Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition From A Social Constructionist Approach

Universidad de Magallanes
Facultad de Humanidades, Ciencias Sociales y de la Salud

Departamento de Educacin y Humanidades
Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition from a

Social Constructionist approach.
Students: Valentina Amigo Troncoso

Aciel Muoz Loaiza
Guide Teacher: Patricia Daz Aguilar
Punta Arenas, December 2012
Acknowledgments
Our greatest gratitude is mostly expressed to our beloved ones, who encouraged us to
follow our passion and made us be what we are; and to those who with no particular interest
became part of this process to transform and create a new kind of education with devotion
towards pedagogy, we say thank you.
When we study human language, we are approaching what some might

call the 'human essence,' the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far
as we know, unique to man and that are inseparable from any critical
phase of human existence, personal or social. Hence the fascination of
this study, and, no less, its frustration. The frustration arises from the
coming to grips with the core problem of human language, which I take
to be this: having mastered a language, one is able to understand an
indefinite number of expressions that are new to one's experience, that
bear no simply physical resemblance and are in no simple way
analogous to the expressions that constitute one's linguistic experience;
and one is able ... to produce such expressions on an appropriate
occasion, despite their novelty.... The normal use of language is, in this
sense, a creative activity. This creative aspect of normal language use is
one fundamental factor that distinguishes human language from any
known system of animal communication.
Noam Chomsky, Language and Mind
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................i
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................. iii
Figures, Tables and Graphics .......................................................................................................... vi
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... viii
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... ix
I.
Linguistic theory and language acquisition .............................................................................. 1

1.1
What is language? ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1
The origins of language ............................................................................................. 2
1.1.2
Language and thinking .............................................................................................. 7
1.1.3
Language duality ..................................................................................................... 11
1.1.4
Pragmatics in linguistics .......................................................................................... 13
1.2
Generative Grammar....................................................................................................... 15
1.2.1
Surface and deep structures as two relevant levels in a sentence ..................... 16
1.2.2
External and internal language ................................................................................ 18
1.2.3
Linguistic competence and performance ................................................................. 20
1.2.4
The contribution of language processing recognition ............................................. 21
1.3
Language Acquisition ..................................................................................................... 22
1.3.1
The Language Acquisition Device .......................................................................... 23
1.3.2
The Modular Theory ................................................................................................ 24
1.4
Early grammar: early stages............................................................................................ 25
1.4.1
Experiments: The difficulty and the need of logic .................................................. 27
1.5
Platos problem ............................................................................................................... 28
1.6
Universal Grammar......................................................................................................... 30
iii
1.6.1
II.
UG and its role in L1 acquisition............................................................................. 31
Second Language Acquisition ............................................................................................ 36

2.1
SLA theories along time ................................................................................................. 37
2.2 What is Second Language knowledge? ............................................................................... 40

2.2.1 Language universals in SLA ......................................................................................... 42
2.2.2 Markedness and language transfer in SLA.................................................................... 42
2.2.3 Interlanguage ................................................................................................................. 44
2.3 Does UG underdetermine SLA development? .................................................................... 46
2.3.1 UG in SLA..................................................................................................................... 47
2.4 The role of first language in SLA ........................................................................................ 50
2.4.1 Inter- linguistic Influence ............................................................................................... 51
2.4.2 Models of representation of the bilingual lexicon memory........................................... 52
2.5 The role of input................................................................................................................... 56
2.5.1 Input in the environment ............................................................................................... 57
2.5.2 The role and effects of input in SLA ............................................................................. 57
2.5.3 Poverty of Stimulus in L2.............................................................................................. 59
2.6 The Critical Period ............................................................................................................... 61
2.6.1 The Fundamental Difference ......................................................................................... 62
2.6.2 The Fundamental Identity.............................................................................................. 63
2.7 Principles and parameters in interlanguage ......................................................................... 64
2.7.1 The Subset Principle in L2A ......................................................................................... 66
2.7.2 German verb placement and the null subject parameter in SLA ................................... 68
III.
Second language acquisition and formal education............................................................ 70
3.1 The childs language environment ....................................................................................... 71

3.1.1 Learning strategies of the child ..................................................................................... 72
3.1.2 Differences between child and adult students ............................................................... 73

3.2 Motivation ............................................................................................................................ 75
3.2.1 Integrative and Instrumental Motivation ....................................................................... 77
3.2.2 Motivation in a foreign language classroom ................................................................. 78
3.2.3 Creating students motivation........................................................................................ 81
3.3 Multiple Intelligences and the ESL classroom .................................................................... 82
3.4 Applied Grammar ................................................................................................................ 86
IV.
Methodological framework ................................................................................................ 97
4.1 Introduction of the paradigm................................................................................................ 97

4.1.1 Assumptions and dimensions ........................................................................................ 98
4.1.2 The approach of knowledge ........................................................................................ 100
4.2 Type of study ..................................................................................................................... 103
4.2.1 Instrument applied ....................................................................................................... 103
4.2.2 Context ........................................................................................................................ 104
4.2.3 Variables of the study .................................................................................................. 109
4.2.4 Participants .................................................................................................................. 109
4.2.5 Development of the kind of study ............................................................................... 109
4.2.6 Description of the process ........................................................................................... 115
4.2.7 Results ......................................................................................................................... 115
4.2.8 Analysis and conclusions ............................................................................................ 130
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 132
References.................................................................................................................................... 135
Appendix 1: Study Instrument ..................................................................................................... 143
Figures, Tables and Graphics

Figures
Figure 1: Speech Circuit ................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2: Model of L1 Acquisition ................................................................................................ 32
Figure 3: Phrase Structure ............................................................................................................. 33
Figure 4: Smaller constituents of the Phrase Structure .................................................................. 34
Figure 5: Theories of Second Language Acquisition .................................................................... 40
Figure 6: Interlanguage Grammar ................................................................................................. 45
Figure 7: Coordinate bilingualism ................................................................................................. 52
Figure 8: Compound bilingualism ................................................................................................. 52
Figure 9: Subordinate bilingualism ............................................................................................... 52
Figure 10: Subordinate bilingualism ............................................................................................. 52
Figure 11: Word Association Model ............................................................................................. 53
Figure 12: Concept Mediation Model............................................................................................ 54
Figure 13: Revised hierarchical model of lexical and conceptual representation in bilingual
memory .......................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 14: Schematic representation of the Process Model of L2 Motivation .............................. 80
Figure 15: Multiple Intelligences................................................................................................... 84
Figure 16: Sara Braun's organization chart.................................................................................. 105
Figure 17: San Jos organization chart ........................................................................................ 106
Tables
Table 1: Modern and older forms of words in Germanic languages ............................................... 4
Table 2: Similar words in three Slavic languages ........................................................................... 4
Table 3: Similar words in four Romance languages........................................................................ 5
Table 4: Similar words in six old languages.................................................................................... 5
Table 5: English and Hopi languages .............................................................................................. 9
Table 6: Comparison of the word mother in four languages ......................................................... 10
Table 7: Duality between language and speech............................................................................. 13
Table 8: National SIMCE results, 2010....................................................................................... 107

Table 9: San Jos High school average scores ............................................................................ 107
Table 10: Comparison of San Jos High school with other schools of the same SEG................ 108
Table 11: Sara Braun High school average scores ...................................................................... 108
Table 12: Comparison of the Sara Braun High school with other schools of the same SEG...... 108
Table 13: Sara Braun. Amount of answers for each type of intelligence .................................... 116
Table 14: Sara Braun. Average of selected techniques per class: ............................................... 116
Table 15: Sara Braun. Total percentage of Multiple Intelligences for each applied instrument . 117
Table 16: Sara Braun. Average percentages of type of intelligences tendency per each class ... 117
Table 17: San Jos. Amount of answers for each type of intelligence in each applied instrument
..................................................................................................................................................... 119
Table 18: San Jos. Average of selected techniques per class .................................................... 119
Table 19: San Jos. Total percentage of Multiple Intelligences for each applied instrument ..... 120
Table 20: San Jos. Average percentages of type of intelligences tendency per each class: ...... 120
Table 21: Sara Braun. Techniques that students DO ................................................................... 122
Table 22: Sara Braun. Average of selected techniques students DO .......................................... 122
Table 23: San Jos. Techniques that students DO ....................................................................... 124
Table 24: San Jos. Average of selected techniques students DO .............................................. 124
Table 25: Sara Braun. Techniques that students LIKE................................................................ 126
Table 26: Sara Braun. Average of selected techniques students LIKE ....................................... 126
Table 27: San Jos. Techniques that students LIKE.................................................................... 128
Table 28: San Jos. Average of selected techniques students LIKE ........................................... 128
Graphics
Graphic 1: Total percentage of Sara Braun High school intelligences........................................ 118
Graphic 2: Total percentage of San Jos High school intelligences............................................ 121
Graphic 3: Total percentage of techniques that Sara Braun High school students DO ............... 123
Graphic 4: Total percentage of techniques that San Jos High school students DO ................... 125
Graphic 5: Total percentage of techniques that Sara Braun school students LIKE..................... 127
Graphic 6: Total percentage of techniques that San Jos High school students LIKE................ 129
Abstract
This research has as the main purpose to explain how Universal Grammar influences the
process of Second Language Acquisition by introducing the social constructionist approach from
an educational perspective. Foreign language learners develop their competencies in an L2
acquisition guided by their teachers and tasks that activate their innate and underdeveloped skills.
To demonstrate that students learn through different techniques, an instrument of investigation
was applied to different groups of scholars to gather information about the way they acquire a
second language. The results showed that all the target groups had similar preferences in the way
they learned, despite their individual and their socio-cultural differences. As a conclusion, it can
be said that there is a dichotomy between the real teaching praxis and what the educational
theories postulate as the most accurate methods for acquiring a second language. This requires
that teachers must stimulate the intelligences of the students by incorporating different learning
techniques in the classroom.
Key words: Universal Grammar, language, acquisition, constructionist, approach, learner,

competences, skills, techniques, target group, praxis, theories, methods,
intelligences, learning.
Introduction
Since human civilization has been conscious of their own history, a huge mystery has
always been maintained until nowadays; even though, many are the hypotheses, ideas or even
beliefs in relation to the enigma of the origin of language. The human language has persisted over
time as the basic way of communication through a variety of forms. Its existence can be traced
back to the cavemen period by means of gestures, sounds and cave paintings, and all through
time with a variety of dialects and spoken languages, developing systems of signs, sounds or
touch (as Braille) for those unable to speak or write. Moreover, the scientific and technological
development has allowed the invention of new codes as the binary numeral system, which opened
the gates to new forms of expression and thinking.
The human language is an intrinsic and innate quality that is conceived through culture; it
is a communication system filled with codes, signs and symbols created by humans and, even
though language is a natural phenomenon, it is the culture and society which provide human
beings with the means to produce this social construction. Language is constantly evolving and
reinventing itself, being interpreted and recreated in an infinite number of possibilities. There are
several examples that prove how language is capable to advance and adapt to different
conditions, always depending on the use that human beings give to it. Migration from one
territory to another, invasions, wars, colonies, independence processes and outcast groups, all of
them have proved to make important changes in different cultures, including their languages,
something that can be appreciated through history. The English language, for instance, comes
from Indo-European, through Germanic and later, the influence of Latin, Viking dialects and
Romance languages were incorporated. These Romance languages, which come from Latin,
derive in what we know today as Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian or Catalan.
Taking these processes into consideration, many questions may also appear at the
beginning. Do all languages have the same origin? Was there a unique common spoken language
for all? Or might it be possible that languages came from many different cultures? We may never
be completely sure; however, by means of observing, reasoning, searching and experimenting we
can get a little closer to new discoveries so as to elaborate new questions in a never-ending
search. Some of the answers may help to easily reach other mysteries, even related to human
existence. Nevertheless, in order to advance in the purpose of this research, an important question
ix
can be made. What do all languages have in common? There is no answer related to their origins,
but it is certain that all languages have helped human beings to develop themselves in terms of
knowledge, emotions, social relations, organizations, economy or any other field related to
human civilization. Such is the great impact of language that it has allowed people to transform
their whole view and experience of the world and life.
When people interact with new perspectives, ideas and experiences are being shared,
creating a learning process that allows development in a group. An example of its consequences
could be related to gender roles; while English language is very neutral in this sense, Spanish is
completely the opposite. Hence, in places where Spanish is spoken more gender differences can
be found than in a place where the mother tongue is English. What is more, in Sweden, a country
where Swedish is the mother tongue and 85% of the population speaks English, a new pronoun
has been imposed considering the pro gender parity where there are no differentiations among
sexual categories through the utilization of the neutral word hen, avoiding the use of the feminine
hon and the masculine han when needed. It is clear that language has the power to influence
traditions and ideologies; it transmits, interprets and reproduces culture, reinforcing the societys
values. Yet, there is more to find out about the language phenomenon.
If all humans have been able to communicate with each other through different means and
languages, it could be stated that there is a common element in all human minds, no matter their
place and time of birth or ethnicity, every person since birth is predetermined to develop a certain
language under the use of a set of rules applied unconsciously along his/her development since
infancy. This capability, unique for human beings, is widely referred to as Universal Grammar,
which provides human beings with the opportunity to acquire any language.
A specific language is proportioned to this Universal Grammar, establishing a common
feature among all languages and even though the set of grammar rules is finite, there are infinite
probabilities of possible phrases due to a basic characteristic of humans to develop a certain level
of intelligence and comprehension. One of the most revolutionary theories from the last 100 years
is referred to as Generative Linguistics, that is, the way in which humans acquire language
through this Universal Grammar (UG).
Nobody is born with the background to speak immediately. Languages are a social
construction based on a consensus of significances, and we acquire them through exposure by
means of different stimuli. The most important element affecting language development is the
socio-cultural context. The historical background, social development and status, family, and
many other aspects, will define language construction, influencing that way human development.
The stimuli received from childhood will determine the proficiency with which language is used.
Nevertheless, all humans are born with a mental structure that is able to reproduce and expand a
set of grammar rules that will depend on the context in which they will be developed.
So as to understand some aspects of language evolution, the main characters to observe
are those who are living that process. Since an early age children develop their speaking abilities.
There is a first stage of receiving enough stimuli to reproduce a language due to the reason that
while they are babies, the forms of expressions are illegible sounds, crying or laughing. As they
have already learnt a great amount of language, they are able to discriminate different sounds as
if they were born with certain programming.
Even when a person is born in Spain or China, they will develop similar patterns. No
sooner are they pronouncing their first words than they are able to express themselves through
holophrases, or one-word sentences. As they grow neural connections ramify, developing their
language skills and lateral thinking learning from the stimuli of their senses; nonetheless, it is
important to highlight the fact that childrens language is not a simplification of the adult due to
they develop their own rules.
Additionally, some ideas state that language acquisition may be possible during
childhood, yet while adolescence advances the age becomes critical in this sense. Many are the
children who travel to a different country in order to live there. After some time, they are
perfectly able to domain the language structures and pronunciation of that place, just as a native
speaker does. On the other hand, this exact situation is much more difficult to adults.
Assuming any of the theories and hypotheses of the origins of language, there is still
another dilemma that awaits to be solved, focusing on individuals and the way in which each
person is able to acquire a mother tongue. There are some very convincing theories based on
different approaches. Some of them are related to instruction, imitation, rewarding and punishing,
the socio-cultural influence or the biological reasons, flourishing new questions. Are people
defined by the use of language? How similar are grammar patterns in different languages? Could
a Universal Grammar be applied to the acquisition of a second language?
The main objective of this research is to present a deep investigation for the last question,
explaining whether there is any relation with the main principles by which humans obtain a
mother tongue and its probable usage in the acquisition of a second language.
Not only has language acquisition being an important matter in linguistics, but Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) has gained the attraction of many experts. Both topics have been
studied separately, and SLA has walked a pedagogical path, rather than a psychological one,
focusing mainly on a practical objective that searches the best method to teach another language.
In the past, a second language was taught following behaviorism and structuralism methods. In
due time studies proved these practices wrong, extending its field research to psychology,
philosophy or neurolinguistics. SLA tended to attain the most efficient system to teach a foreign
or second language, but researchers have decided to work on the nature of the process nowadays.
Linguists follow the idea of general cognitive functions playing a fundamental role in first and
second language acquisition since L2 learners use their cognitive skills to adopt this second
language together with their own experiences, transforming it into a creative process.
Linguistic theories applied to language teaching are a significant investigation area. SLA
is a complex phenomenon which can be seen as the result of interacting factors, such as the
context or the native tongue influencing to the target language, among others. For this reason
some facts should be questioned. How does the generative linguistics theory influence second
language acquisition? How relevant is the role of stimulus in the second language acquisition
process?
According to the Western world, another field that interferes in the SLA process is
focused on the main source of knowledge, which is formal education. Second languages have
been taught worldwide for centuries, especially to the most socially advanced people as education
used to be a privilege rather than a human right, as it is nowadays. Forms and methods have been
diversely applied along time, although the most successful learners were those who had lived in a
foreign country. At the present time, it has become more common to observe bilingual people or
students with a special talent for acquiring languages, as the world is becoming more
multicultural and human relations and communication are able to overcome barriers of distance.
Technologies, advertising, and the internet are a great tool for this process and together with wellprepared teachers, effective methodologies, and a propitious context, second language acquisition
has become a closer reality for most people. Consequently and no matter the significant
differences among languages, the world has been forced to establish a common discourse in
business interaction and communications.
Nevertheless, even when efforts are being made to establish a second language that may
be used by an important amount of the worlds population, is it a reality yet? How close, real and
effective
are
the
methodologies
or
politics
suggested
by
the
educational legislators,
administrators, or curriculum designers? The fact is that formal education has proved to be
effective in some countries and regions where there are clear cultural priorities, values, and
ideologies to help this process, but is it possible to acquire a second language through formal
education?
And if so, what is the importance and implications of an appropriate learning
environment for second language acquisition?

Finally, the most important factor that should be taken into consideration above all is the
human
being.
Individuals
are diverse in their socio-cultural condition,
biological data,
significations, ideas, values, capabilities, skills, affections, companionship, or life experiences. If

a second language is expected to be acquired by the biggest amount of people as possible, it
should first contemplate the diversity of the human race. In this aspect, can intelligence be
defined as one? If that is not the case, is language acquisition related to a certain type of
intelligence? Or from a different perspective, are there different intelligences applied to second
language acquisition?
In order to develop this investigation, concise information on each topic is analyzed with
so as to elaborate a consistent research that may answer all the enquiries related to the concepts of
first and second language acquisition, motivation, intelligence and the most effective methods to
be applied. Its aim, rather than contradict traditional methodologies, is to open a gate of new
possibilities for a second language to be acquired effectively.
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I.
Linguistic theory and language acquisition
Along history, a human aspect has received much attention from different scholars in their
search of truth and the understanding of the human mind. The greatest reflection and expression
of the mind is the human language that emerges as an interaction of personal and social
construction. It appears in all human beings from an early age by receiving little stimuli or no
training at all, however, every person is able to acquire a specific language that would be
developed and formed by complex rules and structures. This allows the invention of sentences in
order to share thoughts and feelings, creating new ideas and ways of perception.
1.1 What is language?

During centuries, the development of the human brain has been related to hand skills
linked to the use of tools, activating specific connections to allow growth and evolution.
Nevertheless, this same behavior can be observed in different animal species, such as a cat
playing with a ball or a monkey manipulating objects and until today, they have not proven to
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domain certain cognitive aspects as humans do. In words of Humberto Maturana (2001), the
development of the human brain deals with language acquisition and the way in which thoughts
and emotions are articulated by it. But, where does language come from? This question is much
attached to what language is. There is wide consensus to define language as a symbol system for
communication. According to Maturana, this definition takes a second place if an analysis is
previously made. As a way of example, if two people talking can be observed, but not heard, is
there the need for more evidence to affirm that those two people are talking? It can be stated that
they are interacting due to their relations, notions formed by a consensual action coordination
which is developed through personal experience, senses and emotions.
From this idea, it is affirmed that it is through language that human beings have been
able to evolve and distinguish themselves from the other species. Following the line of evolution,
any species, as an organization of organisms is a way of life in which any discovery or advance
will be maintained as generations appear, conserving and preserving this knowledge. It
constitutes a new race by modifying the lifestyle that is conserved through reproductive
succession. This process implies consistency with the circumstances by safeguarding the new
information.
There is a natural phenomenon that conspires against the origin of language, giving credit
to a single person. Competition implies the denial of others by trying to take one person above
the rest. Instead, human beings learned to include each other, in harmonious coexistence so as to
evolve. If they did not, language would have never been articulated. In addition to this, Maturana
explains in his paper Emociones y lenguaje en educacin y poltica that human action is possible
through an essential founding emotion, allowing humans to generate a series of interactions. The
essence of an emotion accepts others as legitimate beings so as to coexist. By accepting others,
humans create the social phenomenon of coexistence under general accepted values. Language
originated from a history of interactions, emerging mutual acceptance creating a consensual
coordination of actions known as social construction.
1.1.1 The origins of language
Regarding some unknown facts, there are two main theories of the phylogenetic origin of
languages that explain how they appeared, and how they elaborated a specific syntax and
semantics. One of them is monogenesis (also monogeny) which has some similarities with
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religious beliefs concerning the Tower of Babel. According to Christianity, in the books of the
Old Testament, all people on earth spoke the same language. They decided to construct an
enormous tower in a city they were just setting in, so tall that it could reach Heaven. However,
defying their limits as humans, God decided to punish them for the pride and insolence of their
actions and He confused their tongue so they could not understand each other. After transforming
one language into several ones, He sent humans to different parts of the world so they would stop
to construct the city and the tower. The name Babel means the sound of many voices talking at
one time and it emphasizes the confusion that God made on language. Come, let us go down and
there confuse their language, so that they may not understand one anothers speech. (Genesis
11, 7)
The theory of monogenesis presents a considerable similarity by establishing that all
languages come from one single common ancestor. According to the Oxford dictionary (2012) it
is the hypothetical origination of language or of a surname from a single source at a particular
place and time. Monogenesis states that the human species would have originated from a much
reduced tribe from Africa (where the earliest known fossils have been found) that presumably
shared the same mother tongue, denominated by some as proto-sapiens language. Researches
have estimated the date for this language between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, coinciding
with the Homo-Sapiens era. Some investigators have gone beyond by presenting part of its
vocabulary after a deep study of identifying global etymologies. Merrit Ruhlen is currently the
main exponent of this monogenetic theory and participated in elaborating this controversial
lexicon, explaining even the discovery of a certain syntax which is composed by subject-objectverb (similar to Japanese) after a great work of compilation that follows a genealogy line. Ruhlen
(1994b) On the origin of languages, presents his affiliation to evolutionary ideas by quoting
Charles Darwin If we possessed a perfect pedigree of mankind, a genealogical arrangement of
the races of man would afford the best classification of the various languages now spoken
throughout the world... Darwin, (1859).
Some evidence may prove the similarity among some languages according to its roots and
origins. For instance, the Germanic group of languages is formed by English, German and
Swedish which in turn come from Old English, Old German and Old Norse, respectively. These
last languages are considered very similar in contrast to their modern forms. This table presents
the modern and older forms of words in the Germanic languages:
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Table 1: Modern and older forms of words in Germanic languages
English
Birds
Way
go
German
Vgel
Weg
gehen
Swedish
Fglar
Vg
Old English
Fugelas
Weg
gan
Old High German
Fugala
Uueg
gangan
Old Norse
Fuglar
Vegr
ganga
Source: Janson, T. (2002). Speak, a short history of languages (p. 32). New York: Oxford University Press.
It turns evident the pass and effect of time and history over different languages that share
a common genesis. There was a time when most people in Western Europe were able to
understand each other with no necessity of studying another language. Other main language
groups have the same situation as it can be seen in the following table.
Table 2: Similar words in three Slavic languages
bread
son
Russian
xleb
solnche
Polish
chleb
slonce
Czech
chlb
slunce
Some ancient Slavic texts are known as Old Church because they are mainly connected to
religion; it is believed by some that all Slavic languages derive from one Proto-Slavic language,
just as Germanic languages derive from a Proto-Germanic one.
There is a third group of languages whose roots are certain due to they originate from
Latin. This group is known as Romance Languages. The most important ones to be considered
are:
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Table 3: Similar words in four Romance languages

bread
son
French
pain
fils
Spanish
pan
hijo
Italian
pane
figlio
Portuguese
po
filho
The only slight difference among these languages can be observed in the Spanish word
hijo. With the passing of time, Spanish adapted some words starting with f replacing them by
the letter h with a mute sound. Another example of this issue is the Old Spanish words
fermosura and facer which are now used as hermosura and hacer. What occurred with this group
of languages is that its history is known due to the Latin language used during the Roman
Empire, an empire that ruled all the region of Western Europe and the Mediterranean. This power
was not acquired by groups of people whose language came from Germanic or Slavic stems.
All these collections of languages are at the same time categorized together with Sanskrit,
an old Indian language found only in ancient writings, and referred to as Indo-European
languages. Linguists have found many similarities among all of them due to history, causing a
huge impact in the evolution of languages and cultures. In order to have a clearer view, the
following comparison is presented:
Table 4: Similar words in six old languages
father
mother
Latin
pater
mater
Ancient Greek
pater
meter
Old English
fder
modor
Old Norse
fair
moir
Old Irish
athir
mathir
Sanskrit
pitar
matar
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These languages are thought to come from a Proto-Indo-European language. The oldest
texts have been the greatest proof to assort them into one group. Moreover, they reflect
systematic variations in their grammar. It was the expansion, migration and culture that made
these languages so different until nowadays. Modern English has no similarity with Hindi,
although, there was a time when they shared certain patterns. The table demonstrates
correspondence among the versions of the word mother and differences in the word father,
between the f and p letters. This difference may put in doubt the close relation among these
languages; however, the same difference appears in other Germanic words as well, such as the
English fish and the Latin piscis. Henceforth, it is deduced that the original Indo-European p was
replaced by f in Germanic languages, similar to the situation of the Spanish language between f
and h, proving the common elements of the Indo-European languages.
Nevertheless, there is no further proof to sustain the real origin of language. The only
solid piece of evidence to sustain the Monogeny theory is related to genetics and considers the
extremely small population of human beings at the time, allowing the possibility of sharing the
same dialect; according to some linguists that support this theory, three main families of
languages can be examined, relating them to the migratory events that occurred: Proto-IndoEuropean, Proto-Uralic and Proto-Altaic. Nevertheless, the origin of the human species has no
real evidence or a solid theory that relates it with the origin of one single original language.
The other theory is polygenesis which is completely the opposite of monogenesis and
states that languages come from many different independent social groups, evolving through
time. The Oxford dictionary (2012) defines it as the hypothetical origination of language or of a
surname from a number of independent sources in different places at different times.
Polygenesis indicates a multiple origin of a language, in which there were independent linguistic
outbreaks due to the different places where human tribes established. The theory indicates that
human beings in Africa managed no language until they left to settle the Middle East, Europe,
Asia and America, generating different linguistic groups. Modern research about creole
languages has presented the idea that with adequate linguistic input children are able to develop a
language with a solid and defined grammar. Moreover, the word polygenetic is also referred to
the theory of evolution in a sense that an organism develops from another.
|7
However, these are only assumptions and further evidence has not been found so as to
affirm the real origin of languages. An interesting fact, though, is that investigation can be
applied to those who make use of language, advancing in the field of linguistics, philosophy,
psychology and education.
1.1.2 Language and thinking
Through the study of language, abstract ideas and mind structures are to be discovered
together with universal principles generated by a biological need and whose origins come from
the characteristics of the humans mind. According to Noam Chomsky (2008b), through the study
of language, the human mind can be understood, thanks to the function of language and the
sharing of thoughts and feelings, creating this way new ideas and forms of perception.
So as to develop human thinking, a pre-existing knowledge base is previously required for
learning. This basis emerges from the capability to express and share personal ideas, which
construct a reality that influences the way in which thoughts are expanded. Human beings,
according to Chomsky, are born with a pre-existing capability or disposition to acquire
languages.
It is of great importance the way in which thinking is conceived. Everything that human
beings know is submitted by the ways of understanding a culture, in other words, the perception
of certain ideas depends on specific experiences that activate the cognitive system in which
external elements stimulate thoughts. The mind compares, analyzes, searches cause-effects
reasons, etc. It is explained that humans reach a certain level of knowledge when the inner
thoughts of the mind and its structures adequate to the nature of things, henceforth, individuals
belonging to a same linguistic community develop essentially the same language.
Several approaches are possible concerning the role of language in the thought. Aristotle
mentioned that spoken words are the symbols of the mental experience and written words are the
symbols of spoken words. During the Age of Enlightenment, a historical time of the Modern Era
from which a cultural and intellectual movement generated ideas of democracy and liberty by
giving priority to the human capability of reasoning, language was considered as a creation of
reason whose only function was the expression of thought and communication. Gradually,
consciousness about the importance of language grew and now it is not only a means to reveal
|8
thoughts anymore, but to construct a collective social identity. The interest in the impact of
language in culture is enormous and among many investigations the Sapir and Whorf linguistic
theory can be found. This study combines the reflection of a teacher and his student and among
its interpretations two main views can be synthetized: one radical, one weak. The radical version
proposes that the structure of a language determines the way in which humans perceive the
world. The weak version assumes that the structure of a language only affects the vision of the
world adopted by other speakers of the oral language.
Sapir (2008) referred to language as something We see and hear and otherwise
experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose
certain choices of interpretation1 . The construction of language is the main element that leads
life experience, and that has influences on thinking. And as human beings live in different
groups, it is common to interpret reality through the concepts of the society they belong to, and
certainly those concepts will depend on the native language that is spoken.
The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do
not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the
world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be
organized by our minds - and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our
minds We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as
we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the
patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated
one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory2 . (p.123)
According to both authors, thinking is determined by language and, in a more relative
way, people who speak different languages are able to perceive the world differently through a
wider view. These ideas are referred to as linguistic determinism and relativism. The essence of
their thesis is that humans observe or comprehend according to the establishment of their own
respective mother tongues, that is to say, a language guides the vision of the world differently
from those who speak other languages. The mother tongue has a major role in the perception of
1
2
Swiggers, P. (2008). The collected works of Edward Sapir. Vol. I: General Linguistics. M outon de Gruyter.
Whorf, B. (2012). Language, thought, and reality. M IT Press. p.213
|9
the world, hence the differences of interpretation of the theory whether it is relativism or
determinism.
A clear example is the study made by Benjamin Lee Whorf who spent some time with the
Hopi tribe. After studying its grammar and lexis Whorf discovered several and important
differences between his mother tongue and the Hopi language that set completely opposed views
of the world and life conception. The Hopi language does not have any expression referred to
verb tenses, in other words, there is no notion of time regarding the actions as there is in
European languages. Instead, the Hopi language prioritizes the aspect of validity, which means
that the tribe focuses on the proof that affirms what has been said. Whorf exemplifies the
statement with the word wari, which means run, although not in present time necessarily, but as
the mere action of running. The time in which the running happened or happens is irrelevant. The
most important aspect is that both speaker and listener obtain the information of the expressed
activity as a fact. Taking more words into consideration, Whorf presents the sentence era wari,
used when the listener does not witness the action. See the pictures of the situations comparing
English with the Hopi language:
Table 5: English and Hopi languages
Source: Whorf, B. (2012). Language, thought, and reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. M assachusetts: M IT Press.
| 10
Conclusions demonstrate that the Hopi and the Europeans live in different worlds, being
the first set in a freer society that considers concrete facts and the second in an environment that
worries about watches, calendars and time.
Another idea may be related to the needs of the group and the way in which its language
has developed. Does the human group need to count? Do they need to consider possibilities? Do
they need expressions of anger? All of them create different possibilities of mental constructions.
Although the questions could be infinite, there are common elements to find among many
languages. In the following image, a comparison can be observed.
Table 6: Comparison of the word mother in four languages
English
Mother
is
Sanskrit
Mata
sti
Greek
Meter
esti
Latin
Mater
est
Languages vary in many forms, but they refer to a subject and an action. Human beings
manage a common notion of describing performed actions while there are higher or lower levels
of complexity; most humans in the world manage certain common concepts.
According to a radical view of language, the linguistic determinism would establish the
whole vision of the world. Language may also limit the mind in a sense that one person might try
to comprehend another world, though it would not be completely possible due to a conscience
formed by the particular mother tongue. The Hopi tribe, for example, lacks the concept of time,
limiting them in their expressions and thoughts due to not being able to put themselves in the
future. According to Whorf, if a group of people does not manage a concept, it would be
extremely difficult, if possible, for that group to understand such concept. It is important to
highlight the fact that this radical view was a position taken by old linguists in front of nonwritten languages, although it is proven the logic and systematics of native tongues.
The other view, which is known as weak, is the linguistic relativism that explains that
language does not determine thought, but exclusively guides it. According to the theory
languages affect thinking at different levels, in different forms. As a way of example, the Guugu
| 11
Yimithirr tribe (settled in Australia) expresses directions through the cardinal points rather than
left or right. Experiments proved that the people of the tribe managed an excellent sense of
orientation. The members of the tribe consider the rest of the world as a reference rather than
themselves when giving directions. The actions and habits of humans have great consequences
outside the linguistic area, making associations and constructing language through experience.
1.1.3 Language duality
From a scientific point of view language can be understood as the system of signs that are
reciprocally inter-dependent, where two main elements support each other. In a more concrete
aspect, language covers a wider range of definition and it can be considered in different manners
whether it is sound or the expression of ideas and, from this logic, it can be affirmed that
perception and articulation are the ones which create reality by making use of the language.
Ferdinand de Saussure (2011) presented the idea of language duality through a series of courses
that were later transcribed by some of his students. To elaborate a solid base, there are four
important ideas to consider, being the first one the fact that language consists on a reciprocal
relationship. As a way of example, the sound of words does not mean language. The relationship
is composed by two sides; first of all, one that articulates the words and the other that perceives
and processes a message, complementing each other. There is a speaker that sends a message so
as to be codified by the listener who receives that message in order to interpret it. At the same
time, in a direct speaking situation, the listener becomes the speaker, and so on as it is
represented in the illustration.
Figure 1: Speech Circuit
Source: de Saussure, F. (2011) Course in General Linguistics. United States: Columbia University Press.
The second idea is that sound is just an instrument of the individuals thinking, combining
an impressive phenomenon that allows humans to express themselves. This leads to the third
point where there is the existence of an individual and a social aspect in terms of speech, in which
| 12
one would not exist without the other. This is an interesting fact about language due to this type
of relations among its diverse components, being it cyclical. Finally, the fourth main idea consists
of the way in which the construction of a language depends on its history, that is, the history of a
social group, and its constant evolution and adaptation in time.
Taking just one of these aspects into consideration would be an error and according to de
Saussures thought from the very outset we must put both feet on the ground of language and
use language as the norm of all other manifestations of speech. It can be assumed then that
language should be taken as a whole, with all its components and implications.
There is a dual reality that lies on two wide concepts: language and speech. Language is
born from speech as a capacity and it is a social consensus of signs that works as an instrument to
make use of such capacity. It is a system of interdependent and related positions that works as a
totality by itself, governing the speech in a complex and organized manner. Speech generates
from individual experience and at the same time depends on its context. It is the accomplishment
of language through vocal sounds that every person uses according to its own individuality.
In terms of communicative exchange two actions are appreciated. On one side, the
speaker assumes an active or executive relation between the linguistic concept being used and the
acoustic image that represents it and on the other side, the listener assumes a passive or receptive
role at perceiving these two objects. Even when speech depends on every speaker, the social
consensus of language permits communication. These two objects are referred to as signifier (the
acoustic image), as the material side of the linguistic sign, and signified (the concept), as the
meaning of the sign; the result of the codification process associated with the brain form as a
whole, is the linguistic sign.
It can be stated that language and speech are two separate realities joined by the
interaction that supposes an individual activity and system utilization. In fact, this implies that the
main principle for human development is interaction. The duality of language can be appreciated
in the chart below:
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Table 7: Duality between language and speech

System: Body of signs. Conventional
system of phonic signs.
Realization. Materialization of each system.
Language is a code: General model for all

speakers of a linguistic community. A set of
extra possibilities.
Personal use: The selection, the update of

the structures provided by the model.
Social phenomenon over the individual,

considered a collective product.
Individual phenomenon (dialect)

Constitution of an intelligent product of will.
Psychic phoneme: Mental abstraction as a

psychic step. Psychological mark in the
brain of each human being.
Psychological phenomenon: Participation

of different processes: psychic, physical and
physiological.
Latent: It is in the brain in a virtual way as a

group of expressive possibilities (deep
structure)
Patent: It is what is seen or heard, mainly in

the superficial structure.
Fixed: Synchronously, language is fixed

because it is constant as a code; it is regular
(as a social institution).
Varied: Peculiar form of giving use to

language, speech varies among people and it
even changes the personal development.
Homogeneous because it constructs a

general code for all speakers of a same
language.
Heterogeneous because there are several

languages
Perdurable due to be maintained during the

whole human history and its existence will
remain along time.
Ephemeral due to be constantly adapting to

socio-cultural changes.
Product of the past because language

precedes individuals due to inheritance from
the previous generation.
Product of the present because language

derives from its contemporary context.
Adapted from source: Barrera, V. (2010). Lingstica General. (p.23) Iquitos, Per.
1.1.4 Pragmatics in linguistics
The study of the use of language is done from a pragmatic approach. Pragmatics considers
that the purpose of thinking is to guide the action in which the effect of an idea is more important
that its origin. It opposes to the speculation about issues with no practical application, declaring
that the truth is related to time, place and object of inquiry, being something tangible. Pragmatism
consists on reducing the truth to its utility and veracity. In general terms, the main principle of
pragmatics states that all knowledge is practical if useful or possible to accomplish.
| 14
While de Saussure focused on language as a system, a man named Charles Morris set the
basis of a general theory of signs that is referred to as semiotics, with more concrete aspects of
language. This theory should explain the relation among sings (syntax) and its referents
(semantics), already studied by linguistics. On the other hand, he presented the new idea that the
theory of signs should explain the relations of signs with the speakers, nominating it as
pragmatics, in which signs receive a significance from the own person.
Morris formulated this theory by adding the pragmatic approach to linguistics. It consists
on the relation between signs and their effects on people who use them. Morris stated that the
signification of language is limited by its living dimension, in other words, the person. It is quite
relevant the conditions in which the rules of language are used. There are some cognitive
variables in the study of pragmatics that condition the recognition of the language use (what is
wanted to do or say and what it can be said or done). The inner behaviors can be divided in two
groups: one is the situation of the needs in which the motivational status answers to a certain state
of needs where it is important to know the function of transmission of intentions through
language and the other is the range of possibilities that depends on the persons knowledge. Some
outer or social variables do exist divided in two groups as well: the first one consists on the
situational circumstances that condition what is suitable to be said or comprehended in certain
situations. In a social context the use of language is limited by the ability to say or understand
something. Such is the case of different conversations between a boss and a subordinated or
among equal partners. The second variable refers to referential states which mark what makes
sense to say or comprehend. The western culture has a determined way that is the reference that
designates the sense of any conversation. A change in the environment modifies this sense.
Even when Morris presents a theory that falls in a behaviorist approach, it is of quite
importance to have these elements into consideration to set a basis and context of a society that
grew under these assumptions and that is constantly changing in this aspect. It will be checked in
future chapters that human beings manage a great creative potential that, if stimulated, can make
use of the language in a form that may also elaborate breaks in certain conditions and create new
ones.
As the construction of language is an important factor that comes from individual
language acquisition, the next chapters on this issue will explain how language is generated in
| 15
each person. It will cope with the importance of the existence of a universal grammar process,
and will focus on the creative potential that language produces in every individual.
One of the most revolutionary theories from the last 100 years is referred to as Generative
Linguistics the way in which humans acquire language. It was first incorporated by the American
professor of linguistics Noam Chomsky who proposed the concept of Universal Grammar
(UG) and which is genetically programmed and incorporated in the mind of every human being
so as to develop a mother tongue.
1.2 Generative Grammar

The concept of generativism is assigned to the man who founded Generative Linguistics.
Through a series of works, Noam Chomsky has established and re-arranged his theory of
transformational grammar. To have a clearer understanding of his line of thinking, it is important
to consider that Chomsky followed a formal state of language and a mathematical logic that is
appreciated through many of his analysis that transformed the most essential concepts of general
grammar. In Syntactic Structures (2002) the epistemological principles of the structural linguistic
are questioned by him, proposing a transformational model that offers a superior explicative force
and introduces concepts of grammar and creativity. It says that all native speakers possess a
certain intuition of language structures that permits the distinction of grammar sentences and the
comprehension and transmission of an infinity of new ones. In Aspects of the theory of syntax
(1965) Chomsky demonstrates the way in which his syntactic conceptions are integrated in a
general theory of psychology of knowledge and language philosophy. During this time, the
criticism against these works was huge due to its revolutionary concepts and, in order to clarify
misinterpretations, Deep structure, surface structure and semantic interpretation (1971) is
published.
Among the pieces of works, there is a mathematical logic that includes theories of
grouping and calculation. It could be explained as a mathematization of linguistic methods so
as to satisfy the scientific principles that Chomsky proposes, that is, to present linguistics as a
science. In the evolving process of this generative theory, there are two main parts to be
considered, being the first one characterized by an exclusive formal resource, while the other one
| 16
is a complete change in which signification and semantics gain a major focus. Both parts together
shape Chomskys linguistic theory that, even when it is mainly focused on the English language,
it aims to function as general and universal.
According to Chomsky, any individual gifted with the ability of speaking is able to
express in a language with correction so as to interpret and understand what another individual of
the same linguistic community may wish to communicate. That is to say, as humans count with a
language faculty and practical knowledge, they possess a linguistic competence, which is
internal,
but through which every linguistic act is being externalized, as a linguistic
performance or manifestation of such competence. This dichotomy is the first requirement of

Generative Grammar, related to de Saussures language/speech, though Chomskys vision is
more dynamic rather than static.
Henceforth, the work of linguists consists of finding a practical system that implies
competence and it should be expressed in a set of rules, constituting grammar. This way,
generative grammar allows the generation of every linguistic manifestation of the language. In
order to obtain a clearer view of generative linguistics, its main concepts are presented and
analyzed in the rest of the chapter.
1.2.1 Surface and deep structures as two relevant levels in a sentence
This chapter concerning the acquisition of a first language would be dealing with two
sorts of tendencies which are commonly known as the prescriptive and descriptive grammar. The
prescriptive tendency is well fortified by structuralists, whose main task is to create a set of
structures in order to fix them up into a grammatical theory in relation to a particular language.
This position is contrary to Generativism, also known as descriptive grammar, whose aim is to
scrutinize on the creativity of the language by providing responses to the question of language
acquisition, and formulating and setting up a finite amount of grammar rules to create an endless
quantity of possible sentences. On no account may structuralism serve as a base to solve the
problem of acquisition, in fact, its relevance in this theoretical framework stems from the ability
of just providing levels of structures to all the sentences in a language.
Therefore, constructs may have two kinds of grammatical structures: surface and
deepness. It is known that in a language, sentences can have an identical surface structure yet
| 17
in deepness, both sentences can highly differ from one another. A clear example to portray this
issue is the following:
a.
Andrew did the task
b.
The task was done by Andrew
It is noticeable how sentences a and b are completely different in the surface structure;
however, both of the sentences mean the same which, apart from indicating that they are derived
from the same idea, show that both come from the same deep structure.
It can also be added that the surface structure has more relation to grammar, whereas
the deep structure is more related to semantics. In fact, Carol Chomsky (1969: 8) provides us
with the ensuing example:
a.
John is easy to see.
b.
John is eager to see.
As a mode of explanation and in contrast to the first example, Chomsky indicates that
both sentences have a close or identical surface structure, but in deep structure both of them
are completely different.
Moreover, and after scrutinizing both of the presented sentences, it can be easy to realize
that the first sentence can be rewritten:
-
to see John is easy,
Whereas the sentence b cannot be paraphrased like:

-
to see john is eager,
The reason behind the impossibility to rearrange phrase b in a new way is because this
construct is grammatically incorrect. What is more, in sentence a, John is the object of the verb
phrase to see, while in sentence b, John can be clearly considered as the subject of the statement
representing the noun phrase.
Another major example applied to the daily life related to some conflicts among surface
and deep structure, which Chomsky also considered slip of the tongue, is when the speaker
| 18
feels that what he/she has uttered was not in fact what he/she really pretended to say. It happens
because deep structures are not well translated by the surface structures. Finally, it is
necessary to add that the deep structure apart from serving as a link among both S and D
structures tries to unite different surface structures under its semantic property.
1.2.2 External and internal language
Having both new concepts as key inherent features of the language, it becomes necessary
to unfold these concepts in relation to the UG, and obviously the implication that both of them
may have onto the acquisition of a language. In that way, it would show the relevance it has in
this part of the theoretical framework. UG incorporates concepts as the external and internal
language, that is to say, the use of language to express ideas and interact with others and the
mental use of language in which ideas are conceived and organized.
Chomskys principles of language indicate that our mentally represented grammar is
now referred to as our I-language, our individual, internal language, as opposed to the Elanguage outside our heads, external to us3 .
To begin with, it can be said that the E-language cannot serve as a base to the questions or
problems of acquisition. Language is considered to be used by a population under
unquestionable rules in action and belief which are commonly held by the same population.
This definition intrinsically means that language has an inborn social characteristic. In the same
sense, externalized language considers that the construct is understood independently of the
properties of the mind/brain4 ; consequently, as U.G. is mainly committed with the aspects of
language acquisition rather than in social or any other community-based issue, E-language
becomes incompatible with the topic research. On the contrary, the Internalized language will
come to solve out the requirements of the generative grammar in connection to language
acquisition.
In the same line, the so called I-language or internalized language can be primarily
opposite to E- language. To define this I-element, words from Otto Jespersen will be taken into
account; he says that the distinctive feature of the science of language as conceived nowadays is
3
4
Smith, N. (2004). Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals. Cambridge University Press. p.28
Chomsky, N. (2008c). Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin and use. (Digitized ed.). Praeger. p.20
| 19
its historical character5 . Chomsky interprets these words by stating that it is because he stated
with clarity that in the speakers mind there is a notion of structure [] which is definite to
guide him in framing sentences of his own, [] free expressions6 which can be new for the
person (the speaker-hearer) as well as for the rest of the speaker-hearers.
When Jespersen mentions the notion of structure, he makes reference to the I-language,
in other words, the I-language is a completely individual tool, considered to be an element in the
mind of each person who domains the language. It may sound obvious, but it is worth to mention
that this notion of structure is acquired by the speaker-hearer.
Therefore, according to the following lines: the statements of a grammar are statements
of the theory of mind about the I-language, hence statements about structures of the brain
formulated at a certain level of abstraction from mechanisms7 ; it can be said that grammar
would be the theory of the I-language, or the helper to fix up all these free expressions or
constructs.
Thus, having defined both new and relevant concepts, it is now crucial to return to the
initial point concerning E-language. In relation to E-language, generative grammar, and the
interest of linguistics, it is necessary to make distinctions and, despite having recognized that
linguistic communities are heterogeneous, Chomsky anyway decided to take for granted the
existence of a homogeneous speech-community:
Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker listener, in a
completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly
and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory
limitations distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or
characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual
performance8 . (p.3)
These words are stated mainly in order to focus on the acquisition inquiry and, therefore
to disconnect from issues studied in other fields of linguistics such as in sociolinguistics. It is due
5
Jespersen, O. Quoted in: Frawley, W. (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: 4-Volume Set (Vol.1). Oxford
University Press. p. 397
6
Chomsky, N. (2008c). Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin and use. Praeger. p.21
7
Ibid. p.23
8
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. M IT Press. p.3
| 20
to the reason that they clearly collect different kinds of information or data, not serving to solve
out the real aim behind generative grammar.
1.2.3 Linguistic competence and performance
After having enlisted and defined the background behind E and I languages, it is
impossible not to call onto the stage to one of the main ideas of revolutionary influence which
Chomsky has imposed. This new idea has direct relation to what is widely known as Competence
and Performance to complete different and novel notions.
According to Oller (2008) in Biological Theory 3, the goals that Chomsky pursues at
dividing competence and performance exist due to two different reasons:
to focus attention on the knowledge of speakers of natural languages about the
well-formedness and grammaticality of possible utterances in those languages,
and (2) to provide a justification for directing attention away from the how of
language, the biological capabilities that make it possible to implement
knowledge in speaking and understanding languages 9 . (p.344)
Consequently, by doing it Chomsky is able to provide linguistics with a great range of
information and background about the structural domain of language.
As a preview of competence vs. performance it is of remarkable help to take the
distinctions properly provided by Chomsky (1965) who indicates that competence can be
described as the speaker-hearers knowledge of his language, whereas performance is defined
as the actual use of language in concrete situations.
Taking into account and relating the previous concept of I-language onto Competence, it
is really foreseeable the close relation that they have. It is Chomsky himself (2008) who says that
I-language is some element of the mind of the person who knows the language, acquired by the
learner, and used by the speaker-hearer. At the same time and in other words this element
constitutes the knowledge that the speaker-hearer has about the language. Therefore, it is in
deep what Competence is. As a further essential quality, though applied to the acquisition of a
Oller, K. (2008). Noam Chomskys Role in Biological Theory: A Mixed Legacy. Biological Theory, 3(4), 344-350. p.344
| 21
language, it is affirmed that Competence is the key element that helps children to acquire a
language while it maximizes creativity.
The most striking aspect of linguistic competence is what we may call the
'creativity of language,' that is, the speaker's ability to produce new sentences,
sentences that are immediately understood by other speakers although they bear
no physical resemblance to sentences which are 'familiar10 . (p.11)
Moreover, it is possible to find Performance as the different but the necessary
complement that Competence needs. It means that Performance could be considered as the means
by which Competence displays all the knowledge about the language into the actual utterance. In
other words, performance becomes a sort of slide in which competence is projected. Maintaining
the focus on language acquisition, the importance of performance would never be insignificant
because:
the problem for the linguist, as well as for the child learning the language, is to
determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules [i.e.
competence] that has been mastered by the speaker-hearer and that he puts to
use in actual performance 11 . (p.4)
This also signifies that production is quite relevant since the performance of the
surrounding context (the other hearer-speakers) will make it possible to start building the
language of the mother tongue.
1.2.4 The contribution of language processing recognition
After having scrutinized different aspects of language and its respective acquisition, it
becomes an obligation to deal with the topic of how prescriptive grammar has ignored the
existence and importance of parsing and production. Firstly, since they are really committed to
the issue of establishing rules to describe and make grammar more concrete, it could have been
foreseeable the situation in which the process of language, perception and production, are
completely hidden. Hardly ever had they been appraised before; however, both have relevancy in
10
11
Chomsky, N. (2008a). Topics in the theory of generative grammar. M outon De Gruyter. p.11
| 22
the inner work of language (brain), yet both of them are considered to be really obscure and
complex processes.
In Knowledge of Language Chomsky (2008c) states the perception problem would be
dealt with by construction of a parser that incorporates the rules of the I-language along with
other elements: a certain organization of memory and access [...]The production problem is
considerably more obscure12 .
With the pass of time, different thoughts were added, as appraisals emerged from the
analysis of the perception problem. As he established, the difference in this application is that in
UG the perception system is not underlined by a tapestry of rules; they are based on lexical
properties and principles of UG that determine structure from them13 .
In the experimental and empiric side of the topic, it would be helpful to give as an
example that children can recognize (perceive) adult grammar perfectly, however they are not
able to reproduce it identically. It should be advisable to add that both perception and production
are fed by the same grammar, being therefore completely different.
Eventually, the actual change or development in language approaches inside acquisition
matters has given a strong importance to these two different skills, but mainly about parsing
mechanisms which make reference to the question about how children process the input.
1.3 Language Acquisition

When referring to language acquisition it is quite important to set the difference from the
development of the language. Acquisition deals with acquiring a certain instrument while
development is the use given to such instrument through ability. For a long time language
acquisition was considered to be complete by the age of seven, more or less. Nevertheless, the
language will be constantly developing along the life of a person. In this field of research, there
are two main interrelated areas affecting the performance of language. On one side psychology
focuses on the use of language by different individuals and on the other side, linguistics is based
12
13
Ibid. p.151
| 23
on the study of such language. This implies that the study of language acquisition considers not
only the use of language, but also the stages of the development of human beings and their
relation with their environment. The role of interaction is crucial to set the basis of language
which is inherited culturally and biologically in every human being and community.
1.3.1 The Language Acquisition Device
Theories about first language acquisition based on repetition did not satisfy linguists, due
to the lack of explanation on issues related to observed phenomenon in the development of
language. The fact that children spontaneously produce regular, though non-existent, forms of
sentences (hence, these forms do not exist on adults production of language) contradict the idea
of repetition, imitation and reinforcement of what is heard, that is to say, children would learn
linguistic forms by a process of analogy with other forms. Nevertheless, investigations
demonstrate that children are not able to acquire a language based on this process of analogy. The
limitation of such process would not permit the great creativity given by language, even less, its
richness and complexity. Moreover, this fact suggests the existence of an innate grammar
capability. As an explanation, Chomsky formulates the concept of the Language Acquisition
Device (LAD) through the theory of generativism, by conceiving the human mind as a set of
independent faculties or capabilities among them. Through this device, speakers access to
knowledge and use of language by means of UG. The linguistic principles containing a UG do
not operate in other aspects of the human mind and language acquisition differs from other
abilities as logic thinking, for instance. In order to acquire a language children need a certain
amount of input as well as some elements that permit to process the data they are exposed to.
Having some knowledge of the characteristics of the acquired grammars and
the limitations on the available data, we can formulate quite reasonable and
fairly strong empirical hypotheses regarding the internal structure of the
language-acquisition device that constructs the postulated grammars from the
given data14 . (p.113)
Chomsky presents LAD as a whole system of universal rules, pertaining to the content of
a language which is fixed by means of input. It is a complex process that has been very hard to
demonstrate, however, the theory of Generativism has proved to be very strong and consistent.
14
Chomsky, N. (2006). Language and mind. Harcourt, Brace & World. p.113
| 24
1.3.2 The Modular Theory
The classic cognitive psychology considers that the mind is an active system that captures,
represents, storages and processes information. A polemic issue, though, is if process mechanisms
are essentially the same in every mental activity, considering every aspect of these activities such
as language, perception, memory, or problem solving, among others, as a possessor of
representative forms and rules of transformation while processing personal representations by
encapsulating subsystems. The modular theory presents this statement as a module subsystem.
According to this theory, the human mind is formed by a set of specialized modules
which consider diverse memories or multiple intelligences that are not isolated and which
function interacting with each other, receiving the proper feedback.
It was Jerry Fodor (1989)
who set the concept of modular mind so as to explain the processes of perception and cognition,
stating that in these fields the human mind would work as a set of modules in charge of different
assignments. Information is to be stored in connections or neuronal circuits, being the physical
base of these mental modules. The mental plasticity contributes with the main requirement of
mental-brain modularity, due to it admits genetic circuits and the ones created by the processes
of learning. From this perspective, learning generates structural modifications of the brain in the
process of producing new functional circuits.
The human mind has been constructed with specialized parts that, due to evolution, have
solved specialized problems. Every mental module contains its own and autonomous design that
makes it an expert in a concrete scope of relation with its environment. A module is alike to a
mental organ with similar functions to those of body organs that are specialized in particular
functions (one organ breathes, other one beats or digests, etc.) According to this, the mind counts
with heterogeneous structure forms with many different and specialized parts. Applying this
theory to generativism, it can be considered that Universal Grammar functions as one
independent module, due to it manages the language faculty.
Human beings possess neural systems prepared for language, a sort of linguistic organ
gifted with an innate competence in the linguistic domain that allows, through interaction with
the context of a concrete language, to display the proper knowledge on that language,
comprehending and producing infinite and correct grammar expressions. Only from this innate
grammatical competence that counts with limited principles that are later implemented according
| 25
to unlimited sociocultural parameters, is that the poverty of stimulus and limitations received by
children can be understood as a valid process for language acquisition. In order to obtain certain
linguistic functions, this innate programing is needed. The modular theory of mind proposes
predispositions or innate structures for language, in other words, a specific and specialized
system of language acquisition. These dispositions make the linguistic information process
possible and restricted in terms of attention, representation, elaboration and response to linguistic
stimuli.
1.4 Early grammar: early stages

Children start acquiring a first language from the moment they come to life. It is widely
known that human beings at a very early stage of childhood (0 18 months) present paramount
evidences that clarify the way in which they easily acquire a first language, without the guidance
or advice of formal teaching. First of all, it is important to state that perception plays a highly
important role in this complex process. It is quite probable that children are brilliant firstly at
perception rather than production. This statement can be sustained after some experiments which
indicate that babies are capable of understanding what they are hearing, which at the same time
demonstrates that children begin the process of phonological input just after birth. Since such
sophisticated speech perception is possible for very young children, it suggests that the ability is
innate15 . On the other hand, it explains that while children develop themselves inside the
context of language, it is clear that there is also a development of a pre-established set of rules
(grammar), sounds of speech (phonemes) and meaning (semantics) as a part of the process of
interaction. The holophrastic stage, which is also known as the one-word stage or pre syntactic
stage, occurs between the ages of 1 year and 18 months, making reference to the period in which
children learn how to domain their speech organs so as to produce new sounds while interacting
with the outward worlds elements. One of the main characteristics in relation to this important
period is the over-generalization or the representation of a complex idea with the utterance of just
one word due to an imminent lack of vocabulary. For example the word dada could easily mean
where is daddy?, I want daddy, etc., which at the same time indicates that all these single words
15
Foster, S. (1990). The Communicative Competence of Young Children. A Modular Approach. Longman. p.14
| 26
incorporate communicative functions of whole more complex sentences. It is also established the
following:
Holophrases reveal that a vast amount of neuro-physiological and conceptual
development has taken place in the child by the end of the first year of life.
During the holophrastic stage, in fact, children can name objects, express
actions or the desire to carry out actions, and transmit emotional states rather
effectively16 . (p.18)
Another very particular and noticeable characteristic is the hard pronunciation of some
consonants. In addition to this, according to Radford (2004) all the words pronounced by children
at this stage are considered to have semantic and grammatical qualities, but under no
circumstances could they be considered with syntactic property due to they belong to the second
period which is better known as the Two-word stage.
The Two-word stage is mainly characterized by the association of two words together,
approximately starting at the age of 20 months and proportioning outstanding evidence about the
transition when utterances become more complex. The complexity makes reference to the
addition of a few amounts of new morphemes or new words among other grammatical elements,
that is to say, the transition from holophrases to a more slightly complex argument which gives
signs that early grammar construction has begun. At the same time, this fully abstract argument
constructions while speaking, represents the first attempt to use syntactical structures of the
language being acquired. Nevertheless, one of the main features of this stage is the simplicity in
comparison to the adult speech. A clear example in relation to this important stage is the omission
of function words, or inflections such as ing, s, ed which consequently indicate that children are
being systematic through all the process of language acquisition, denying the supposition that
children are merely copying what they hear. The last statement can be simply supported by the
fact that there is no sense to reproduce (or to copy) from the very beginning certain morphemes
such as inflections, ing endings or -s when talking in third person singular or plural, if this is the
real input they receive. Therefore, this firmly means that the acquisition of a particular language
can be considered as a systematical process in which the morphemes and the grammatical
elements, as well as the syntax, will be acquired by the passing of time through practice and
16
Cruttenden (1974). Quoted in: Danesi, M . (2003). Second Language Teaching: A View from the Right Side of the Brain. Kluwer
Academic Publishers. p.18
| 27
exposure to the language; in other words, step by step. Finally, according to these two stages it
can be assumed that the latter has more relevance in the field of linguistics due to the importance
which is adhered to it since language begins in this stage.
1.4.1 Experiments: The difficulty and the need of logic
There are some experiments carried out by Carol Chomsky that are related to the stages
that children normally experience so as to acquire a language; consequently, from these
experiments some consensus or parameters related to universal processes of language acquisition
were established. It is quite necessary to state that it is not a complicated task to fix experiments
on child linguistic research, due to several assumptions that have to be pre-established
beforehand. Some of these events make reference to the logic that is needed so as to apply an
experiment, being one of the assumptions related to pragmatic competence. It is widely known
that pragmatic competence may differ completely among children and adults, mainly for the
reason that children do not domain any background about language as an adult does. A clear
example of this is the fact that adults can easily speak about abstract topics related to linguistics,
for instance, managing notions related to certain concepts and levels of comprehension, reflection
and analysis, while children are not able to comprehend the same elements.
One of the experiments executed by Chomsky (1969), which provides researchers with
formidable information about the way in which children organize language acquisition, was done
with children aged from 5 to 10 years old in the decade of 1960 with the main purpose of
observing until what age semantic awareness was developed, in relation to the deep-structure. For
this experiment one particular sentence was presented in a particular situation:
a.
The doll is easy to see.
So as to apply the experiment, a blind-folded doll was placed in front of each child and
then a question was asked to them: Is the doll hard to see or easy to see? The idea behind this
question was to make the child choose among two different possible interpretations:
1.
That an external entity is seeing the doll; or,
2.
That the doll is performing the action of seeing.
| 28
The correct interpretation for this experiment was number one (an external person is
seeing the doll). As a matter of fact, the answer easy to see has relation with the correct
interpretation, while the answer hard to see represented the second interpretation (the doll is
trying to see). This experiment presents clear results. Children, aged 9, answered the question
correctly, whereas children aged 5 years old performed incorrectly. In other words, it indicates
that children at the age of 5 were more sensitive to follow grammatical patterns without checking
the meaning or coherence of the deep structure. Eventually, children do not copy what adults
utter, on the contrary they keep developing themselves gradually, stage by stage.
1.5 Platos problem

Grammar competence of native speakers consists on a capacity whose best strategy is
related to resemblance rather than imitation. Chomsky presented the impossibility of giving a
certain account about the knowledge of language in terms of correlation. The superficial
similarity between different sentences does not appear to present much utility to the speaker in
the development of oral skills. The knowledge of language in relation to the properties of a
message cannot be reduced to something that comes from pure contemplation and comparison,
that is to say, by simple evaluation of analogies. There are many important grammar properties
that cannot be discovered and enunciated if a superficial analysis is made: in fact, complex
theoretical mechanisms of description are the ones to be applied, by which those fundamental
implicit properties can be made explicit.
The principles that scientists are trying to discover are already intuitively known by the
child, unconsciously and beyond any possibility of conscious introspection. Chomsky opposes
evidences that demonstrate what speakers know as a linguistic chant due to the input received by
experience. His proposals are interpreted as a renovation of a rationalist approach, in which the
consideration of the individuals mind prevails over the one of the environment in which it is
developed. This is based on the ordinary practice of language so as to justify the prevalence of
the knowledge the speaker counts with, overcoming the manifested properties in languages.
Many of the properties of messages are attributed by the speakers lack of expression in the
message itself. This idea constitutes a main aspect that Chomsky nominated as the argument of
the poverty of stimulus.
| 29
Stimuli are poor in a sense that they do not formally present many of the qualities that
speakers transmit on them. In a much essential aspect, by evaluating the process of an individual
language development, Chomsky highlights the uniformity of the process in the required time as
a succession of phases, implying a remarkable independence related to a concrete stimulus
received by a child with the capacity of pulling him/herself together from an impoverished
environment.
Stimuli might be poor due to scarcity, although it does not imply major unbalances among
speakers. In this sense, Chomsky points as highly meaningful some types of circumstances
influenced by contemporaneous psychology and linguistics as the cases of perceptive deprivation
like blindness during the period of the acquisition of a first language.
The results of researches in this area are synthesized by Chomsky in the following way:
Blind children suffer serious deprivation of experience, but their language
faculty develops in a normal way. They even exhibit a remarkable capacity to use
the visual vocabulary (such terms as stare, gaze, and watch) in much the
way that people with normal vision do. There are cases of people who have
acquired the nuances and complexities of normal language, to a remarkable
degree of sophistication, though they have been both blind and deaf from early
childhood, from under two years old in some cases, a time when they were able
to speak only a few words; their access to language is limited to the data they
can obtain by placing their hand on the face of a speaking person. Such
examples illustrate that very limited data suffice so for the language faculty of
mind/brain to provide a rich and complex language, with much of the detail and
refinement of the language of people not similarly deprived17 . (p.39)
According to Chomsky, the human mind provides every person with the categories or
notions that his/her own perceptive deprivation prevents him/her to extract from experience. It is
a clear piece of evidence that supports the theory related to generativism, whose essence is based
on the poverty of stimuli. Language acquisition is a personal accomplishment of the child that
performs a certain language. Chomsky establishes an inverse relation between the childs
motivation and effort, on one side, and the adult, on the other, which may be aimed to the task of
17
Chomsky, N. (1996). Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures. M IT Press. p.39
| 30
language acquisition and the progression given so as to appreciate both. In other words, it could
be said that children acquire language almost as a burden; not in a sense of resistance to the
process, but in the measure that elements such as will, dedication and effort are irrelevant for
them.
Every proposed aspect shapes the form of what Chomsky denominates the Platos
problem, which can be formulated from questioning How comes it that human beings, whose
contacts with the world are brief and personal and limited, are able to know as much as they do
know?18 .
1.6 Universal Grammar

The most important aspect of Chomsky`s theory of language acquisition refers to
Universal Grammar (UG) which could be defined as a set of principles, rules and conditions that
all languages share, something that does not mean that all languages are the same, though they
share some common patterns. This implies the idea that all human beings acquire any language
naturally, due to counting with this UG.
This capability inherent to the human species and independent from other capabilities is
manifested
through a universal knowledge about the common properties and
specific
characteristics of all languages. The process of acquiring a language consists of applying

universal principles and identifying the proper value of each language parameter.
From the publication of Syntactic structures (1957;2002) which presents the beginning of
generativism,
Noam Chomsky has reformulated
this theory in several occasions, after
experimenting, failing and reformulating. Conclusions explain that speakers acquire language in a
relatively short period of time and regularly, overcoming the deficiencies that are received
through input. Such insufficiency of input is presented due to the fact that it contains proper
elements of linguistic performance (false principles, errors, non-grammatical expressions, etc.)
that obstruct acquisition and, on the other hand, the fact that it does not provide information about
the deficiency character of such performance, something that prevents the individual from
identifying grammar elements. The proposal of Chomsky is that the use of UG allows the person
18
Chomsky, N. (1996). Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures. M IT Press. p.3
| 31
to select input adequately and learn particular rules of a particular language, that is to say,
children are born with a certain amount of genetic information that allows the discovery of inner
structures of language that are present in a given context so as to analyze, differentiate and
appropriate them for an accurate use.
UG [universal grammar] may be regarded as a characterization of the
genetically determined language faculty. One may think of this faculty as a
'language acquisition device,' an innate component of the human mind that yields
a particular language through interaction with present experience, a device that
converts experience into a system of knowledge attained: knowledge of one or
another language19 . (p.3)
1.6.1 UG and its role in L1 acquisition
After having mentioned and scrutinized sundry intrinsic characteristics and factors to L1,
it is time to refer to the most outstanding matter about UG, which makes reference to the innate
prior knowledge that human beings have about the language; that is to say, if there is a human
faculty to acquire a particular language, UG is inherent to it.
Lydia White (2003) better described in her book Second Language Acquisition and
Universal grammar, based on the Chomskian theory, UG provides a genetic blueprint,
determining in advance what grammars can (and cannot) be like. In this way UG serves as a
steady base where the first language speaker starts to construct his process of language
acquisition. A further idea about UG is that it provides the person with all grammar possibilities
and
characteristics; not only including syntax or semantics, but also phonological and
morphological features. According to the Chomskian theory, UG comes to constrain the diversity
of grammars and the way in which they work, by establishing the kinds of operation that can
take place, as well as principles that grammars are subject to 20 .
On the one hand, it must be compatible with the diversity of existing (indeed
possible) grammars. At the same time, UG must be sufficiently constrained and
restrictive in the options it permits so as to account for the fact that each of these
19
20
White, L. (2003). Second language acquisition and universal grammar. Cambridge University Press. p.2
| 32
grammars develops in the mind on the basis of quite limited evidence... [i.e. the
logical problem]. What we expect to find, then, is a highly structured theory of
UG based on a number of fundamental principles that sharply restrict the class
of attainable grammars and narrowly constrain their form, but with parameters
that have to be fixed by experience21 . (pp.3-4)
Consequently, it is according to the fourth and last line of the previous quote that
reflections can infer the key detail: experience. It is experience which shapes all the principles
and parameters that later will give step to a successful speaker of the language.
In relation to UG into first language acquisition, it must be mentioned that Chomsky
explains that UG is taken to be a characterization of the child's pre-linguistic initial state22 ,
being these children the ones who provide magnificent information about what UG is. As it
represents the initial state of any child, it can be considered as a prior tool before the input
provided by the context. The context and the information or data presented is crucial to give
shape (defined or determined) to the particular grammar the future speaker is going to take. The
person acquiring it, that is, the one gathering information about grammar as well as lexicon, is
intrinsically involved by the parameters that vary from language to language under certain limits.
It is then, and with the passing of time (by exposure and experience) that grammar will be
arranged and re-arranged until the child becomes steady and proficient in the use of their mother
tongue. To illustrate this, the following schema is to be considered:
Figure 2: Model of L1 Acquisition
Source: White, L. (2003). Second language acquisition and universal grammar. (p.3). Cambridge University Press.
21
22
Chomsky, N. (2008d). Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures. M outon De Gruyter. pp.3-4
Ibid. p.7
| 33
The figure above explains the process of language acquisition, presenting the role that UG
has in it. According to White (2003) Primary Linguistic Data represents the first input the child
receives by exposure to the context. On the other hand, it is easy to clarify how this PLD is
directly and strongly influencing the childs initial state (So ) or UG when he is about to begin the
language acquisition process. In this scheme the way in which grammars are acquired as a
consequence of the L1 can be appreciated. The different types of grammar (G1 , G2 , Gn ) are
constantly evolving through time until they reach an acceptable level of grammar competence.
Through this process, the mother tongue (Ss) is formed.
1.6.1.1 An overview to principles and parameters
The Structure Dependency accounts that language is more an intercourse of phrases and
constructs, rather than mere isolated words. A construct considers the following sentence: The
student wrote a letter, a sentence formed by a noun phrase (the student), and a verb phrase in
which a verb and a noun phrase again (an elephant) are to be found. The diagram below explains
this construct clearly.
SENTENCE
Figure 3: Phrase Structure
Noun Phrase (the student)

Verb (wrote)
Verb Phrase
Noun Phrase (a letter)
At the same time, all phrases that create a construct or sentence (S) can be broken up into
smaller pieces. If the first Noun Phrase is taken into account, it can be observed that: The student,
is composed by a determiner (The) and a noun (student), whereas it occurs the same with the
second Noun Phrase, a letter, which is within the Verb Phrase. The Verb Phrase is composed by
the verb wrote. See the following figure:
| 34
Figure 4: Smaller constituents of the Phrase Structure

Determiner
The
Noun
student
SENTENCE
Noun Phrase
wrote
Verb
Verb Phrase
Determiner
Noun
letter
Noun Phrase
1.6.1.2 Structure dependency principle in relation to passive and active voice

The principle of Structure Dependency is highly concerned with the fact that the root of
all passive sentences derives from its opposite side, the active voice.
See the following passive sentence:
The student was expelled by the headmaster.
The root of this passive sentence in active voice is presented as:
The headmaster expelled the student.
Having taken both sentences as examples, it is highly important to observe certain
considerations. Firstly, the object of the passive voice (the headmaster) becomes the subject in
the active voice. On the other hand, with the addition of a preposition (by), it is not hard to
appreciate how the subject of the active sentence (the headmaster) is taken to the back of the
passive sentence, transforming the sentence into a Prepositional Phrase (PP). Focusing on the
verbal transformation, it is important to mention that the main verb of the active sentence
(expelled) contemplates a transformation into was expelled.
It is worth to mention a relevant aspect which makes reference to the recent topic of
structure dependency, related to Language Faculty and UG. Little could be really appreciated, but
it is outstanding how the movement of words occurs while speaking, changing the right element
correctly and efficiently. It is due to this reason that structure dependency is considered to be a
| 35
universal principle. The secret behind this perfect movement stems from the issue that language
is a system of a structural intercourse of sentences, and not lineal sentences. As grammatical
transformations are necessarily structure dependent, in that they manipulate substrings only in
terms of their assignment to categories23 , it can be stated with certainty that there is no language
that may present the opposite to structure dependency.
On the other hand, parameters belong to a higher principle that makes it possible to
explain a complex linguistic system, avoiding the explanation of a long list of rules. In simple
words, it means that parameters reduce the intricate acquisition in a way that as an alternative of
learning a long list of rules, the child just makes the discovery of the appropriate parameter, being
the syntactic knowledge acquired systematically later. What is more, parameters allow cross
linguistic variations or parametric dissimilarities.
To name a current example of parametric dissimilarities from language to language, some
functional categories have been chosen. Components of the functional category make reference to
the tense, number and gender, person, etc., and some of the components are complementizer,
negation, inflections, and determiners among several others.
Therefore, White indicates (2003) that there are three different variations as potential
sources across languages:
Japanese has no determiners.
There are different patterns in strength. E.g. in English the inflections are weak, whereas,
in French they are strong.
French has gender while English lacks it.
In summary, these kinds of parametric differences across languages are neither exclusive
nor unique; there are many other parameters as well such as word-order alternations among
languages like French, Japanese, English and Spanish. It is worth to mention the relevance that
principles (abstract rules) and parameters (switches, word order, etc.) have on second language
acquisition, and also in the general inside of UG as a way to serve the inherent needs of the child
in the process of acquisition.
23
| 36
II.
Second Language Acquisition
Through the following chapter an analysis is presented about the study and relation of the
processes of language acquisition to acquire a second language (L2), considering common
elements of connection that may ease the way of teaching. In order to approach this topic, some
characteristics of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) will be revised so as to understand in deep
what this process is about.
Not only do we refer to concrete elements of language, but also to relevant factors as the
age at which second language is acquired due to a determinant difference in learning while being
a child or an adult. This relevant aspect influences the methodologies applied by teachers so as to
obtain a better advantage in the educational field, being an essential tool for those who are not
immersed in a certain linguistic context. Henceforth, this chapter presents a globalized vision of
the processes of acquisition and the importance of its study so as to generate a practical
knowledge for the L2 teaching.
| 37
If the process of SLA occurs naturally or not, it will be later scrutinized in the following
pages. Foreign languages should be assimilated and developed gradually, in a natural way, in real
communicative situations as a result of the human coexistence in an authentic environment of the
foreign culture. Real SLA does not occur from one day to another; in fact it is a very slow
process in which the speaking ability arises after developing the listening skill for some time due
to the fact that a language can only be acquired when messages are first understood, something
that does not require the conscious use of grammar rules, nor continuous repetition. Therefore,
the best methods are those that contribute with comprehensible messages in a comfortable
environment, so as to engage the person acquiring an L2. Such methodologies do not necessarily
force early productive skills, but allow acquirers to produce as much as they are able to do. It is
recognized as well that improvement is developed through appropriate, comprehensible and
natural input, without the need of correcting mistakes or forcing the use of language. These ideas
of SLA are to be developed through this chapter.
Even though the issue of SLA had a major relevance into the realm of the educational area
during decades, it was not until the 1970s that it became an independent field inside linguistics
matters. It was in ensuing decades that SLA became to be the phenomenon that people actually
know, with the determining influence of different theories and empirical studies. Consequently, it
is a must not only to explain in the following pages how the approaches towards SLA were
changing over the time, but also how relevant some aspects within SLA are. Moreover, it will be
also intended to explain which is the influence that UG has in SLA, so as to know if UG has any
sort of implication in the interlanguage or not.
2.1 SLA theories along time

Learning a second language has been considered as a hard realm to deal with and as it has
attracted the attention of linguists around the world for long decades, it cannot be considered as a
new issue. Notwithstanding, the transformation of second language learning into second language
acquisition, as an independent branch of linguistics, can be clearly considered new. It occurs
because along time second language acquisition has been in strong relation with the formal
teaching of a language. As a result the approach given to SLA was more pedagogical, being the
objective to look for effective methods to teach a foreign language.
| 38
It is mandatory to clearly define important concepts commonly used in this topic,

differentiating
acquisition
from learning.
The
term acquisition can be defined
as the
internalization of rules and formulates that are used in the communication of a foreign language
or L2. Nevertheless, Krashen (2002) explains that acquisition consists on a spontaneous process
of internalization of rules as the result of the natural use of this language, while learning consists
on the development of conscious knowledge of L2 through formal study. Both concepts may be
related to language approaches. While behaviorism utilizes learning, generativism prefers the
concept of acquisition, giving in that way its conception of language itself.
Firstly, in the very beginning there was a great intent to solve the inquiry of second
language acquisition. From these attempts, a scientific approach presented the theory of
Contrastive Analysis in which acquisition was based on the process of imitation and
reinforcement. Contrastive Analysis was supported by psychology (through behaviorism) and
linguistics (structuralism). Indeed, the Contrastive Analysis main role was to systematically
compare the two languages, L1 and L2, so as to detect the problematic areas in language learning.
In that way learners would make the transfer from the prior knowledge of L1 to the second
language. Therefore, the role and importance played by the first language in the Contrastive
Analysis is crucial. Two concepts derived from the scientific approach of Contrastive Analysis:
positive transfer and negative transfer.
On one hand, the positive transfer, which makes reference to the similarities among the
two languages, mentions that individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the
distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language
and culture24 .
On the contrary, in the negative transfer,
the student who comes in contact with a foreign language will find some
features of it quite easy and others extremely difficult. Those elements that are
similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are
different will be difficult25 . (p.2)
24
Lado, R. (2008). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. (Digitized ed.). University of M ichigan
Press. p.2
25
Loc. cit.
| 39
When referring to others extremely difficult it makes reference to the negative transfer.
However, the Contrastive approach could hardly last long due to several critiques and
questionings coming from Chomsky and its hard strike on Skinners behaviorism (1959). Even
more, there were a series of negative evidences such as its lack for empirical proof, or the
experimental fact presented by Weiberger and Newmeyer (1988) that consisted of many cases in
which the positive transfer could never be appreciated. As a result of all this attack against the
Contrastive Analysis, there was an invalidation of it. Subsequently in the 1970s a new approach,
which became the paragon of linguistics, emerged due to the refusal against Contrastive Analysis.
It is called the Creative Construction. It considers second language acquisition as a creative
process which, through general functions of cognition, is able to play the most important role in
SLA.
In this new approach the acquirers use all their cognitive abilities; language acquisition
according to Selinker (2006) is divided into interlanguages (also known as transitional
structures). Also, as stated by Dulay and Burt (1974), exploratory evidences have shown that
there are similar patterns of acquisition among children, including the kind of errors produced by
them; which all together provide a strong indication that universal cognitive mechanisms are
the basis for the child's organization of a target language 26 . With the path of the time, linguists
applied this concept into the field of language acquisition in adults. The results of ensuing
experiments to validate the appliance of Creative Construct into the adults field were shown by
Bailey, Krashen and Madden in 1974. They were able to indicate that between children and
adults there are relevant analogies such as the way in which they process the input data.
However, the Creative Construct did not last long either. Different critiques were
presented, indicating that the nature of the deep principles argued to determine L2 acquisition
are never specified27 .
Another prior critique provided from Flynn (1987) stated that the way in which this
empirical work is conducted is not correct due to the deep-rooted traditional base on
structuralism, just focused on surface structure properties of language, leaving aside deep
structures, functions and other elements of language.
26
27
Dulay, H. & Burt, M . (1974). Natural Sequences in Child Second Language Acquisition. Language Learning. 24(1), 37-53. p.52
Flynn, S. & O'Neil, W. (1988). "Introduction". Linguistic Theory in Second Language Acquisition. Flynn, Suzanne and Wayne
O'Neil eds. p.6
| 40
So as to present the importance of Universal Grammar into the field of second language
acquisition, it can be stated that it has incredibly grown with the path of the time. According to
this issue, several guidelines were established so as to present any theory of second language
acquisition. Some of the aspects of it are that:
This must serve linguistic and psychological purposes.
It must include the constructive creative element of the Creative Construction theory.
It must also take into account the experience and its influence in the process of second
language acquisition.
The following chart aims to show all the most outstanding attempts to set up a conforming
theory concerning the realm of second language acquisition.
Figure 5: Theories of Second Language Acquisition

Contrastive
Analysis based on
structuralism and
behaviorism,
(1950s).
Creative
Construction
Theory based on
cognitive
functions, (1970s).
Monitor Theory
based on learning
and experience,
(1980s).
It is not until the 70s that 2LA studies and researchers became clearly independent from pedagogical
matters or methodologies to teach a second language.
2.2 What is Second Language knowledge?

The knowledge of the language may vary in concordance with the factor of age. In
contrast to children, adults already have the possession of a developed grammar which is
provided by the mother tongue and therefore a certain maturity must be achieved in terms of
cognitive functions. A logical difference provided by the studies of first and second language
acquisition is that children and adults both highly differ in relation to the initial and final state,
focusing mainly on the impossibility of reaching the same steady state (proficiency), obtained
in the first language acquisition and in the SLA. A further characteristic in the knowledge of the
SLA is that the phenomenon of fossilization occurs as it is stated below:
| 41
Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules, and subsystems

which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL relative to a
particular TL [i.e. target language], no matter what the age of the learner or
amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the TL 28 . (p.488)
Even though the causes of fossilization are not defined given the experience, it can be said
that the role of motivation and the quality of the input received are highly significant and
determinant. It is important to know that fossilization is the factor that may stop the normal
development of the acquisition, which in other words means that the development will not be
able to continue any further.
On the other hand, in reference to the final states of L1 and SLA, it is impossible to
determine the role of UG just by considering the differences among them.
The argumentation to support such a conclusion must precisely demonstrate
that UG does not constrain an adult learner's hypotheses about the new target
grammar and not simply that the end-states attained differ between adults and
children29 . (p.134)
In connection to UG, the studies about second language acquisition are interested only in
those structures which will then serve as an evidence of language knowledge. An engrossing fact
in these studies is to look whether SLA may represent any universal principle like structure
dependence. Now in fact, the knowledge of a language is extremely urgent and it can be mainly
characterized by the linguistic competence which, in other words, is the internalized mental
grammar of native speakers that will interact with other factors such as pragmatism, social rules,
processing systems, and so forth.
Therefore, it would be properly to say that language use by an L2 learner will not only
reflect the currently internalized competence, the ILG, but will also reflect performance variables
which are not part of the competence, although they may interact with it 30 .
28
Long, M . H. (2008). Stabilization and Fossilization in Interlanguage Development. In The Handbook of Second Language
Acquisition. C. Doughty and M . Long eds. Blackwell.
29
Flynn, S. & M anuel, S. (1991). "Age-Dependent Effects in Language Acquisition: an Evaluation of 'Critical Period'
Hypotheses". Point counterpoint - Universal Grammar in the Second Language. Eubank, Lynn ed. John Benjamin Publishing
Company. p.134
30
White, L. (1989a). Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p.36
| 42
Even though the dichotomy of competence vs. performance has not been clear, neither
coherent, UG still differentiates the concepts of competence and performance; a further advanced
idea is the Heterogeneous Competence Model which is a combined concept of communicative
and pragmatic competence, supported by the fact that adult learners of a second language will use
their already developed pragmatic skills. In this realm the importance is found mainly in the
deep-structure, leaving aside the surface-structure.
2.2.1 Language universals in SLA
Within L1 acquisition a system that helps the Primary Linguistic Data can be found,
leading to hypothesize that there is one which also exists for L2. Even though, there is a big
acceptance of UG, it also happens to be part of L2 acquisition.
Under the considerations of the typological approach, UG is not a static set of principles,
but rather relational and diachronic 31 , adding that SLA will be in relation with other dynamic
factors such as:
the varying social conditions under which second language acquisition takes
place, the accidental facts of individual experience, and other variables mean
that the process is not one of mechanical application of principles to clearly
analyzable situations, but rather the disentangling of a complex web of
simultaneously acting causal factors 32 . (p.41)
Notwithstanding, there is a final fact that affects directly the last state of the L2 acquirers
due to the reason that they will not be able to reach a native speakers level of language by not
being able to go any further.
2.2.2 Markedness and language transfer in SLA
Markedness has demonstrated to be a significant theory in both, L1 and L2 acquisition
due to different aspects that can be grasped from it. It is known that in grammar there are certain
categories that are more marked (complex) than the rest, considering then as basic categories. On
the one hand, marked categories belong to a particular language which are also undetermined by
31
Greenberg, J. (1991). "Typology/Universals and Second Language Acquisition". Crosscurrents. Hbner, T. John Benjamin
Publication Company. p.41
32
Loc. cit.
| 43
certain factors.
On the other hand, less marked groups are more general and more common.
According to this fact, there are two different perspectives or approaches adhered to the
typological and the transformational ones. Within the typological approach, it is implausible not
to refer to the implicational universals, whose author was Joseph Greenberg (1991). The
implicational approach or universals consists of a large variety of properties of language which
are underdetermined by certain principles. Apart from this, the transformational approach is
strongly supported by Noam Chomsky. As he supports for the innateness, he mentions that there
must exist principles which are also inherent in relation to UG. Consequently, each existing
grammar can be split into core (less marked) and periphery (more marked); therefore, the latter
means to be outside the core of each particular language and in relation to SLA, the core
grammar is easier to learn that periphery grammar.
Therefore, following the generative or transformational theory, it can be said that core
grammar represents the complete SET of principles and parameters that the child must acquire
along the process, because the peripheral grammar is composed of exceptions and irregularities.
It is the core grammar provided by little experience that the components are learned from the
very beginning. On the other hand, peripheral grammar is acquired later.
In the issue of SLA, the relation between core and peripheral grammar gives step to
contrastive transfer and developmental approach33 . Liceras (2003) helped to understand the
transfer of core grammar rules over marked structures as well as the order of the acquisition.
In all cases, the assumption is that unmarked properties will somehow prev ail over
marked, that ILG will favour unmarked rules or parameter settings 34 . Furthermore, different
analysis about markedness and language transfer in the second language field have been tried to
figure out the strong relation among them. About this matter, Mazurkewich (1988) applied
empirical studies on Inuit people who were acquiring English as a second language, indicating
that L2 learners would tend to adopt mainly the unmarked equal. Inuktitut is quite different
compared to English and the question of transference in their acquisition of English does not
arise35 . The results represent that the students tend to follow the core grammar English
Gair, J. (1988). Kinds of Markedness. Linguistic Theory in Second Language Acquisition. Flynn Suzanne and Wayne O'Neil
eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
34
35
M azurkewich, I. (1988). The acquisition of infinitive and gerund complements by second language learners. Linguistic
Theory in Second Language Acquisition. Flynn, Suzanne. and Wayne O'Neil. eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.130
33
| 44
infinitive, prevailing over the gerund construction. This study, according to White (1989a)
differs crucially in that specific predictions are made in advance of the data... so that her
hypothesis is empirically testable, in contrast to the natural order hypothesis which is entirely
post hoc36 .
In reference to the language transfer Liceras (2003) makes empirical studies with strong
relation to less marked categories, indicating that second language learners are prudent in
markedness matters. Therefore, peripheral properties of L1 would be likely to be transferred
instead of marked. She finds that most Spanish L2 learners do not start with the L1 setting in
case of null subjects. Namely, the English non-pro-drop option is seldom transferred into the
interlanguage37 .
Additionally Phinney (1987;2010), in matters of SLA, mentions that L1 parameters will
be part of second language acquisition. Over and above that, she indicates that a good sign of
learning is the reset of L1 parameters in concordance with L2. As a mode of empirical evidence
to support the last idea she makes a study of English (non-pro-drop) native speakers acquiring
Spanish (pro-drop) as L2. Thus,
the cost of resetting the parameter from Spanish to English is high... [on the
other hand] the data from the English speakers learning Spanish clearly show
that the pro-drop parameter is easy to acquire, even when the L1 utilizes the
non-pro-drop setting38 . (p.234)
2.2.3 Interlanguage
Under any circumstances can Selinker (2006) be left aside if the main task is to describe
what interlanguage is. He first coined the concept of interlanguage, thus it is highly worth to
36
Liceras, J. (2003). On some properties of the 'pro-drop' parameter: looking for missing subjects in non-native Spanish.
Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Gass, S. and Schachter J. eds. (Digitized ed.). Cambridge University
Press. p.129
38
Phinney, M . (1987). The Pro-Drop Parameter in Second Language Acquisition. Parameter Setting. Roeper T. and Williams
E. eds. D. Reidel. p.234. Quoted in: Kuru-Gnen, S. (2010). Pro-Drop Parameter and L1 Transfer: A Study onTurkish Speakers
of English. M ehmet Akif Ersoy Universitesi.
37
| 45
quote his description. He defined it as: a separate linguistic system based on the observable
output which results from a learner's attempted production of a target language norm 39 .
According to the variety of interlanguage characteristics provided by its author, it can be
said that this phenomenon came out due to the interaction of the mother tongue, and that the
target language develops different rules which can bear the following properties:
Rules and properties can belong to L1
Rules and properties can belong to L1 and L2
Rules and properties may not feature neither of the two languages
These rules and properties are only characteristic of foreign and L2 speakers.
In summary, interlanguage defines SLA in terms of the role that it plays within this
process. In other words it happens because, as exposure plays an important role for the first
language acquisition development, the interlanguage grammar is crucial for the second language
acquisition process. See the following image to understand the positions of both languages and
the direct influence that they have over the interlanguage grammar.
Figure 6: Interlanguage Grammar
Referring to the influences played by L1 or L2, it is coherent to recall that grammar not
only includes syntax but also morphology, semantics, and phonological features. Therefore,
according to this last generality it can be said that the transfer of pronunciation or accent
represents a strong influence coming from the first language. A good empirical example is when
a German is heard speaking English as a second language. It will be noticeable that the accent
would be different to the one uttered by a native English speaker. On the other hand, when a
Spanish native speaker places the adjectives before the noun it can be said that his/her
39
Selinker, L. (1972). Quoted in: Lightfoot, D. (2006). Language Change and Foreign Language Teaching. The NECTFL
Review, 58. pp.37-49
| 46
interlanguage has been influenced by the L2, because its first language places the adjectives after
the noun.
2.3 Does UG underdetermine SLA development?
Since the presentation of UG is a novel concept into the matters and issues of linguistics,
the way linguists have considered language acquisition has changed. UG can be better considered
into the field of SLA as part of LAD, or even better, as an inherent element to the language
faculty, helping to explain how speakers acquire a language and how they are able to build it
even beyond the mere primary linguistic data, or the natural input. Furthermore, acquirers
intrinsically know thanks to UG where a language unit should be placed, or whether certain
constructs are possible or not, among several other questionings. The claim is that all these
inherent skills to the human faculty are not learned, since human beings are empowered with that
skill from birth.
Now, the inquiry is to know what real influence UG has into the process of second
language acquisition. As Lydia White (2003) mentioned, if it turns out that the L2 learner
acquires abstract properties that could not have been induced from the input, this is strongly
indicative that principles of UG constrain interlanguage grammars, parallel to the situation in
L1 acquisition40 . It simply means that, if acquirers are able to get subtle and abstract properties
without any indication that these were taken from the L1, neither from the L2, it can be said that
the principles of UG are also applicable or valid for second language acquisition. Consequently,
researchers concerning the matter of SLA and UG have been trying to show that acquisition
cannot be simply accomplished in a context where the L2 stimulus is highly poor, no matter the
possessed mental representation of the grammar knowledge provided by the mother tongue;
therefore, it should be UG the factor that is constraining the interlanguage grammar produced by
the interaction of the L1 and L2 (Schwartz and Sprouse 2000a). Hence, the following lines will
explain whether there is a real dependency of interlanguage on UG or not, and consequently how
L2 knowledge develops itself.
In his book Developmental Conformity Hypothesis, Sharwood Smith (1988) shows a
clear relationship between UG and SLA. In it he openly states that all stages in the development
40
| 47
of a target grammar conform to UG 41 . It did not matter if it was L1 or L2, or if there would be
always conformity towards UG since although an interlanguage grammar (ILG) differs in a
number of respects from the grammar of a native speaker, it nevertheless represents knowledge
of the language, in that it accounts for the learner's interim competence by means of an abstract
rule system42 .
On the other hand referring to the problems that can be faced like maturity as a synonym
for proficiency in the target language, it can be strictly said that grammars of interlanguage never
achieve to get the top causing nonconformity. Besides, the tenacious nonconformity is a
consequence of forces external to LAD such as impoverished input (foreign talk) or a package of
internal and affective factors [i.e. Krashen's 'affective filter'] that conspire to partially or totally
suppress the acquisitional processes 43 .
Notwithstanding,
about the nonconformity issue The (revised) Developmental
Conformity Hypothesis, states that developing grammars will tend towards conformity with UG:
while the acquisitional processes are still operative, structural non conformity will not persist 44 .
It is then a conclusive fact that the SLA process can be diverged from UG, allowing
interlanguage grammars not to define or conform UG. However, there will be always a tendency
towards UG conformity in principle. Finally, it also indicates that the main difference between
the conformity of UG in relation to L1 and interlanguage is not only in relation to the cognitive
process, but also the factor of the quality of the L2 input (or linguistic data).
2.3.1 UG in SLA
UG has been already defined as a novel concept which is part of a biological and innate
system that belongs to the language faculty. It was the fact that there is a capacity of acquiring
subtle and intrinsically properties of language (which cannot be learned) that made Chomsky
hypothesize the existence of UG. The problem stems from the fact that it is valid for first
language acquisition; therefore, the right question to elaborate would firmly be if it also occurs in
the phenomenon of second language acquisition. In other words, the ideal aim is to recognize
41
Sharwood Smith, M . (1988). "On the role of linguistic theory in explanations of second language developmental grammars".
Linguistic theory in second language acquisition. Flynn, Suzanne and Wayne O'Neil eds. p.176
42
43
44
Ibid. pp.178-179
| 48
whether the underdetermined properties of the L2 are able to make them evident in the
interlanguage, or Is it the case that L2 learners attain unconscious knowledge (a mental
representation) that goes beyond the L2 input? The UG question is: is this achieved by means of
UG?45
There are many and different considerations to take into account before stating a definite
answer for these questionings. According to White (2003) there is a real need to take into account
the nature of grammatical representations so as to know how the representation is acquired under
the issue of linguistic competence (if it is L1 or L2 acquisition). Moreover,
UG is a theory relevant to the issue of linguistic competence, i.e., a theory as to
the nature of grammatical representation, and finally that "language use by an
L2 learner will not only reflect the currently internalized competence, the ILG,
but will also reflect performance variables which are not part of the competence,
although they may interact with it 46 . (p.13)
In order to give clear evidences about this particular issue of whether UG really constrains
SLA, a serial number of principles like Subjacency, or Binding principle A, among others, have
been scrutinized. At this point if one of these principles does or does not constrain SLA it will be
the same for the rest of the principles.
Hence, the involvement of UG as a constrainer of the interlanguage will hold the
following points according to White (2003):
i. The phenomenon in question must be underdetermined by the L2 input. That
is, it must not be something that could have been acquired without recourse to
universal principles, by simple observation of the L2 input, by frequency effects,
or on the basis of instruction, analogical reasoning, etc.
ii. The phenomenon in question should work differently in the L1 and the L2. If
L2 learners show evidence of subtle and abstract knowledge, we want to
White, L. (2003). On the nature of interlanguage representation: Universal Grammar in the second language. The handbook
of second language acquisition. C. Doughty and M . Long eds. Blackwell.
46
Ibid. p.13
45
| 49
exclude, as much as possible, the possibility that such knowledge is obtained via
the L1 grammar alone. 47
Consequently, there have been long lists of concepts and implications that may be
involved in the phenomenon in question. Terms such as indirect and direct, or full access to
grammar has been coherent, but then considered as amply global. Furthermore, the considerable
dichotomy of whether it is L1 or UG the main factor constraining SLA has also been accounted.
The nature of the interlanguage representation 48 is to be considered so as to outstand evidences
about how the categories of grammar and the features are represented. This is how the final and
shaped inner problem is, whether the IL is just equivalent to L1 grammar, of L2 grammar only.
In the search of an interlanguage representation, it is a must to present some piece of
evidence of the best considered initial state of the IL (interlanguage), which is based on the L2
initial state. It is worth to mention that there are long lists with claims about the initial state:
The L1 grammar is the IL first state
UG is the proper IL first state
A grammar including just lexicon, but lacking functional categories
An uncared-for specific feature grammar is the IL initial state (it lacks particular features)
All these theories were driven to postulate themselves as the possible initial state, which
means to be the representation possessed by L2 learners (they start with it), and the representation
that will make sense of the L2 input as well, a sort of input receptor system for the L2. With this
approach, a change in the perspective becomes noticeable, however, there are researchers
postulating that the theories must fulfill the representational and developmental requirements.
Trying to understand the real nature of the grammar of the IL, UG is trying to validate itself
through its principles and parameters. The fact that the phenomenon in question belongs to the
representational outlook is the reason that gives periodical and sectional lights about the process,
but not in a continuum.
White, L. (2003). On the nature of interlanguage representation: Universal Grammar in the second language. The handbook
of second language acquisition. C. Doughty and M . Long eds. Blackwell. Ibid. pp.3-4
48
Loc. cit.
47
| 50
So as to summarize this aspect, it is necessary to refer in this sense to the Developmental

Conformity Hypothesis: All stages in the development of a target grammar conform to UG 49 ,
that refers to the fact that all the stages of development in the whole continuum will finally shape
UG principles. For instance, the issue of fossilization would definitely not shape the principles
of UG; however,
The (revised) Developmental Conformity Hypothesis: Developing grammars
will tend towards conformity with UG: while the acquisitional processes are still
operative, structural non conformity will not persist []L2 developmental
grammars may deviate from UG in varying degrees for plausible reasons that
are not at odds with the notion of ultimate conformity 50 . (pp.178-179)
Lastly, as the last point to recall on this research about UG in SLA, is the fruitful
approach or the perspective given to it. What are interlanguage grammars like? Or, is it UG the
one in charge of answering that question? Consequently, focusing in the nature of interlanguage
rather than in the source, it will be easy to understand the nature of this phenomenon.
2.4 The role of first language in SLA

The importance of L1 influence in L2 acquisition has been an important issue of study
that many researchers have tried to explain. The investigation on the lexical level of L1
influencing L2 has received special attention in its most remarkable aspects, as well as
morphology and semantics. Moreover, some existing theories establish a positive influence of L1
in L2 due to the properties of L1, in which L1 properties will permit an accurate L2 competence.
The concept of SLA is closely related to the one of bilingualism, language acquisition and
learning of L1. In order to develop ideas clearly and concisely, it is important to distinguish the
case of bilingualism. If SLA is produced simultaneously and in the same conditions as L1
acquisition, it is difficult to establish differences among them, becoming the situation an initial
state of bilingualism, in which the mother tongue is acquired as well as the second language; the
49
50
Ibid. pp.178-179
| 51
childs immersion in a bilingual community like the family, school, society or all of them
together, makes the process of learning a second language easier.
2.4.1 Inter-linguistic Influence
Second language acquisition is a very complex phenomenon that may be considered by
many as very similar to L1 acquisition, developing language skills the same form in which
human beings do since infancy. However, there are some important differences to consider such
as the age in which an L2 is developed or the context that may be formal or informal. The most
important difference of all is the fact that for SLA to occur, an L1 is already acquired in a person.
The role of L1 in the SLA process has been very controversial. At first, L1 was
considered as the main focus for L2 learning, although it has a negative connotation. A very clear
example of this is found in the definition of one of the first terms employed to refer to this
phenomenon known as interference which is conceived as those instances of deviation from the
norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity
with more than one language 51 . This is how errors (attributed to L1 interference) were
considered negative and that should be eradicated anyhow. It was believed that it was possible to
predict areas in which people acquiring an L2 would have great difficulty and, henceforth, more
errors, constituting the main source of difficulty or facility for SLA. This fact implied that errors
were predictable based on different structures of L1 and L2. This was the beginning of the
Contrastive Analysis theory.
Nevertheless, diverse studies of Contrastive Analysis between Spanish and English
(Stockwell, R., Bowen, J., Martin, J., 2011) proved that errors could not be always predictable
under L1 influence. Similarly, it was proven that L1 influence in L2 does not necessarily create
errors, on the contrary, there were many cases in which it had a facilitating role. The
controversial concept of transfer is used to refer to this aspect: Transfer is the influence
resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other
language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired 52 . As it is presented, the
definition not only refers to L1 acquisition, but also L2 or even L3. The term transfer can be
interpreted in different ways, gaining a negative connotation for trespassing from one language to
51
52
Weinreich, U. (2008). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. Reprint, M outon and Co. p.1
Odlin, T. (2003). Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning. (Digitized ed.). Cambridge University
Press. p.27
| 52
another and being closely related to behaviorism, which refers to the transfer of habits. In order to
be concise and neutral it is better referred to as Interlinguistic Influence.
2.4.2 Models of representation of the bilingual lexicon memory
The organization of the mental lexicon becomes more complex if it is involved with more
than one language. Weinreich (2008) proposes three types of bilingualism that represent three
types of organization of the mental lexicon of a bilingual speaker: coordinate, compound and
subordinate. In the coordinate bilingualism (a) bilinguals assign a meaning to each signifier, that
is to say, there are connections of form and signification for each word of each language. In the
compound bilingualism (b) words or signs are considered as the compound of a signification with
two forms, the one of L1 and the other of L2. Finally, in the subordinate bilingualism (c) the
forms of L2 are connected to the signification of L1 through the form of L2. It is possible to
represent them as follows, being the framework the syntactical context:
Figure 7: Coordinate bilingualis m

form
Language 1
Language 2
form
framework
framework
concept
concept
Figure 8: Compound bilingualis m

Language 1
form
framework
concept
Language 2
form
framework
Figure 9: Subordinate bilingualis m

La nguage 1
fra mework
form
La nguage 2
form
concept
fra mework
Triadic M odel of M ental Lexicon. Adapted from Weinreich, U. (2008). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. Reprint,
M outon and Co.
| 53
These types of bilingualism are associated to different types of learning experiences. In a

more clear way, coordinate bilingualism is the result of an environment in which both languages
are acquired in completely different contexts; compound bilingualism, on the other hand, is the
result of language acquisition at school and home where two languages are spoken indistinctively
and subordinate bilingualism originates from L2 learning through L1.
Based on this classification, many researches have tried to establish models of
representation of the bilingual memory. