution of some properties depending on the plasticizer content. We can
notice a Tg shift of 408C by addition of 20 wt% of OLA. At room temperature, we are
close to the rubber plateau with high elongations at break (200%). Besides, the effect of
plasticization increases the chains mobility and then favors the PLA organization and
crystallinity we obtain after plasticization, a crystallinity ranging between 20% and 30%.
PLA presents a medium water and oxygen permeability level[24] comparable to polystyrene.[25] These different properties associated with its tunability and its availability
favor its actual developments in different packaging applications (trays, cups, bottle,
films, etc.).[15,18] McCarthy[26] showed that A-PLA presents a soil degradation rate
1.25
153
5
51
900
15
100
21
1.25
152
58
01
2,050
9
100
172
50
37
13
At 60 days in controlled composting according to ASTM 5336.

Determinations from contact angles measurements of probes liquids.
Sources: Refs.[21,27,33,40,72,132,208].
Density
Melting point (DSC) (8C)
Glass transition (DSC) (8C)
Crystallinity (%)
Modulus (MPa) (NFT 51-035)
Elongation at break (%) (NFT
51-035)
Tensile stress at break or max
(MPa) (NFT 51-035)
Biodegradationa
mineralization (%)
Water permeability WVTR at
258C (g/m2/day)
Surface tensionb (g) (mN/m)
gd (dispersive component)
gp (polar component)
PHBV
Monsanto
(Biopol D400G)
HV 7 mol%
51
41
11
177
100
14
1.11
65
261
67
190
.500
PCL Solway
(CAPA 680)
59
37
22
680
100
17
1.07
112
229
33
262
420
PEA Bayer
(BAK 1095)
Physical and mechanical properties of some biodegradable polyesters.
PLA
Dow-Cargill
(Natureworks)
Table 2.
56
43
14
330
90
19
1.23
114
245
41
249
.500
PBSA Showa
(Bionolle
3000)
53
43
11
550
100
1.21
110 115
230
20 35
52
.500
PBAT Eastman
(Eastar Bio
14766)
238
Averous
239
Table 3. Plasticization effects on some PLA properties.
A-PLA
10% OLA
20% OLA
10% PEG 400
20% PEG 400
Tg (DSC)
(8C)
Crystallinity
(%)
Modulus
(MPa)
58
37
18
30
12
1
21
24
26
29
2,050 (44)
1,256 (38)
744 (22)
1,488 (39)
976 (31)
Elongation
at break (%)
9
32
200
26
160
(2)
(4)
(4)
(5)
(12)
Note: Standard deviations are given in brackets.

Source: Ref.[21].
much slower compared with polybutylene succinate/adipate (PBSA). PLA is presumed to

be biodegradable, although the role of hydrolysis versus enzymatic depolymerization in
this process remains open to debate.[27] Composting conditions are found only in industrial
units with a high temperature (above 508C) and a high relative humidity (RH) to promote
chain hydrolysis. But, according to Tuominen et al.,[28] PLA biodegradation does not
exhibit any eco-toxicological effect.
2.3.2.2. PHAs
PHAs can be produced in different ways, chemically or biologically, by fermentation
from feedstock. This family comprises mainly of a homopolymer, polyhydroxybutyrate
(PHB), and different copolyesters, polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyalkanoates such as
polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerates (PHBV) (see Fig. 2), or polyhydroxybutyrateco-hydroxyhexanoate (PHBHx), polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyoctonoate (PHBO),
and polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyoctadecanoate (PHBOd).
PHB is a natural polymer. It is an intracellular storage product of bacteria and algae.
After fermentation, PHB can be obtained by solvent extraction. Recently, Monsanto has
developed a genetic modification of plants to make them produce small quantities of PHB.[18]
PHB is a highly crystalline polyester (80%) with a high melting point, Tf
173 1808C (Monsanto data), compared with the other biodegradable polyesters. Glass
transition temperature (Tg) is around 58C. The homopolymer shows a narrow window
for the process condition. To ease the transformation, PHB can be plasticized with
citrate ester, but the corresponding copolymer (PHBV) is more adapted for the process.
PHBV can be produced by bacterial fermentation (e.g., with Alcaligens eutrophus)[29]
of bioproducts such as glucose containing propionic or valeric acid, followed by an extraction step and purification of the polymer. PHBV can be also produced from butyrolactone
and valerolactone with an oligomeric aluminoxane catalyst.[30] According to the synthesis,
we obtain different structures, isotactic with random stereosequences for the bacterial
copolyesters and with partially stereoregular block for the synthetic copolyesters.
A large range of bacterial copolymer grades had been industrially produced by
Monsanto under the Biopolw trade mark, with HV contents reaching 20%. The production
was stopped at the end of 1999. Metabolix bought Biopolw assets in 2001. Currently,
different small companies produce bacterial PHBV, e.g., Copersucar (Brazil) produces
PHBV (HV 12%) 45% crystalline, from sugarcane molasses.[31] Recently, Procter
Averous
240
and Gamble has begun to develop a large range of polyhydroxybutyrate co-hydroxyalkanoates (PHBHx, PHBO, PHBOd). Industrial production is planned in 2005.
Figure 2 and Table 2 give, respectively, the chemical structure and the properties of
some PHBV. Material properties can be tailored by varying the HV content. An increase of
the HV content induces an increase of the impact strength and a decrease of
melting temperature and glass transition,[32]

crystallinity,[33]
water permeability,[33]
tensile strength.[34]
Besides, PHBV properties can evolve when plasticization occurs, e.g., with citrate ester
(triacetin).[34,35] The PHAs as the PLAs are sensitive to the process conditions. Under
extrusion, we obtain a rapid diminution of the viscosity and the molecular weight due
to macromolecular linkage by increasing the shear level, the temperature and/or the residential time.[36]
The kinetics of enzymatic degradation is variable according to the crystallinity,
the structure,[5,31] and then, to the processing history.[37] Bacterial copolyesters are
more biodegradable than synthetic copolyesters.[38]
2.3.3.
Petroleum-Based Polyesters
A large number of biodegradable polyesters are based on petroleum resources

obtained chemically from synthetic monomers.[12 18] We can distinguish (see Table 1),
according to the chemical structures (see Fig. 2), polycaprolactones (PCLs), polyesteramides (PEAs), aliphatic or aromatic copolyesters. All these polyesters are soft at room
temperature.
2.3.3.1. PCL
Poly(1-caprolactone) is obtained by ROP of 1-caprolactone in the presence of aluminum isopropoxide.[12,13,38] PCL is widely used as a PVC solid plasticizer or for polyurethane applications. But, it finds also some application based on its biodegradable
character in domains such as controlled release of drugs, soft compostable packaging,
etc. Different commercial grades are produced by Solvay (CAPAw), by Union Carbide
(Tonew), and by Daicel (Celgreenw).
Figure 2 and Table 2 give, respectively, the chemical structure and the properties of
this polyester. PCL shows a very low Tg (2618C) and a low melting point (658C), which
could be a handicap in some applications. Therefore, PCL is generally blended[27,30,39,40]
or modified (e.g., copolymerization, crosslink[41]).
Tokiwa and Suzuki[42] have discussed the hydrolysis of PCL and biodegradation by
fungi. They have shown that PCL can be enzymatically degraded easily. According to
Bastioli,[27] the biodegradability can be clearly claimed but the homoplymer hydrolysis
rate is very low. The presence of starch can significantly increase the biodegradation
rate of PCL.[39]
241
2.3.3.2. PEA
PEA was industrially obtained from the statistical copolycondensation of polyamide
(PA 6 or PA 6-6) monomers and adipic acid.[18,43] Bayer had developed different commercial grades under BAKw trademark but their production stopped in 2001. Figure 2 and
Table 2 show, respectively, the chemical structure and the properties of this polyester.
It is the polyester, which presents the highest polar component, and then it shows good
compatibility with other polar products, e.g., starchy compounds. On the other hand, it
presents the highest water permeability (see Table 2).
Currently, the environmental impact of this copolymer is still open to discussion.
Fritz[44] had shown that this biodegradable polyester presented after composting a negative eco-toxicological impact but more recently, Bruns et al.[45] have confirmed these
results. These authors discussed Fritzs experiments and more precisely the composting
methods used.
2.3.3.3. Aliphatic Copolyesters
A large number of aliphatic copolyesters are biodegradable copolymers based on petroleum resources. They are obtained by the combination of diols, such as 1,2-ethanediol,
1,3-propanediol, or 1,4-butadenediol, and dicarboxylic acid: adipic, sebacic, or succinic
acid. Showa Highpolymer (Japan) has developed a large range of polybutylene succinate
(PBS) obtained by polycondensation of 1,4-butanediol and succinic acid. Polybutylene
succinate/adipate (PBSA), presented in Fig. 2, is obtained by addition of adipic acid.
These copolymers are commercialized under the Bionollew trade mark.[18] Table 2
shows the properties of such a terpolymer. Ire chemical (Korea) commercializes exactly
the same kind of copolyesters under EnPolw trade mark. Skygreenw, a product from SK
Chemicals (Korea), is obtained by polycondensation of 1,2-ethanediol, 1,4-butadenediol
with succinic and adipic acids.[46] Nippon Shokubai (Japan) also commercializes an aliphatic copolyester with Lunare SEw trademark. These copolyesters properties depend
on the structure,[47] i.e., the combination of diols and diacids used.
Biodegradability of these products depends also on the structure. The addition of
adipic acid, which decreases the crystallinity[48] tends to increase the compost biodegradation.[49] According to Ratto et al.,[50] the biodegradation results demonstrate that
although PBSA is inherently biodegradable, the addition of a starch filler significantly
improve the rate of degradation.
2.3.3.4. Aromatic Copolyesters
Compared with totally aliphatic copolyesters, aromatic copolyesters are often based
on terephthalic diacid. Figure 2 and Table 2 show, respectively, the chemical structure
and the properties of such products (e.g., see Eastar Biow from Eastman). Besides,
BASF and DuPont commercialize aromatic copolyesters with Ecoflexw [18] and Biomaxw
trade marks, respectively. Biomaxw shows a high terephthalic acid content which modifies
some properties such as the melting temperature (2008C). But, according to Muller et al.,[47]
an increase of terephthalic acid content tends to decrease the degradation rate, while aromatic like aliphatic copolyesters degrade totally in micro-organisms environment
(compost). Ecoflexw biodegradation has been analyzed by Witt et al.,[51] they concluded
that there is no indication for an environmental risk (ecotoxicity) when aliphatic aromatic
copolyesters of the Ecoflex-type are introduced into composting processes.
Averous
242
Another kind of polyester can be classified into the group of the aromatic polyesters,
the polyhydroxy ester ethers (PHEE). They are obtained from adipic acid and the
diglycidil ether of bisphenol A. A commercial PHEE had been developed by Dow chemicals (USA), but the production has stopped.
2.4.
2.4.1.
Agro-Polymers
Presentation
Agro-polymers are mainly extracted from plants. They are compostable and renewable polymers. We find different families such as the polysaccharides or the lignins.
They show some common characteristics such as a hydrophilic character. Most of them
can be processed directly, either plasticized as fillers or modified by chemical reactions.
2.4.1.1. Polysaccharides
This family is represented by different products such as starch or cellulose based on
glucose units linked in macromolecular chains.
Cellulose is the first agro-polymer in the biosphere. It is a linear polymer consisting of
b(1 4) linked D -glucose synthesized by plants and bacteria. Table 4 shows that according
to the botanical species, we can measure different cellulose contents. It is a cheap semicrystalline material, which is widely used in paper production but also as a reinforcing
element in polymer matrixes. To obtain a thermoplastic material, cellulose is modified
by acetylation (cellulose acetate), whose production actually is low. After acidic treatment, and elimination of the amorphous parts of cellulose microfibrils, we obtain the whiskers (mono-crystals), which are used to develop nanocomposites materials.[52,53]
Table 4. Composition of ligno-cellulose fibers, from various botanical origins.

Fibers
Straw fibers
Wheat
Rice
Rye
Wood fibers
Conifer
Leafwood
Others
Flax
Jute
Cotton linters
Source: Ref.[192].
Cellulose
content (%)
Lignins
content (%)
Hemicellulose
content (%)
Ash
(silice, . . .) (%)
29 35
28 36
33 35
16 21
12 16
16 19
27
23 28
27 30
59
15 20
25
40 45
38 49
26 34
23 30
7 14
19 26
,1
,1
43 47
45 53
80 85
21 23
21 26
16
15
1 3
5
0.5 2
0.8 2
243
2.4.1.2. Lignins and Ligno-Celluloses

Lignins are second in natural earth abundance. They are aromatic amorphous polymers. Figure 3 shows that the lignin structure is built with a lot of different chemicals
functions. Depending on botanical resources and fractionation, we obtain a diversity of structures. Lignins are obtained from almost all types of natural plants, in association with cellulose: ligno-cellulose. The architecture of the vegetal tissue is based on a complex composite
structure in which the matrix is based on lignins and the reinforcing elements are cellulose
fibers. Table 4 gives the lignins contents for different botanical species.
Lignins are by-products of pulp and paper mills and are conventionally treated as a
waste material having low economical usage. They are generally used for their calorific
energy. Lignins are separated from the cellulose either by strong alkaline or acidic solutions, or by a high-pressure steam treatment followed by solvent extraction. They can
be used after fractionation as fillers or as antioxidants.[54] Lignins can be modified, e.g.,
by esterification, to decrease the polar character for inclusion in apolar matrixes.
2.4.2.
Native Starch
Starch is the main storage supply in botanical resources (cereals, legumes, and tubers).
It is a widely available raw material on earth. It presents different industrial applications in
fields such as food, paper, textile, and adhesive.
Figure 3. Structural and chemical presentation of wood lignin. Source: Ref.[54].
244
Averous
Starch granules can be isolated from plants. Main sources come from wheat, potato,
maize, rice, cassava, pea, waxy maizes, amylomaizes, etc. According to the resource,
native starches have dimensions ranging from 0.5 to 175 mm and appear in a variety of
shapes.[55] For instance, Fig. 4 shows micrographs of the shape of different starch granules
(wheat and pea).
Starch is a polysaccharide consisting in D -glucose units, referred to as homoglucan or
glucopyranose. Starch is composed of two different macromolecules, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose [Fig. 5(a)] is a linear or sparsely branched carbohydrate based on a(1 4)
bonds with a molecular weight of 105 106. The chains show spiral shaped single or double
helixes. Amylopectin [Fig. 5(b)] is a highly multiple-branched polymer with a high molecular weight: 107 109. It is based on a(1 4) bonds but also on a(1 6) links constituting
branching points occurring every 22 70 glucose units.[56]
Table 5 shows that according to the botanical origin, starch composition is variable.
Some mutant plant species present some special composition. We can find rich-amylose
starch with amylomaize (till 80%) and some rich-amylopectin starch with waxy maize
(.99%).
After the different industrial stages of isolation and refining, starch usually shows
some traces of lipids, gluten, or phosphate, which can interfere with the starch properties,
e.g., by the formation of lipid complexes or with the gluten, by Maillard reactions.
Starch shows a special granular organization,[57] a high degree of radial organization
from hilum. Macromolecules are mainly oriented according to the radial axis. The
ultra-structure is obtained by inter-macromolecules hydrogen links, between hydroxyl
groups, with the participation of water molecules. Amylose and the branching regions
of amylopectin form the amorphous zone in the granule. Amylopectin is the dominating
crystalline component in native starch with double helix organizations; we can also find
co-crystallization with amylose and single-helical crystallization between amylose and
free fatty acids or lipids. Several types of crystallinity are observed in the granule
denoted as A, B, C, or V-types. Figure 6 shows that the crystalline regions (20 45%)
are arranged as thin lamellar domains, perpendicular to the radial axis.
Figure 4. Micrographs of native starch (SEM observations): wheat starch (left) and pea starch
(right). White scale 10 mm.
245
Figure 5. Amylose structure (a), amylopectin structure and cluster model (b).
3.
3.1.
PLS
Definitions
Except for the purpose as filler to produce reinforced plastics,[58] native starch must be
modified to find applications such as destructured starch. The destructuring agent is
usually water. We obtain starch gelatinization with the combination of water (high
content) and heat. Gelatinization is the disruption of the granule organization. The
starch swells forming a viscous paste with destruction of most of inter-macromolecule
hydrogen links. We obtain a reduction of both, the melting temperature (Tm or Tf) and
the glass transition (Tg). Figure 7 shows that according to the level of destructuration
and the water content, we obtain different products and applications; e.g., we can obtain
expanded structures with a rather high water content. Such closed cells structures
(foams) have been developed to obtain shock absorbable and isothermal packaging.[59]
Most starch applications require water dispersion and partial or complete gelatinization.
By decreasing the moisture content (,20 wt%), the melting temperature tends to be close to
the degradation temperature. For instance, for pure dry starch Tm 2202408C[60] compared to 2208C, which is the temperature at the beginning of starch decomposition.[61] To
overcome this last issue, we add a non-volatile (at the process temperature) plasticizer to
decrease Tm, such as glycerol or other polyols (sorbitol, PEG. . .).[62,63] A mixture of different
polyols can also be held.[64] Other compounds such as those containing nitrogen (urea,
ammonium derived, amines . . .) can be used.[65 67] These plasticized starches (PLS) are
also commonly called thermoplastic starches or TPS.[66] The first patents and articles on
26 27
26 28
,1
50 80
20 25
Amylose
contenta (%)
72 73
71 73
99
20 50
79 74
Amylopectin
contenta (%)
Note: N.d., not determined.

a
Determined on a dry basis.
b
Determined after equilibrium at 65% RH, 208C.
Source: Refs.[66,209].
Wheat
Maize
Waxy starch
Amylomaize
Potato
Starch
Table 5.
0.63
0.63
0.23
1.11
0.03
Lipid
contenta (%)
0.30
0.30
0.10
0.50
0.05
Protein
contenta (%)
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.08
Phosphorus
contenta (%)
13
12 13
N.d.
N.d.
18 19
Moisture
contentb (%)
Composition and characteristics for different kinds of starch.
25
15
15
10
40 100
Granule
diameter (mm)
36
39
39
19
25
Crystallinity
(%)
246
Averous
247
Figure 6. Radial structure of a starch granule (amorphous and crystalline region). Source: Ref.[210].
these processable materials were published at the end of the eighties.[68 70] PLS combines
starch, a non-votalile and high-boiling[71] plasticizer and often water. Figure 7 shows
that PLS are obtained both with low water content and high level of destructuration.
PLS is usually transformed under thermomechanical treatment as a thermoplastic, using
conventional machines for plastic processing (e.g., by extrusion).
3.2.
PLS Process
The disruption of granular starch is the transformation of the semi-crystalline granule

into a homogeneous, rather amorphous material with the destruction of hydrogen bonds
between the macromolecules. Disruption can be accomplished by casting (e.g., with dry
drums) or by applying thermomechanical energy in a continuous process. The combination of thermal and mechanical inputs can be obtained by extrusion, a common
plastic processing technique. This process can be in one or two stages. In a one-stage
process, the extruder, usually a twin-screw extruder, is fed with native starch. Along the
barrel, water and liquid plasticizer are successively introduced. In a two-stage process,
the first stage is a dry blend preparation.[72] Into a turbo-mixer, under high speed, the
plasticizer is added slowly into the native starch until a homogeneous dispersion is obtained.
Then, the mixture is placed in a vented oven allowing the diffusion of the plasticizer into the
granule. The plasticizer swells the starch. After cooling, the right amount of water is added to
the mixture using a turbo-mixer. This dry blend is then introduced into an extruder. Figure 8
gives the different stages of the extrusion. The starch granules are fragmented. Under temperature and shearing, starch is destructured, plasticized, melted but also partially depolymerized. After the processing, we obtain a homogeneous molten phase.
3.3.
Molten State Behavior
The extrusion and viscous behavior of molten PLS is known to depend on temperature, moisture content, and thermomechanical treatment.[73 76] Viscosity data and
rheological models that take into account these variables have been reported in literature.
Averous
248
Figure 7. Presentation of different starchy products, depending on water content and destructuring
level.
Martin et al.[77] have summarized the main rheological studies performed on starch,
including the measurement technique and models used. They all report a thermoplasticlike behavior of low hydrated starch, with an Arrhenius dependence on temperature and
similar for moisture content. Conversely, structural modifications of starch, which affect
the viscosity of the product, are reflected differently by specific mechanical energy
(SME), by the screw speed, or even by the extruder barrel pressure, which depend on
the machine characteristics. This discrepancy underlines the need to ascertain the dependence of starch melt viscosity upon structural factors or variables directly involved in its
transformation. Some authors have introduced terms relating to the modification of starch,
such as conversion, degree of transformation, or extent of degradation.[78 82] Lai and
Kokini[83] studied the rheological properties of high amylose (70%) and high amylopectin
(98%) cornstarches, and showed the strong influence of the processing history undergone
by products prior to viscosity measurements. Zheng and Wang[82] identified the contribution of shear and thermal energies in the conversion of waxy cornstarch. Della Valle
et al.[84,85] took into account the starch transformation and the resulting macromolecular
degradation, evaluated by chromatography (SEC profiles) and intrinsic viscosity,[86,87]
by confirming the importance of the term noted b. This latter is reported in Eq. (1),
Figure 8.
Schematic of starch process by extrusion.
249
which presents a pseudo-plastic model with the pseudo-plastic index (m) and the consistency (K). The influence of SME on the degradation of starch products was evaluated by
intrinsic viscosity [h] measurements. The gradual decrease of [h] with increasing SME
confirmed that macromolecular degradation occurred.[77,88]
h Kjg_ jm1 with the consistency: K K0 exp
E1
aMC a0 GC b SME
RT
1
where MC, moisture content; GC, glycerol content; a, a0 , and b, dimensionless
coefficients.
A common difficulty of rheological studies is that a thermomechanical treatment is
needed to obtain a homogeneous molten starch phase prior to measurement. This material
shows a behavior not totally thermoplastic but thermo-mechano-plastic.[77] Both, mechanical energy and temperature are required to obtain a molten material to cause it to flow.
Consequently, traditional rheometry (rotational, capillary) is not appropriate for the
study of the rheological behavior of low-moisture starches. In that respect, extruder-fed
slit rheometry is well adapted.[89 93] Martin et al.[77,88] have also shown great interest
in combining capillary and slit dyes on an in-line viscometer attached to the head of an
extruder (a large shear rate range can be covered: 4 decades) with thermomechanical conditions (shear rate, SME, temperature) comparable to those used during the processing.
Also of interest is the Rheoplastw, known as a reliable commercial tool,[94,95] to
perform capillary viscometry measurements or to simulate extrusion of starchy products.
Finally, starch melts are commonly considered to exhibit viscoelastic behavior. The
measurement of elastic components of PLS molten phases, associated with the first
normal stress difference (N1), is not trivial because conventional rheometers do not
allow to perform mechanical treatment and cannot prevent volatilization of plasticizers.
In a recent study using plane-plate geometry, PLS was shown to behave mainly as a
solid-like material, because subjected to insufficient mechanical treatment.[96] As an
alternative, Senouci and Smith [90] related the entrance and exit pressure losses in a slit
viscometer dye to the elastic properties of potato starch-based materials. Entrance and
exit pressure effects have been also used to evaluate the elasticity of melt of plasticized
wheat starch. Some authors[77] have concluded that significant elastic properties may be
expected.
3.4.
3.4.1.
Solid-State Behavior
Crystallinity
Compared with native starch, PLS shows a lower crystallinity. According to Van
Soest et al.,[97] two kinds of crystallinity are obtained after PLS processing: residual crystallinity from native starch (A, B, C types) and processing induced crystallinity (V and E
types). Crystallinity induced by processing is influenced by parameters, such as the extrusion residence time, the screw speed, or the temperature. It is mainly caused by the fast
recrystallization of amylose into single-helical structure. After post processing aging,
Averous
250
Van Soest[98] proposed a complex model for PLS with amorphous and crystalline amylose
and amylopectin and probable co-crystallization between amylose and amylopectin.
3.4.2.
Plasticizer and Water Interactions
The evolution of the moisture content are of consequence on the evolution of properties or transitions such as the glass transition, because water also acts as a plasticizer[99] but
it is a volatile plasticizer which is equilibrated in mechanisms of sorption desorption with
the environment.[66] Lourdin et al.,[100] and Mathew and Dufresne[63] have determined
according to the RH, the nature and content of the plasticizer and the moisture content
after equilibrium on starch. They have shown that for low RH, water content decreases
when plasticizer increased. In this case, plasticizer molecules then occupy some sites
initially occupied by water. For higher activities (.43% RH) water content tends to
increase with the plasticizer content due to plasticizer water interactions (e.g., see
Table 6). According to Lourdin et al.,[100] this evolution is not linear but very well
marked for high plasticizer content (e.g., more than 18 wt%, for glycerol), i.e., above
the limit where phase separation between the polysaccharide and the plasticizer can
occur, with constitution of plasticizer-rich phases.[101] This concentration threshold corresponds to one glycerol molecule per three-anhydroglucose unit.
Lourdin et al.[102] have shown that at low plasticizer content an antiplastification
effect occurs. Due to strong interaction between the plasticizer and the starch, a hydrogen
links network appears and we obtain a material reinforcement. Then, when the plasticizer
contents increase (e.g., .12 wt% for glycerol into potato starch), interactions between
plasticizer plasticizer occur with a material swelling and a plastification effect.
3.4.3.
Post Processing Aging
Different authors[40,103,104] have shown that after processing, PLS shows an aging
with a strong evolution of mechanical properties such as the tensile modulus, which
increase during several weeks. PLS presents two kinds of aging behavior depending on
glass temperature value. In the sub-Tg domain, PLS shows a physical aging versus time,
with a material densification.[104,105] At a temperature above Tg, PLS shows retrogradation
phenomena with the evolution of the crystallinity and rearrangements of plasticizer molecules into the material[103] versus storage time. The retrogradation kinetic depends on the
macromolecules mobility, on the plasticizer type and content.[104]
3.4.4.
PLS Properties
According to the plasticizer/starch ratio, PLS presents a large range of attributes.

Table 6 shows for increasing glycerol/starch ratio, the evolutions of different properties, including physical and mechanical behaviours. Figure 9 shows the thermograms
evolution for the formulations given in Table 6. Figure 9 illustrates that the Cp variations
at glass transitions are very low, although DMTA determinations are generally more desirable to obtain PLS glass transitions. DMTA evolutions are drawn in Fig. 10 for the same
formulations. The evolutions of tang delta versus temperature show two transitions.
Main and broad relaxation (a-transition) can be linked to the PLS glass transition.[40]
Secondary relaxation (between 2508C and 2608C) could be connected to glycerol
0.14
0.25
0.35
0.50
9
9
12
13
Watera (wt%)
1.39
1.37
1.35
1.34
Densitya
43
8
27
220
Tg (DSC) (8C)
63
31
17
1
a-Transition
(DMTA) (8C)
Note: Standard deviations are in brackets.

a
Contents and properties after equilibrium at 238C and 50% RH, 6 weeks.
b
Initial formulation (SxGyWz): S, starch (x wt%); G, glycerol (y wt%); W, water (z wt%).
Source: Refs.[40,132].
S74G10W10b
S74G18W12b
S67G24W9b
S65G35W0b
Glycerol/
dry starch
ratioa (w/w)
Table 6. Plasticized starchformulations and properties.
1144 (42)
116 (11)
45 (5)
11 (1)
Modulus
(MPa)
21.4 (5.2)
4.0 (1.7)
3.3 (0.1)
1.4 (0.1)
Max tensilea
strength
(Mpa)
3
104
98
60
(0)
(5)
(5)
(5)
Elongation at
breaka (%)

251
Averous
252
Figure 9. DSC evolutions with different glycerol/starch ratios. Source: Ref.[72].
glass transition.[40] According to Lourdin et al.,[101] this latter relaxation could be an indicator of the level of interactions between the plasticizer and the polysaccharides. In the
explored domains, Figure 10 shows that this relaxation temperature decreases when glycerol content increases and then, the phase segregation.
Figure 10.
DSC evolutions with different glycerol/starch ratios. Source: Ref.[72].
253
Table 6 exemplifies that we can achieve a large range of mechanical properties by

variation of the plasticizer content. Further, PLS shows different levels of permeability
(moisture and oxygen).[100,106,107] Although PLS water permeability is high due to its
polar character, oxygen permeability is found low compared with most polyesters.[24] Permeability increases drastically at the glass transition, and continues to rise on the rubber
plateau, with the plasticizer content.
3.4.5.
PLS Issues and Strategies
As a material, PLS shows strong attributes: a total compostability without toxic residues,
the renewability of the resource. Besides, compared with synthetic thermoplastic, it is a
rather cheap material. Compared with fossil resources, the price of starch resources
remains stable and even tends to decrease due to overproduction of cereals in the world. In
addition, PLS can be easily processed with plastic processing machines. It shows a wide properties range according to the plasticizer level and the starch botanical source. But unfortunately, PLS shows various issues for some applications (e.g., packaging) such as a great
moisture sensitivity, rather weak mechanical properties compared with synthetic polymers.
To overcome these weaknesses, during the last decades different strategies were elaborated.
Chemical starch modification has been carried out, since the first half of the twentieth
century, in the continuity of research on modified cellulose. Yet in 1942, Mullen and
Pacsu[108] published a critical analysis of the different methods of starch (tri)ester
preparation. In 1943, the same authors[109] presented an industrial usage of such a compound. Since then, a large volume of literature has been published on this subject.
Starch esterification (e.g., by acetylation) improves its water resistance.[110] In addition,
we can control the degree of substitution (DS, between 0 and 3) to obtain the accurate
hydrophobic character. Besides, these compounds can be plasticized with, for instance,
ester citrate.
But, the strategy of chemical modification is strongly limited as far as toxicity and
diversity of by-products obtained during the chemical reactions are concerned. Another
limitation lies in the cost of both process stages, that of the modification and product purification (to eliminate the by-products). Besides, the chemical reactions lead to some incidences on the polysaccharide molecular weight, with a decrease due to chain linkages.
Consequently, the mechanical properties are altered.[111] Such products do not fulfil the
requirements for the substitution of PLS for material applications. Yet for one or two
decades, another more promising strategy has been developed for the association of
PLS with other biodegradable compounds to obtain compostable multiphase materials.
We can obtain different structures with corresponding properties. This approach induces
some problematics linked with the quality of the interfaces, i.e., concerning the continuity
between the phases and the compatibility between the different materials.
4.
PLS-BASED MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS

4.1.
Structures Classification
Two different materials can be associated to PLS to obtain compostable materials:

biodegradable polyesters or agro-materials (lignins, cellulose, etc.). Figure 11 shows the
different sorts of structures, which can be obtained by associations, and the related process.
Averous
254
Figure 11.
Schematic of multiphase systems based on plasticized starchprocess and structures.
4.2.
Biodegradable PLS-Based Blends
Blend shows different attributes.[112,113] Blending is the easier process to associate

different polymers together. Blending provides a powerful route to obtain materials
with improved property/cost performances. This approach is cheaper than the development of new polymers. Besides, blends are also commonly used as models to test the
compatibility between different polymeric phases because a blend presents a great
surface of interphase compared with, e.g., multilayer structures.
PLS has been widely used in blends with other polymers.[114,115] A lot of patents were
published on this topic (see Table 7). These considerable research efforts have led to
starch-based blends being commercialized, Mater-Bi#[30,71] from Novamont (Italy) or
Bioplastw from Biotec (Germany).[115] Starch blends production, for this latter, is now
managed by Novamont. To produce these commercial blends, starch is blended with
non-biodegradable polymers (polyolefins) or with biodegradable polyesters (e.g., PCL).
Applications concern packaging, disposable cutlery, gardening, leisure, hygiene and
the like.
In the past, blends with synthetic polymers, such as PE[116] or EVOH,[117] were developed leading to non-fully biodegradable materials.[118,119] Because these controversial
materials were presented as biodegradable, they have been named bio-fragmentable. To
maintain the compostability feature, different biodegradable blends were developed. A
great number of patents have been published on this topic (see Table 7). We find some
associations of PLS with agro-polymers such as proteins[118 121] or pectins.[120,122] But,
most of the research is focused on the blending of PLS with biodegradable polyesters:
PCL,[32,39,40,123 129] PEA,[39] PHBV,[126,127,130,131] PBSA,[50,132] poly(butylene adipateco-terephtalate) (PBAT),[132] PLA[21] or PHEE.[27] These commercially available polyesters show some interesting and reproducible properties such as a more hydrophobic
255
Table 7. Main patents disclosing biodegradable PLS-based materials.

Patents no.
Inventors (assignee)
Plasticized starch (PLS)

EP 282 451
Dobler et al. (1988)
EP 304 401
Tomka et al. (1989)
WO 90/05161
Tomka (1990)
EP 400 531
Bastioli et al. (1990)
WO 92/04408
Cole and Egli (1992)
US 5,275,774
Bahr et al. (1994)
EP 609 983
De bock and Bahr (1994)
WO 94/28029
WO 96/35748
EP 758 669
WO 97/48764
WO 98/51466
Lorcks et al. (1994)

Haschke and Tomka (1996)
Loerck et al. (1997)
Feil et al. (1998)
Biodegradable PLS-based blends

EP 327 505
Rehm et al. (1989)
EP 535 994
Tokiwa et al.
FR 2 691 467
Van Hoegaerden (1993)
US 5,280,055
Tomka (1994)
EP 580 032
Dehennau and Depireux
(1994)
EP 596 437
Tomka (1994)
WO 94/25493
Fishman and Coffin (1994)
WO 95/24447
Narayan and Krishnan (1995)
EP 704 495
Muramatsu and Hino (1996)
WO 97/03120
Seppala et al. (1997)
JP 9 137 069
JP 9 294 482
WO 98/20073
Shimoozono and Hino (1997)

Shimoozono and Hino (1997)
WO 99/02595
Bengs et al. (1999)
EP 947 559
EP 965 615
US 6,025,417
US 6,218,321
Bellotti et al. (1999)

Willett et al. (2000)
Lorcks et al. (2001)
Biodegradable PLS-based multilayers

US 5,391,423
Wnuk et al. (1995)
US 5,512,378
WO 97/27047

Shogren and Lawton (1997)
Comments
Destructured starch and PLS

Destructured starch and PLS
PLS
PLS
PLS and process
Extrusion with water removing
during the process
Plasticizers: mixture of sugar
alcohols
PLS and process
Plasticizers: graft copolymers
PLS
Plasticizers: polymers system
PLS foam moulding
PLS PHB
PLS PCL
PLS proteinaceous material
PLS cellulose ester
PLS PCL
PLS biodegradable polymers
PLS pectines
PLS PCL, in absence of water
PLS PBSA or PHBV, or PCL
PLS polyester compatibilization
with poly-isocyanate
PLS aliphatic bio. polyester
PLS aliphatic bio. polyester
PLS bio. polyester non-ionic
surfactant
PLS biodegrable
polymer phosphate
PLS bio. polyesters non-ionic
surfactant
PLS bio. polyesters (heterophase)
PLS PHEE
Production of fibers: PLS bio.
polyester
Multilayers with biodegradable
polymers
Multilayers PLS/wax fabrication
Coating by spraying solutions
(continued)
Averous
256
Table 7. Continued.
Patents no.
FR 2 791 603
Inventors (assignee)
Averous et al. (2000)
Biodegradable PLS based composites

WO 95/04111
Rettenbacher and Mundigler
(1995)
WO 97/03121
Happonen et al. (1997)
US 5,666,216
Tomka (1997)
US 5,705,536
Tomka (1998)
EP 842 977
Rothe (1998)
WO 99/56556
Wang (1999)
US 6,136,097
Heuer et al. (2000)
US 6,231,970
Andersen et al. (2001)
WO 01/68762
Fischer and Fischer (2001)
US 6,406,530
Boehm and Bengs (2002)
Comments
Coextrusion: bio. polyester/PLS/
bio. polyester
PLS wood cellulose
PLS cellulose fibers
PLS natural cellulose fibers
Foam: PLS cellulose fibers
PLS natural fibers (milling
industry)
Foam: PLS cellulose
fibers proteins
PLS ligno-cellulose
fibers proteins
PLS natural fibers mineral
fillers
Nanocomposites:
PLS organoclays
PLS lignins
Note: Bio. polyester biodegradable polyester.
character, a lower water permeability and some improved mechanical properties, compared with PLS.
4.2.1.
Blends Properties
Solid-state properties of the blends depend on the nature of the polyester phase. At
ambient temperature, polyesters can be rigid (e.g., PLA) or soft (e.g., PCL, PBSA,
PBAT). Then, corresponding mechanical properties are tuneable.
Youngs Modulus can be evaluated between two boundaries determined by the serial
model from Reuss [cf. Eq. (2)] and the parallel model from Voight [cf. Eq. (2)] for respectively, the lower and the higher boundary.[21,40,72] In the case of a co-continuous structure,
as shown on some PLS/PLA blends,[21,133] modulus can be evaluated with a rather good
agreement by Davies model [cf. Eq. (2)].[134]
EReuses f1 E1 f2 E2
1
f
f
1 2
EVoight E1 E2
1=5
EDavies
f1 E11=5 f2 E21=5
where Ei and fi are, respectively, the modulus and the volume fraction of the ith phase.
Starch and more hydrophobic compounds such as biodegradable polyester are rather
immiscible and mixing produces blends with separated phases with rather poor interfacial
257
properties. This is illustrated by the results of different micro- or macro-structural

approaches:
The shifts of both glass transitions before and after blending which can be compared with the evaluations determined with the Couchmann-Karaszs model.[135]
MEB observations of the structure and phase dispersion.
Tensile test values at break,[21] elongations and strengths.
Peel test measurements.[21]
Calculation of the theoretical work of adhesion from contact angles of probes
liquids.[136 138]
For instance, Table 2 shows that PEA presents the highest surface tension, a high polar component, and PLA the lowest. These different determinations allow the establishment of a
classification from the least compatible (PLA) to the most compatible polyesters (PEA).
However, this low compatibility induces special behaviors and properties. During the
injection moulding process, we have a preferential migration of the polyester, the lowviscosity polymer,[139] towards the mould surface. After cooling, we obtain a polyesterrich skin and a starchy core.[40,140] Imaging NMR has highlighted this pseudo-multilayer
structure. Compared with PLS, this stratified structure gives to the blend rather good water
resistance[40,72] due to the polyester surface protection. Water sensitivity, determined by
contact angle measurements with water drops deposit decreases drastically for contents
lower than 10 wt% of polyesters in the blend.[132] Biodegradability of such blends is
modified, degradation occurs from the starchy core toward the skin.[141]
4.2.2.
Blends Compatibilization
To improve the compatibility between two phases, compatibilization strategies are

generally developed. This strategy implies the addition of a compound: the compatibilizer,
which can be obtained by modification of at least one polymer initially present in the
blend.[142] For compatibilization, authors have followed different ways:
The functionalization of the polyester, with maleic anhydride,[143 145] with
pyromellitic anhydride[146] with polyacylic acid[147] or by producing telechelic
polyester phosphate.[148]
The functionalization of starch with polyglycidyl methacrylate[149] or, with
urethane functions by reaction of n-butylisocyanate.[150]
The starch polyester reticulation with coupling agents such as peroxides,[41,151,152]
or polyisocianates.[153 157]
The development of copolymers: starch-graft polyester. To compatibilize starch
and PCL, different authors have developed PCL-grafted starch or dextran.[158 163]
The grafting is obtained by ROP of 1-caprolactone on the polysaccharide. Reaction
can be catalyzed with stannous octoate and initiated with aluminum alkoxydes.
The length of the grafts can be controlled to obtain a comb structure.[162,163] The
same approaches can be used with PLA-grafted polysaccharides (unpublished work).
Results are improving for the interphase continuity, observed by MEB and by DSC, and
for the mechanical properties.
Averous
258
4.3.
Biodegradable PLS-Based Multilayers
Compared to blends, multilayer structures present some attributes. Moisture sensitivity is not fully addressed in a blend because of starch phase distribution close to the
surface. Development of moisture-resistant starch-based products shall be undertaken
through multilayers, allowing for the preparation of sandwich-type structures with PLS
as the central layer and the hydrophobic biodegradable component as the surface outer
layers. On this topic, some patents were published (see Table 7). For instance, Bastioli
et al.[164] proposed different processes (coextrusion, casting and hot melt techniques)
to protect starch-based materials with wax layers. Stratified materials can be obtained
by a multistep process based on compression moulding.[165] The case of coating is
also mentioned in literature. Coating has been achieved by spraying[166] or painting[167]
different dilutes liquid such as biodegradable polyester solutions onto the starch-based
material.
Coextrusion seems the best option, since it offers the advantages of being a one-step,
continuous and versatile process. Multilayer coextrusion has been widely used in the past
decades to combine the properties of two or more polymers into one single multilayered
structure.[168] However, some problems inherent to the multiphasic nature of the flow are
likely to occur during coextrusion operations, such as non-uniform layer distribution,
encapsulation, and interfacial instabilities, which are critical since they directly affect
the quality and functionality of the multilayer products. The layer encapsulation phenomenon corresponds to the surrounding of the more viscous polymer by the less viscous one,
as shown by Lee and White.[169] Figure 12 illustrates interfacial instabilities with wavy
interfaces. Yih[170] and Hickox[171] pioneered studies on interfacial instabilities,
suggesting that viscosity differences may cause instabilities of stratified flow. Schrenk
and Alfrey[172] investigated the factors responsible for the onset of instabilities, and
suggested the existence of a critical shear stress value beyond which interfacial instabilities are likely to occur. Han and Shetty[173,174] described in detail the factors responsible
for the occurrence of instabilities, such as critical shear stress at the interface, viscosity and
elasticity ratio, and layer thickness ratio. Khomani,[175,176] Su and Khomani[177,178] examined theoretically the elastic and viscosity effects on the interfacial stability, according to
the die geometry and layer depth ratio. They determined the role of elasticity in the mechanism of instabilities. Wilson and Khomani[179 181] studied the propagation of periodic
flow disturbances experimentally and numerically and determined the stable and unstable
flow conditions, in a good agreement with models.
Despite the number and diversity of studies on multilayer flows and stability, only
few articles[165,182,183] and patents[164,184] reported the use of PLS and polyester in coextrusion processes. Different stratified structures were processed by coextrusion and
studied: with PCL,[165,182] PBSA,[165,182] PEA,[165,182] PLA,[165,182,183] PBAT,[182] or
with PHBV.[183,185]
4.3.1.
Interfacial Instabilities
Martin and Averous[183] have shown on a PLS/PEA/PLS systems, that the key parameters are the skin-layer viscosity and thickness, the global extrusion rate and the dye
geometry after determining the stable and unstable flow conditions. They have found
that the occurrence of instabilities is strongly related to the shear stress at the interface.
259
Figure 12. (a) Schematic of a multiplayer film exhibiting wavy instabilities at the interface. (b)
Photographs of a delaminated film (PLS/PLA/PLS) exhibiting wave-like instabilities. Source:
Ref.[77].
Viscosity differences, high extrusion rates, and low cap layer thickness have been shown
to promote the occurrence of instabilities. Conversely, moderate extrusion rate, appropriate dye geometry and lesser viscous component at the dye wall have favored the stability
of the combined flow.
4.3.2.
Interfacial Adhesion
Different authors[165,182] have shown that in the absence of compatibilizer according

to the level of PLS polyester compatibility and to the process, we obtain different levels
of interfacial strength, as illustrated in Fig. 13. Elsewhere, Wang et al.[182] have shown that
the addition of plasticizer to the starch, or a decrease of the polyester molecular weight
(PCL), tends to decrease the peel strength. Martin and Averous[183] have found that the
interfacial strength of biodegradable multilayer films can be improved by a controlled
extent of instabilities at the interface, via mechanical interlocking between respective
layers.
Averous
260
Figure 13. Peel test results at 908, 50 mm/mm, 238C and 50%RH. Effect of the polyester type and
process on the peel strength of PLS polyester films. (White bars represent the hot pressed films by
compression moulding. Dark bars represent coextruded films). Source: Ref.[165].
4.4.
4.4.1.
Biodegradable PLS-Based Composites
Cellulose Fibers Reinforcement
Different types of fibers or microfibrils were tested in association with PLS: microfibrils from potato pulp,[52,53] bleached leafwood fibers,[186 189] fibers from bleached eucalyptus pulp,[190] flax and jute fibers.[191] The different authors have shown high
compatibility between both polysaccharides. For instance, Averous et al.[187] have
found a Tg increase of 288C by addition of 10 wt% of cellulose fibers into a PLS
matrix. This evolution is linked to the fiber matrix interactions, which decrease starch
chains mobility. In another example, Fig. 14 shows a MEB image of a cryogenic fracture;
the cellulose fibers are imbedded in the starchy matrix. Similar results have been found by
Curvelo et al.[190] After mixing, authors have found high improvements of the material
performance; some of them are linked to a usual matrix reinforcement,[192] some others
are brought by the inter-relations fiber-matrix:
higher modulus,[186 189]
reduced water sensitivity due to fiber matrix interactions and to the higher hydrophobic character of the cellulose, linked to its high crystallinity,[52,53,186,187,190]
higher thermal resistance,[52] due to the transition shift and an increase of the rubber
plateau,
reduced post processing aging, due to the formation of a 3D network between the
different carbohydrates, through hydrogen bonds.[189]
261
Figure 14. MEB observation. Cryogenic fracture of composites: PLS-leafwood cellulose fibers
(white scale 100 mm). Source: Ref.[187].
On this topic, a large number of patents were published (see Table 7) during the last
decade with some complex formulations, also based on proteins and even on biodegradable polyesters.
4.4.2.
Lignin Fillers
Different kinds of fractioned or modified lignins (Kraft lignins, Acellw lignins) have
been investigated in association with PLS obtained by film casting preparation or by extrusion.[193 195] According to Baumberger,[194] both systems are quite compatible with
lignins acting as fillers or as extender of the PLS matrix, with the soluble lignin fractions.
4.4.3.
Nanocomposites and Mineral Microfillers
Two kinds of nanoparticules have been tested into PLS composites: whiskers obtained
from cellulose and organoclays.
By acid hydrolysis of cellulosic materials, we obtain whiskers, which are mono-crystals
from cellulose. Some authors[196 198] used tunicin (an animal cellulose) whiskers, slender
parallelepiped rods of 500 nm to 12 mm length and 10-nm-width,[196] into PLS matrixes.
As for cellulose fibers, whiskersmatrix interactions are important. The high shape ratio
of the nanoparticles (50200), the high specific area (170 m2/g) increases the interfacial
phenomena then properties are improved, compared with PLScellulose composites.
Tunicin whiskers favor the starch crystallization due to a nucleating effect of the filler.[198]
Averous
262
Different authors[199 201] developed layered silicate nanocomposites to be compatibilized with the biodegradable polyester phase, such as PLA,[202] PCL,[201] or PBSA.[46] The
organoclay incorporation is generally between 1 and 10 wt%. These nanocomposites are
based on montmorillonites, which are generally modified by cations exchange with alkylammonium.[200 202] From this latter, Kubier et al.[203] have in situ polymerized polyesters
by ROP of 1-caprolactone using tin alkoxide catalyst, to obtain intercalated or exfoliated
nanocomposites.
The addition of modified organoclay into biodegradable polyester phase tends to
modify the material properties such as the mechanical properties. The tensile modulus
and strength are increased; on the other hand, the elongation at break is slightly
decreased.[46,201,204] According to Lepoittevin et al.,[201] thermal stability determined by
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is improved. Krook et al.[204] have shown that
oxygen and water transmission rates are rather decreased. According to Lee et al.,[46]
the kinetic of biodegradation is decreased.
On a recent patent based on PLS montmorillonites,[204] Fischer and Fischer[205]
present clay-based compounds as processing aids, which decrease the viscosity during
extrusion. Besides, the mineral compounds act to prevent plasticizer loss during aging
and then, improves the PLS stability. On PLS-biodegradable polyester blends, McGlashan
and Halley[206] have shown that nanocomposites tend to improve the mechanical properties (tensile and impact tests), the barrier properties and the transparency by crystallinity
modification.
Mineral micro-fillers were tested into a PLS matrix.[207] Kaolin particles, with an
average size of 0.5 mm, were incorporated by extrusion. Due to significant inter-compatibility, subsequent behaviors, such as a glass transition decrease, a reduction of water
uptake, and an increase of the stiffness can be observed.
5.
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
In this review, the relationships between the structure, the process, and the properties
of biodegradable multiphase systems based on PLS, the so-called thermoplastic starch
was analyzed. Besides, this review tried to show the high potential presented by plasticized
starch-based materials. Because of its low cost, its renewable and biodegradable character,
starch seems to be nowadays an important challenger for the development of future agrobased products. Compared to petrochemical polymers, plasticized starch should be a
future good competitor, when petroleum resources will drastically decrease. Besides,
these agro-materials are totally in agreement with the emergent concept of sustainable
development.
The association of plasticized starch with other biodegradable polymers is a good solution to overcome main starch issues, e.g., compared to the limitations linked to starch
chemical modifications (process cost, toxicity of the by-products etc). Besides, with the
different structures, (blend, composite, multilayer) we can fulfil the requirements of different applications fields, such as packaging or other short-lived applications (catering,
agriculture, sport, hygiene) where long-lasting polymers are not entirely adequate.
263
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank EuropolAgro (Reims) for its financial support and also
Patrice Dole, Catherine Joly (UMR INRA-FARE, Reims) for our helpful discussions.
REFERENCES
1. Narayan, R. Drivers for biodegradable/compostable plastics and role of composting
in waste management and sustainable agriculture; report paper. Orbit J. 2001, 1 (1),
1 9.
2. Steinbuchel, A. Biopolymers, General Aspects and Special Applications; WileyVCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2003; Vol. 10, 516.
3. Avella, M.; Bonadies, E.; Martuscelli, E. European current standardization for
plastic packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation. Polym.
Test. 2001, 20, 517 521.
4. Fritz, J.; Link, U.; Braun, R. Environmental impacts of biobased/biodegradable
packaging. Starch 2001, 53, 105 109.
5. Karlsson, R.R.; Albertsson, A.-C. Biodegradable polymers and environmental interaction. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1998, 38 (8), 1251 1253.
6. Kaplan, D.J.; Mayer, J.M.; Ball, D.; McMassie, J.; Allen, A.L.; Stenhouse, P. Fundamentals of biodegradable polymers. In Biodegradable Polymers and Packaging;
Ching, C., Kaplan, D.L., Thomas, E.L., Eds.; Technomic publication: Basel, 1993;
1 42.
7. Van de Velde, K.; Kiekens, P. Biopolymers: overview of several properties and
consequences on their applications. Polym. Test. 2002, 21, 433 442.
8. Rouilly, A.; Rigal, L. Agro-materials: a bibliographic review. J. Macomol. Sci.-Part
C. Polym. Rev. 2002, C42 (4), 441 479.
9. Chandra, R.; Rustgi, R. Biodegradable polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 1998, 23,
1273 1335.
10. Kaplan, D.L. Biopolymers from Renewable Resources; Springer Verlag: Berlin,
1998; 414.
11. Sotergard, A.; Stolt, M. Properties of lactic acid based polymers and their correlation
with composition. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2002, 27, 1123 1163.
12. Okada, M. Chemical syntheses of biodegradable polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2002,
27, 87 133.
13. Albertsson, A.-C.; Varma, I.K. Aliphatic polyesters: synthesis, properties and
applications. Adv. Polym. Sci. 2002, 157, 1 40.
14. Lunt, J. Large-scale production, properties and commercial applications of polylactic acid polymers. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 145 152.
15. Sinclair, R.G. The case for polylactic acid as a commodity packaging plastic.
J. Macromol. Sci. Pure Appl. Chem. 1996, 33 (5), 585 597.
16. Vert, M.; Schwach, G.; Coudane, J. Present and future of PLA polymers.
J. Macromol. Sci. Pure Appl. Chem. 1995, A32, 787 796.
17. Bigg, D.M. Effect of copolymer ratio on the crystallinity and properties of polylactic
acid copolymers. In Annual Technical ConferenceSociety of Plastic Engineers;
1996; 54th Vol. 2, 2028 2039.
264
Averous
18. Steinbuchel, A.; Doi, Y. Biopolymers, Polyesters IIIApplications and Commercial

Products; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2002; Vol. 4, 398.
19. Perego, G.; Cella, G.D.; Bastioli, C. Effect of molecular weight and crystallinity on
poly(lactic acid) mechanical properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1996, 59, 37 43.
20. Cartier, L.; Okihara, T.; Ikada, Y.; Tsuji, H.; Puiggali, J.; Lotz, B. Epitaxial crystallization and crystalline polymorphism of polylactides. Polymer 2000, 41,
8909 8919.
21. Martin, O.; Averous, L. Poly(lactic acid): plasticization and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems. Polymer 2001, 42 (14), 6237 6247.
22. Labrecque, L.V.; Kumar, R.A.; Dave, V.; Gross, R.A.; McCarthy, S.P. Citrate esters
as plasticizers for poly(lactic acid). J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1997, 66, 1507 1513.
23. Jacobsen, S.; Fritz, H.G. Plasticizing polylactidethe effect of different plasticizers
on the mechanical properties. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1999, 39 (7), 1303 1310.
24. Van Tuil, R.; Fowler, P.; Lawther, M.; Weber, C.J. Properties of biobased packaging
materials. In Biobased Packaging Materials for the Food Industry: Status and Perspectives; Weber, C.J., Ed.; Publisher: KVL: Frederiksberg, Denmark, 2000; 136.
25. Lehermeier, H.J.; Dorgan, J.R.; Way, J.D. Gas permeation properties of poly(lactic
acid). J. Membr. Sci. 2001, 4922, 1 9.
26. McCarthy, S.P. Advances in properties and biodegradability of cocontinuous,
immiscible, biodegradable, polymer blends. Macromol. Symp. 1999, 144, 63 72.
27. Bastioli, C. Biodegradable materialspresent situation and future perspectives.
Macromol. Symp. 1998, 135, 193 204.
28. Tuominen, J.; Kylma, J.; Kapanen, A.; Venelampi, O.; Itavaara, M.; Seppala, J. Biodegradation of lactic acid based polymers under controlled composting conditions
and evaluation of the ecotoxicological impact. Biomacromolecules 2002, 3 (3),
445 455.
29. Holmes, P.A. Biologically produced (R)-3-hydroxyalkanoate polymers and copolymers. In Developments in crystalline polymers; Basset, C.D., Eds.; Elsevier:
New York, 1988; Vol. 2, 1 65.
30. Bastioli, C. Properties and applications of Mater-Bi starch-based materials. Polym.
Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 263 272.
31. El-Hadi, A.; Schnabel, R.; Straube, E.; Muller, G.; Henning, S. Correlation between
degree of crystallinity, morphology, glass temperature, mechanical properties and
biodegradation of poly(3-hydroxyalkanoate) PHAs and their blends. Polym. Test.
2002, 21, 665 674.
32. Amass, W.; Amass, A.; Tighe, B. A review of biodegradable polymers: uses, current
developments in the synthesis and characterization of biodegradable polyesters,
blends of biodegradable polymers and recent advances in biodegradation studies.
Polym. Int. 1998, 47, 89 144.
33. Shogren, R.L. Water vapor permeability of biodegradable polymers. J. Environ.
Polym. Deg. 1997, 5 (2), 91 95.
34. Kotnis, M.A.; OBrien, G.S.; Willett, J.L. Processing and mechanical properties of
biodegradable poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate)/starch compositions. J. Environ.
Polym. Deg. 1995, 3 (2), 97 103.
35. Shogren, R.L. Poly(ethylene oxide)-coated granular starch-poly(hydroxybutyrateco-hydroxyvalerate) composite materials. J. Environ. Polym. Deg. 1995, 3 (2),
75 80.
265
36. Ramkumar, D.H.S.; Bhattacharia, M. Steady shear and dynamic properties of biodegradable polyesters. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1998, 39 (9), 1426 1435.
37. Parikh, M.; Gross, R.A.; McCarthy, S.P. The influence of injection molding conditions on biodegradable polymers. J. Injection Molding Techno. 1998, 2 (1), 30 36.
38. Chiellini, E.; Solaro, R. Biodegradable polymeric materials. Adv. Mater. 1996, 8 (4),
305 313.
39. Bastioli, C.; Cerutti, A.; Guanella, I.; Romano, G.C.; Tosin, M. Physical state and
biodegradation behavior of starch polycaprolactone systems. J. Environ. Polym.
Deg. 1995, 3 (2), 81 95.
40. Averous, L.; Moro, L.; Dole, P.; Fringant, C. Properties of thermoplastics blends:
starch polycaprolactone. Polymer 2000, 41 (11), 4157 4167.
41. Koening, M.F.; Huang, S.J. Evaluation of crosslinked poly(caprolactone) as a biodegradable, hydrophobic coating. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1994, 45, 139 144.
42. Tokiwa, Y.; Suzuki, T. Hydrolysis of polyesters by lipases. Nature (Lond.) 1977,
270 (5632), 76 78.
43. Grigat, E.; Koch, R.; Timmermann, R. BAK 1095 and BAK 2195: completely biodegradable synthetic thermoplastics. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 223 226.
44. Fritz, J. Ecotoxicity of Biogenic Materials During and After Their Biodegradation;
University of Agriculture: Vienna, Austria, 1999; Ph.D. Thesis.
45. Bruns, C.; Gottschall, R.; De Wilde, B. Ecotoxicological trials with BAK 1095
according to DIN V 54900. Orbit J. 2001, 1 (1), 1 10.
46. Lee, S.-R.; Park, H.-M.; Lim, H.; Kang, T.; Li, X.; Cho, W.-J.; Ha, C.-S. Microstructure, tensile properties, and biodegradability of aliphatic polyester/clay nanocomposites. Polymer 2002, 43, 2495 2500.
47. Muller, R.J.; Witt, U.; Rantze, E.; Deckwer, W.D. Architecture of biodegradable
copolyestyers containing aromatic constituents. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59,
203 208.
48. Yokota, Y.; Marechal, H. Processability of biodegradable poly(butylene) succinate
and its derivates. A case study. In Biopolymer Conference, Wurzbburg, Germany,
Feb. 24, 1999.
49. Fujimaki, T. Processability and properties of aliphatic polyesters Bionolle,
synthesized by polycondensation reaction. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 209 214.
50. Ratto, J.A.; Stenhouse, P.J.; Auerbach, M.; Mitchell, J.; Farrell, R. Processing,
performance and biodegradability of a thermoplastic aliphatic polyester/starch
system. Polymer 1999, 40, 6777 6788.
51. Witt, U.; Einig, T.; Yamamoto, M.; Kleeberg, I.; Deckwer, W.D.; Muller, R.J.
Biodegradation of aliphatic aromatic copolyesters: evaluation of the final biodegradability and ecotoxicological impact of degradation intermediates. Chemosphere
2001, 44 (2), 289 299.
52. Dufresne, A.; Vignon, M.R. Improvement of starch film performances using cellulose microfibrils. Macromolecules 1998, 31, 2693 2396.
53. Dufresne, A.; Dupeyre, D.; Vignon, M.R. Cellulose microfibrils from potato tuber
cells: processing and characterization of starch cellulose microfibril composites.
J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2000, 76, 2080 2092.
54. Pouteau, C.; Dole, P.; Cathala, B.; Averous, L.; Boquillon, N. Antioxidant properties
of lignin in polypropylene. Polym. Deg. Stab. 2003, 81 (1), 9 18.
266
Averous
55. French, D. Organization of starch granules. In Starch: Chemistry and Technology;

Whistler, R.L., Bemiller, J.N., Paschall, E.F., Eds.; Academic Press: London,
1984, 183 247.
56. Zobel, H.F. Molecules to granules: a comprehensive starch review. Starch/Starke
1988, 40 (2), 44 50.
57. Gallant, D.J.; Bouchet, B. Ultrastructure of maize starch granules: a review. Food
Microstruct. 1986, 5, 141 155.
58. Griffin, G.L. Biodegradable fillers in thermoplastics. Adv. Chem. Res. 1973, 134,
159 162.
59. Lacourse, N.; Altieri, P. Biodegradable Packaging Material and the Method of
Preparation Thereof. Patent US 4,863,655, 1989.
60. Russell, P.L. Gelatinisation of starches of different amylose/amylopectin content. A
study of differential scanning calorimetry. J. Cereal. Sci. 1988, 6, 133 145.
61. Shogren, R.L. Effect of moisture content on the melting and subsequent physical
aging of corn starch. Carbohydr. Polym. 1992, 19, 83 90.
62. Poutanen, K.; Forssell, P. Modification of starch properties with plasticizers. TRIP
1996, 4 (4), 128 132.
63. Mathew, A.P.; Dufresne, A. Plasticised waxy maize starch: effect of polyols and
relative humidity on material properties. Biomacromolecules 2002, 3 (5),
1101 1108.
64. De Bock, I.L.; Bahr, K.-H. Starch-Based Materials. Patent EP 609 983, 1994.
65. Shogren, R.L.; Swansom, C.L.; Thompson, A.R. Extrudates of cornstarch with urea
and glycols: structure/mechanicals property relations. Starch 1992, 44 (9),
335 338.
66. Shogren, R.L. Effect of moisture and various plasticizers on the mechanical properties of extruded starch. In Biodegradable Polymers and Packaging; Ching, C.,
Kaplan, D.L., Thomas, E.L., Eds.; Technomic Publication: Basel, 1993; 141 150.
67. Stein, T.M.; Greene, R.V. Amino acids as plasticizers for starch-based plastics.
Starch 1997, 49 (6), 245 249.
68. Dobler, B.; Tomka, I.; Stepto, R.F.T. Process for Making Destructurized Starch.
Patent EP 282 451, 1988.
69. Tomka, I.; Thoma, M.; Stepto, R.F.T. Shaped Articles Made from Pre-processed
Starch. Patent EP 304 401, 1989.
70. Stepto, R.F.T.; Tomka, I. Injection molding of natural hydrophilic polymers in the
presence of water. Chimia 1987, 41 (3), 76 81.
71. Bastioli, C.; Lombi, R.; Del Tredici, G.; Guanella, I. A Method for the Preparation of
Destructured-Starch-Based Compositions Produced Thereby. Patent EP 400 531,
1990.
72. Averous, L.; Fauconnier, N.; Moro, L.; Fringant, C. Blends of thermoplastic starch
and polyesteramide: processing and properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2000, 76 (7),
1117 1128.
73. McMaster, T.J.; Senouci, A.; Smith, A.C. Measurement of rheological and ultrasonic
properties of food and synthetic polymer melts. Rheol. Acta 1987, 26, 308 315.
74. Parker, R.; Ollett, A.L.; Smith, A.C. Starch melt rheology: measurements, modelling
and application to extrusion processing. In Processing and quality of foods;
Zeuthen, P., Ed.; Elsevier: London, 1990; 1290 1295.
267
75. Parker, R.; Ollett, A.L.; Lai-Fook, R.A.; Smith, A.C. The rheology of food melts and
its application to extrusion processing. In Rheology of Food, Pharmaceutical and
Biological Materials; Carter, R.E., Ed.; Elsevier: London, 1990; 53 69.
76. Padmanabhan, M.; Bhattacharya, M. Flow behavior and exit pressures of corn meal
under high-shear-high-temperature extrusion conditions using a slit die. J. Rheol.
1991, 35, 315 343.
77. Martin, O.; Averous, L.; Della Valle, G. Inline determination of plasticized wheat
starch viscous behaviour: impact of processing. Carbohydr. Polym. 2003, 53 (2),
169 182.
78. Davidson, V.J.; Paton, D.; Diosady, L.L. Degradation of wheat starch in a single
screw extruder: characteristics of extruded starch polymers. J. Food Sci. 1984, 45,
453 458.
79. Davidson, V.J.; Paton, D.; Diosady, L.L.; Rubin, L.T. A model for mechanical
degradation of wheat starch in a single screw extruder. J. Food Sci. 1984, 49,
1154 1169.
80. Colonna, P.; Tayeb, J.; Mercier, C. Extrusion-cooking of starch and starchy products.
In Extrusion-Cooking; Mercier, C., Linko, P., Harper, J.M., Eds.; AACC: St. Paul,
1989; 247 320.
81. Barre`s, C.; Vergnes, B.; Tayeb, J.; Della Valle, G. Transformation of wheat flour by
extrusion cooking: influence of screw configuration and operating conditions. Cereal
Chem. 1990, 67, 427 433.
82. Zheng, X.Z.; Wang, S.W. Shear induced starch conversion during extrusion. J. Food
Sci. 1994, 59 (5), 1137 1143.
83. Lai, L.S.; Kokini, J.L. The effect of extrusion operating conditions on the on-line
apparent viscosity of 98% amylopectin (Amioca) and 70% amylose (Hylon) corn
starches during extrusion. J. Rheol. 1990, 34 (8), 1245 1266.
84. Della Valle, G.; Boche, Y.; Colonna, P.; Vergnes, B. The extrusion behaviour of
potato starch. Carbohydr. Polym. 1995, 28, 255 264.
85. Della Valle, G.; Colonna, P.; Patria, A.; Vergnes, B. Influence of amylose content on
the viscous behavior of low hydrated molten starches. J. Rheol. 1996, 40 (3),
347 362.
86. Baud, B.; Colonna, P.; Della Valle, G.; Roger, P. Macromolecular degradation of
extruded starches measured by HPSEC-MALLS. In Biopolymer Science: Food
and non Food Applications; Colonna, P., Guilbert, S., Eds.; INRA Editions: Paris,
1999; 217 221.
87. Sagar, A.D.; Merill, E.W. Starch fragmentation during extrusion processing.
Polymer 1995, 36 (9), 1883 1886.
88. Martin, O.; Averous, L.; Della Valle, G.; Couturier, Y. On-line viscometry of molten
plasticized wheat starch. In Polymer Processing Symposia. PPS-2000, Zlin, Czech,
August 16 18, 2000, 217 218.
89. Senouci, A.; Smith, A.C. An experimental study of food melt rheology. I. Shear viscosity using a slit die and a capillary rheometer. Rheol. Acta 1988, 27, 546 554.
90. Senouci, A.; Smith, A.C. An experimental study of food melt rheology. II. End
pressure effects. Rheol. Acta 1988, 27, 649 655.
91. Bastioli, C.; Bellotti, V.; Rallis, A. Microstructure and melt flow behavior of a
starch based polymer. Rheol. Acta 1994, 33, 307 316.
268
Averous
92. Bindzus, W.; Fayard, G.; Van Legerich, B.; Meuser, F. Application of an in-line
viscometer to determine the shear stress of plasticized wheat starch. Starch 2002,
54, 243 251.
93. Bindzus, W.; Fayard, G.; Van Legerich, B.; Meuser, F.D. Description of extrudate
characteristics in relation to the shear stress of elasticised starches determined in
line. Starch 2002, 54, 252 259.
94. Vergnes, B.; Villemaire, J.P. Rheological behaviour of low moisture maize starch.
Rheol. Acta 1987, 26, 570 576.
95. Vergnes, B.; Villemaire, J.P.; Colonna, P.; Tayeb, J. Interrelationships between
thermomechanical treatment and macromolecular degradation of maize starch in a
novel rheometer with preshearing. J. Cereal Sci. 1987, 5, 189 202.
96. Della Valle, G.; Buleon, A.; Carreau, P.J.; Lavoie, P.-A.; Vergnes, B. Relationship
between structure and viscoelastic behavior of plasticized starch. J. Rheol. 1998,
42 (3), 507 525.
97. Van Soest, J.J.G.; Hulleman, S.H.D.; De Wit, D.; Vliegenthart, J.F.G. Crystallinity
in starch bioplastics. Ind. Crops Prod. 1996, 5, 11 22.
98. Van Soest, J.J.G. Starch Plastics Structure Property Relationships; Utrecht University (Netherland), P&L Press: Wageningen, 1996; Ph.D. Thesis.
99. Hulleman, S.H.D.; Janssen, F.H.P.; Feil, H. The role of water during plasticization of
native starches. Polymer 1998, 39 (10), 2043 2048.
100. Lourdin, D.; Coignard, L.; Bizot, H.; Colonna, P. Influence of equilibrium relative
humidity and plasticizer concentration on the water content and glass transition of
starch materials. Polymer 1997, 38 (21), 5401 5406.
101. Lourdin, D.; Bizot, H.; Colonna, P. Correlation between static mechanical properties
of starch glycerol materials and low temperature relaxation. Macromol. Symp.
1997, 114, 179 185.
102. Lourdin, D.; Bizot, H.; Colonna, P. Antiplasticization in starch glycerol films?
J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1997, 63, 1047 1053.
103. Van Soest, J.J.G.; Knooren, N. Influence of glycerol and water content on the structure and properties of extrudated starch plastic sheets during aging. J. Appl. Polym.
Sci. 1997, 64, 1411 1422.
104. Smits, A. The Molecular organisation in starch based products. The Influence of
Polyols Used as Plasticizers; Utrecht University (Netherland), P&L Press:
Wageningen, 2001; Ph.D. Thesis.
105. Lourdin, D.; Colonna, P.; Brownsey, G.J.; Noel, T.R.; Ring, S.G. Structural relaxation and physical aging of starchy materials. Carbohydr. Res. 2002, 337, 827 833.
106. Gaudin, S.; Lourdin, D.; Le Botlan, D.; Forsell, P.; Ilari, J.L.; Colonna, P. Effect of
polymer plasticizer interactions on the oxygen permeability of starch sorbitol
water films. Macromol. Symp. 1999, 138, 245 248.
107. Gaudin, S.; Lourdin, D.; Forsell, P.; Colonna, P. Antiplasticisation and oxygen
permeability of starch sorbitol films. Carbohydr. Polym. 2000, 43, 33 37.
108. Mullen, J.W.; Pacsu, E. Starch studies: preparation and properties of starch triesters.
Ind. Eng. Chem. 1942, 1209 1217.
109. Mullen, J.W.; Pacsu, E. Starch studies: possible industrial utilization of starch esters.
Ind. Eng. Chem. 1943, 381 384.
269
110. Fringant, C.; Desbrie`res, J.; Rinaudo, M. Physical properties of acetylated starchbased materials: relation with their molecular characteristics. Polymer 1996,
37 (13), 2663 2673.
111. Averous, L.; Moro, L.; Fringant, C. Properties of plasticized starch acetates. In ICBT
Conference, Coimbra, Portugal, Sept. 28 30, 1999.
112. Utracki, L.A. Polymer Alloys and Blends: Thermodynamics and Rheology; Hanser,
Ed.; New York, 1989, 244.
113. Shonaike, G.O.; Simon, G.P. Polymer Blends and Alloys; Marcel Decker Inc.:
New York, 1999; 745.
114. Tomka, I. Biodegradable Polymer Blend Composition. Patent EP 596 437, 1994.
115. Lorcks, J. Properties and applications of compostable starch-based plastic material.
J. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 245 249.
116. St-Pierre, N.; Favis, B.D.; Ramsay, B.A.; Verhoogt, H. Processing and characterization of thermoplastic starch/polyethylene blends. Polymer 1997, 38 (3),
647 655.
117. George, E.R.; Sullivan, T.M.; Park, E.H. Thermoplastic starch blends with a
poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol): processability and physical properties. Polym.
Eng. Sci. 1994, 34 (1), 17 23.
118. Arvanitoyannis, I.S. Totally and partially biodegradable polymer blends based on
natural and synthetic macromolecules: preparation, physical properties, and potential as food packaging materials. J. Macomol. Chem. Phy.-Rev. Macromol. Chem.
Phys. 1999, 39 (2), 205 271.
119. Griffin, G.J.L. Chemistry and Technology of Biodegradable Polymers; Chapman and
Hall: New York, 1994; 176.
120. Fishman, M.L.; Coffin, D.R.; Konstance, R.P.; Onwulata, C.I. Extrusion of pectin/
starch blends plasticized with glycerol. Carbohydr. Polym. 2000, 41, 317 325.
121. Otaigbe, J.U.; Goel, H.; Babcock, T.; Jane, J. Processability and properties of biodegradable plastics made from agriculture biopolymers. J. Elastom. Plast. 1999, 31,
56 71.
122. Fishman, M.L.; Coffin, D.R. Biodegradable films fabricated from mixtures of
pectin/starch/plasticizers. Patent WO 94/25493, 1994.
123. Matzinos, P.; Tserki, V.; Kontoyiannis, A.; Panayiotou, C. Processing and characterization of starch/polycaprolactone products. Polym. Deg. Stab. 2002, 77, 17 24.
124. Myllymaki, O.; Myllarinen, P.; Forssell, P.; Suortti, T.; Lateenkorva, K.;
Ahvenaien, R.; Poutanen, K. Mechanical and permeability properties of biodegradable extruded starch/polycaprolactone films. Package Technol. Sci. 1998, 11,
265 274.
125. Pranamuda, H.; Tokiwa, Y.; Tanaka, H. Physical properties and biodegradability of
blends containing polycaprolactone and tropical starches. J. Environ. Polym. Deg.
1996, 4 (1), 1 7.
126. Huang, S.J.; Koening, M.F.; Huang, M. Design, synthesis, and properties of biodegradable composites. In Biodegradable Polymers and Packaging; Ching, C.,
Kaplan, D.L., Thomas, E.L., Eds.; Technomic Publication: Basel, 1993; 97 110.
127. Koenig, M.F.; Huang, S.J. Biodegradable blends and composites of polycaprolactone and starch derivatives. Polymer 1995, 36 (9), 1877 1882.
270
Averous
128. Vikman, M.; Hulleman, S.H.D.; Van Der Zee, M.; Myllarinen, P.; Feil, H. Morphology and enzymatic degradation of thermoplastic starch polycaprolactone
blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1999, 74, 2494 2604.
129. Narayan, R.; Krishnan, M. Biodegradable composites and blends of starch with
poly(1-caprolactone). Polym. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1995, 72, 186 187.
130. Verhoogt, H.; St-Pierre, N.; Truchon, F.S.; Ramsay, B.A.; Favis, B.D.; Ramsay, J.A.
Blends containing poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-12%-hydroxyvalerate) and thermoplastic starch. Can. J. Microbiol. 1995, 41 (1), 323 328.
131. Ramsay, B.A.; Langlade, V.; Carreau, P.J.; Ramsay, J.A. Biodegradability and
mechanical properties of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate)starch blends.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1993, 59 (4), 1242 1246.
132. Averous, L.; Fringant, C. Association between plasticized starch and polyesters: processing and performances of injected biodegradable systems. Polym. Eng. Sci. 2001,
41 (5), 727 734.
133. Yu, L.; Christov, V.; Christie, G.; Smyth, R.; Beh, H.; Dutt, U.; Gray, J.; Harvey, T.;
Do, M.; Halley, P.; Lonergan, G. Mechanical properties and microstructures of
PLA/Thermoplastic starch blends. In Macro98: 37th IUPAC, 1998; 420.
134. Willemse, R.C.; Speijer, A.; Langeraar, A.E.; Posthuma de Boer, A. Tensile moduli
of co-continuous polymer blends. Polymer 1999, 40, 6645 6650.
135. Couchman, P.R.; Karasz, F.E. A classical thermodynamic discussion of the effect of
composition on glass-transition temperatures. Macromolecules 1978, 11, 117 119.
136. Biresaw, G.; Carriere, C.J. Interfacial properties of starch/biodegradable esters
blends. Polymer preprints 2000, 41 (1), 64 65.
137. Biresaw, G.; Carriere, C.J. Correlation between mechanical adhesion and interfacial
properties of starch/biodegradable polyester blends. J. Polym. Sci.: Part B: Polym.
Phys. 2001, 39, 920 930.
138. Averous, L.; Dole, P.; Martin, O.; Schwach, E.; Couturier, Y. Etudes de melanges:
polyesters biodegradables-Amidon plastifie. In 4ieme Colloque Franco-Quebecois,
Nancy, France, July 5 6, 2001.
139. Walia, P.S.; Lawton, J.W.; Shogren, R.L.; Felker, F.C. Effect of moisture level on
the morphology and melt flow behaviour of thermoplastic starch/poly(hydroxy
ester ether) blends. Polymer 2000, 41, 8083 8093.
140. Vikman, M.; Hulleman, S.H.D.; Van Der Zee, M.; Myllarinen, P.; Feil, H. Morphology and enzymatic degradation of thermoplastic starch polycaprolactone
blends. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1999, 74, 2494 2604.
141. Gattin, R.; Copinet, A.; Bertrand, C.; Couturier, Y. Biodegradation study of a starch
and poly(lactic) co-extruded material in liquid, composting and inert mineral media.
Int. Biodeterioration Biodeg. 2002, 50, 25 31.
142. Koning, C.; Van Duin, M.; Pagnoulle, C.; Jerome, R. Strategies for compatibilization
of polymer blends. Prog. Polym. Sci. 1998, 23, 707 757.
143. Mani, R.; Bhattacharya, M.; Tang, J. Functionalization of polyesters with maleic
anhydride by reactive extrusion. J. Polym. Sci.: Part A: Polym. Chem. 1999, 37,
1693 1702.
144. Mani, R.; Bhattacharya, M. Properties of injection moulded blends of starch and
modified biodegradable polyesters. Eur. Polym. J. 2001, 37, 515 526.
145. Sen, A.; Battacharya, M. Residual stresses and density gradient in injection molded
starch/synthetic polymer blends. Polymer 2000, 41, 9177 9190.
271
146. Avella, M.; Errico, M.E.; Laurienzo, P.; Martuscelli, E.; Raimo, M.; Rimedio, R.
Preparation and characterization of compatibilised polycaprolactone/starch composites. Polymer 2000, 41, 3875 3881.
147. Kim, C.-H.; Cho, K.Y.; Park, J.-K. Effect of poly(acrylic acid)-g-PCL microstructure
on the mechanical properties of Starch/PCL blend compatibilized with poly(acrylic
acid)-g-PCL. Polym. Eng. Sci. 2001, 41 (3), 542 553.
148. Shogren, R.L. Complexes of starch with telechelic poly(caprolactone) phosphate.
Carbohydr. Polym. 1993, 22, 93 98.
149. Willett, J.L.; Kotnis, M.A.; OBrien, G.S.; Fanta, G.F.; Gordon, S.H. Properties of
starch-graft-poly(glycidyl methacrylate) PHBV composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
1998, 70, 1121 1127.
150. Duquesne, E.; Rutot, D.; Degee, P.; Dubois, P. Synthesis and characterization of
compatibilized poly(caprolactone)/granular starch composites. Macromol. Symp.
2001, 175, 33 43.
151. Koening, M.F.; Huang, S.J. Biodegradable polymer/starch blends, composites, and
coatings. Polym. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1992, 67, 290 291.
152. Avella, M.; Errico, M.E.; Rimedio, R.; Sadocco, P. Preparation of biodegradable
polyesters/high-amylose starch composites by reactive blending and their characterization. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2002, 43, 1432 1442.
153. Seppala, J.; Malin, M.; Peltonen, S.; Heikkila, E.; Vuorenpaa, J. Thermoplasticized
Starch Component and Process for the Preparation Thereof. Patent WO 97/03120,
1997.
154. Jun, C.L. Reactive blending of biodegradable polymers: PLA and starch. J. Polym.
Environ. 2000, 8 (1), 33 37.
155. Wang, H.; Sun, X.; Seib, P. Strengthening blends of poly(lactic acid) and starch with
methylenediphenyl diisocyanate. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2001, 82, 1761 1767.
156. Wang, H.; Sun, X.; Seib, P. Mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid) and wheat
starch blends with methylenediphenyl diisocyanate. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2002, 84,
1257 1262.
157. Wang, H.; Sun, X.; Seib, P. Effects of starch moisture on properties of wheat starch/
poly (lactic acid) blend containing methylene diphenyl diisocyanate. J. Polym.
Environ. 2002, 10, 133 138.
158. Mani, R.; Tang, J.; Bhattacharya, M. Synthesis and characterization of starch graftpolycaprolactone as compatibilizer for starch/polycaprolactone blends. Macromol.
Rapid Commun. 1998, 19, 283 286.
159. Choi, E.-J.; Kim, C.-H.; Park, J.-K. Structure property relationship in PCL/starch
blend compatibilized with starch-g-polycaprolactone copolymer. J. Polym. Sci.:
Part B: Polym. Phys. 1999, 37, 2430 2438.
160. Choi, E.-J.; Kim, C.-H.; Park, J.-K. Synthesis and characterization of starch-g-polycaprolactone copolymer. J. Polym. Sci. 1999, 32, 7402 7408.
161. Dubois, P.; Krishnan, M.; Narayan, R. Aliphatic polyester-grafted starch-like
polysaccharides by ring-opening polymerisation. Polymer 1999, 40, 3091 3100.
162. Ydens, I.; Rutot, D.; Degee, P.; Six, J.-L.; Dellacherie, E.; Dubois, P. Controlled
synthesis of poly(caprolactone)-grafted dextran copolymers as potential environmentally friendly surfactants. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 6713 6721.
272
Averous
163. Rutot, D.; Degee, P.; Narayan, R.; Dubois, P. Aliphatic polyester-grafted starch composites by in situ ring opening polymerisation. Composite Interf. 2001, 7 (3),
215 225.
164. Bastioli, C.; Romano, G.; Scarati, M.; Toscin, M. Biodegradable Starch-Based
Articles. US Pat. 5,512,378, 1996.
165. Martin, O.; Schwach, E.; Averous, L.; Couturier, Y. Properties of biodegradable
multilayer films based on plasticized wheat starch. Starch/Starke 2001, 53 (8),
372 380.
166. Shogren, R.L.; Lawton, J.W. Enhanced water resistance of starch-based materials.
US Pat. 5,756,194, 1998.
167. Lawton, J.W. Biodegradable coatings for thermoplastics starch. In Cereals: Novel
Uses and Process; Campbell, Ed.; Plenum Press: New York, 1997; 43 47.
168. Schrenck, W.J.; Bradley, N.L.; Alfrey, T., Jr.; Maack, H. Interfacial flow instability
in multilayer coextrusion. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1978, 18, 620 623.
169. Lee, B.L.; White, J.L. An experimental study of rheological properties of polymer
melts in laminar shear flow and of interface deformation and its mechanisms in
two-phase stratified flow. Trans. Soc. Rheol. 1974, 18, 467 491.
170. Yih, C.S. Instability due to viscosity stratification. J. Fluid Mech. 1967, 27,
337 352.
171. Hickox, C.E. Instability due to viscosity stratification in axisymmetric pipe flow.
Phys. Fluids 1971, 14, 251 262.
172. Schrenk, W.J.; Alfrey, T., Jr. Coextruded multilayer films and sheets. In Polymer
Blends; Paul, D.R., Newman, S., Eds.; Academic Press: London, 1978; Vol. 2,
129 165.
173. Han, C.D.; Shetty, R. Studies on multilayer film coextrusion. I. The rheology of flat
film coextrusion. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1976, 16, 697 705.
174. Han, C.D.; Shetty, R. Studies on multilayer film coextrusion. II. Interfacial instability in flat film coextrusion. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1978, 18, 180 186.
175. Khomani, B. Interfacial instability and deformation of two stratified power law fluids
in plane poiseuille flow. 1. Stability analysis. J. Non-Newt. Fluid Mech. 1990, 36,
289 303.
176. Khomani, B. Interfacial instability and deformation of two stratified power law fluids
in plane poiseuille flow. 2. Interface deformation. J. Non-Newt. Fluid Mech. 1990,
37, 19 36.
177. Su, Y.Y.; Khomani, B. Purely elastic interfacial instabilities in superposed flow of
polymeric fluids. Rheol. Acta 1992, 31, 413 420.
178. Su, Y.Y.; Khomani, B. Interfacial stability of multilayer viscoelastic fluids in slit and
converging channel die geometries. J. Rheol. 1992, 36, 357 387.
179. Wilson, G.M.; Khomani, B. An experimental investigation of interfacial instabilities
in multilayer flow of viscoelastic fluids. 1. Incompatible polymer systems. J. NonNewt. Fluid Mech. 1992, 45, 355 384.
in multilayer flow of viscoelastic fluids. 2. Elastic and non-linear effects in incompatible polymer systems. J. Rheol. 1993, 37, 315 339.
in multilayer flow of viscoelastic fluids. 3. Compatible polymer systems. J. Rheol.
1993, 37, 341 354.
273
182. Wang, L.; Shogren, R.L.; Carriere, C. Preparation and properties of thermoplastic
starch polyester laminate sheets by coextrusion. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2000, 40 (2),
499 506.
183. Martin, O.; Averous, L. Comprehensive experimental study of a starch/polyesteramide coextrusion. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2002, 86 (10), 2586 2600.
184. Averous, L.; Fringant, C.; Moro, L.; Prudhomme, J.C. Starch-Based Multilayer Biodegradable Material and its Fabrication Method. French Patent No FR 2791603,
2000.
185. Averous, L.; Fringant, C.; Martin, O. Coextrusion of biodegradable starch-based
materials. In Biopolymer Science: Food and Non Food Applications; Colonna, P.,
Guilbert, S., Eds.; INRA Editions: Paris, 1999; 207 212.
186. Funke, U.; Bergthaller, W.; Lindhauer, M.G. Processing and characterization of
biodegradable products based on starch. J. Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 293 296.
187. Averous, L.; Fringant, C.; Moro, L. Plasticized starch-cellulose interactions in
polysaccharide composites. Polymer 2001, 42 (15), 6571 6578.
188. Averous, L.; Fringant, C.; Moro, L. Starch-based biodegradable materials suitable
for thermoforming packaging. Starch/Starke 2001, 53 (8), 368 371.
189. Averous, L. Interactions between cellulose and plasticized wheat starch. Properties
of biodegradable multiphase systems. In Plant Biopolymer Science: Food and Non
Food Applications; Renard, D., Della Valle, G., Popineau, Y., Eds.; RSC Editions:
Cambridge-UK, 2002; 253 259.
190. Curvelo, A.A.S.; De Carvalho, A.J.F.; Agnelli, J.A.M. Thermoplastic starchcellulosic fibers composites: preliminary results. Carbohydr. Polym. 2001, 45,
183 188.
191. Wollerdorfer, M.; Bader, H. Influence of natural fibers on the mechanical properties
of biodegradable polymers. Indus. Crops Prod. 1998, 8, 105 112.
192. Bledzki, A.K.; Gassan, J. Composites reinforced with cellulose based fibers. Prog.
Polym. Sci. 1999, 24, 221 274.
193. Baumberger, S.; Lapierre, C.; Monties, B.; Della Valle, G. Use of kraft lignin for
starch films; Polym. Deg. Stab. 1998, 59, 273 277.
194. Baumberger, S. Starch lignin films. In Chemical Modifications, Properties, and
Usage of Lignin; Hu, T.Q., Ed.; Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: New York,
2002; 1 19.
195. Boehm, G.; Bengs, H. Biopolymer-Shaped Thermoplastic Mixture for Producing
Biodegradable Shaped Bodies. Patent US 6,406,530, 2002.
196. Angles, M.N.; Dufresne, A. Plasticized/tunicin whiskers nanocomposites materials.
1. Structural analysis. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 8344 8353.
197. Angles, M.N.; Dufresne, A. Plasticized/tunicin whiskers nanocomposites materials.
2. Mechanical behaviour. Macromolecules 2000, 34, 2921 2931.
198. Mathew, A.P.; Dufresne, A. Morphological Investigations of nanocomposites from
sorbitol elasticised starch and tunicin whiskers. Biomacromolecules 2002, 3 (3),
609 617.
199. Alexandre, M.; Dubois, P. Polymer-layered silicate nanocomposites: preparation,
properties and uses of a new class of materials. Mat. Sci. Eng. 2000, 28, 1 63.
200. Lim, S.T.; Hyun, Y.H.; Choi, H.J. Synthetic biodegradable aliphatic polyester/
montmorillonite nanocomposites. Chem. Mater. 2002, 14, 1839 1844.
274
Averous
201. Lepoittevin, B.; Devalckenaere, M.; Pantoustier, N.; Alexandre, M.; Kubies, D.;
Calberg, C.; Jerome, R.; Dubois, P. Poly(1-caprolactone)/clay nanocomposites prepared by melt intercalation: mechanical, thermal and rheological properties. Polymer
2002, 43, 4017 4023.
202. Ray, S.S.; Maiti, P.; Okamoto, M.; Yamada, K.; Ueda, K. New polylactide/layered
silicate nanocomposites. 1-Preparation, characterization, and properties. Macromolecules 2002, 35, 3104 3110.
203. Kubier, D.; Pantoustier, N.; Dubois, P.; Rulmont, A.; Jerome, R. Controlled ringopening polymerization of caprolactone in the presence of layered silicates and
formation of nanocomposites. Macromolecules 2002, 35, 3318 3320.
204. Krook, M.; Albertsson, A.-C.; Gedde, U.W.; Hedenqvist, M.S. Barrier and mechanical properties of montmorillonite/polyesteramide nanocomposites. Polym. Eng.
Sci. 2002, 42 (6), 1238 1246.
205. Fischer, H.R.; Fischer, S. Biodegradable Thermoplastic Material. Patent WO 01/
68762, 2001.
206. McGlashan, S.; Halley, P.J. Preparation and characterisation of biodegradable
starch-based nanocomposite materials. Polym. Int. 2003, 52 (11), 1767 1773.
207. De Carvalho, A.J.F.; Curvelo, A.A.S.; Agnelli, J.A.M. A first insight of thermoplastic starch and kaolin. Carbohydr. Polym. 2001, 45, 189 194.
208. Karlsson, R.R.; Albertsson, A.-C. The influence of processing conditions on the
properties and the degradation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate).
Macromol. Symp. 1998, 127, 241 249.
209. Guilbot, A.; Mercier, C. Starch. In The Polysaccharides; Aspinal, G.O., Ed.;
Academic Press: New York, 1985; Vol. 3, 210 282.
210. Jenkins, P.J.; Donald, A.M. The influence of amylose on starch granule structure. Int.
J. Biol. Macromol. 1995, 17, 315 321.
Received April 8, 2003

Accepted February 12, 2004

Biodegradable Multiphase Systems Based On Plasticized Starch - A Review

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Biodegradable Multiphase Systems Based On Plasticized Starch - A Review

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCEw

Part CPolymer Reviews

Biodegradable Multiphase Systems Based on

1532-1797 (Print); 1532-9038 (Online)

PLS-BASED MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . .

CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

(blends, composites, multilayers) can be obtained. The compatibility problematic

Concepts: Biodegradability and Renewability

Biodegradability and Compostability

biomass in which the predominant mechanism is the enzymatic action of micro-organisms

Renewability and Sustainable Development

Renewability is linked to the concept of sustainable development. The UN World

Biodegradable Polymers Classifications

Biodegradable polymers are a growing field.[6 8] A vast number of biodegradable

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Classification of the biodegradable polymers.

polymers from biomass such as the agro-polymers from agro-resources (e.g.,

Figure 2 shows the chemical structures of various biodegradable polyesters. Table 1

Agro-Resources Based Polyesters

Chemical structures of different biodegradable polyesters.

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Classification of main biodegradable polyesters, commercially available.

Agro-resources based polyesters

Aromatic copolyesters (e.g., PBAT)

Cargill-Dow LLC (USA)

The production of these polyesters has been stopped.

companies such as Mitsui Chemicals (Japan), Galactic (Belgium), or Dainippon Ink

At 60 days in controlled composting according to ASTM 5336.

Physical and mechanical properties of some biodegradable polyesters.

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Table 3. Plasticization effects on some PLA properties.

Note: Standard deviations are given in brackets.

much slower compared with polybutylene succinate/adipate (PBSA). PLA is presumed to

melting temperature and glass transition,[32]

A large number of biodegradable polyesters are based on petroleum resources

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Table 4. Composition of ligno-cellulose fibers, from various botanical origins.

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

2.4.1.2. Lignins and Ligno-Celluloses

Figure 3. Structural and chemical presentation of wood lignin. Source: Ref.[54].

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Note: N.d., not determined.

Composition and characteristics for different kinds of starch.

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

The disruption of granular starch is the transformation of the semi-crystalline granule

Molten State Behavior

Schematic of starch process by extrusion.

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

h Kjg_ jm1 with the consistency: K K0 exp

Plasticizer and Water Interactions

Post Processing Aging

According to the plasticizer/starch ratio, PLS presents a large range of attributes.

Note: Standard deviations are in brackets.

Table 6. Plasticized starchformulations and properties.

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Figure 9. DSC evolutions with different glycerol/starch ratios. Source: Ref.[72].

DSC evolutions with different glycerol/starch ratios. Source: Ref.[72].

Multiphase Systems Based on PLS

Table 6 exemplifies that we can achieve a large range of mechanical properties by

PLS Issues and Strategies

PLS-BASED MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS

Two different materials can be associated to PLS to obtain compostable materials: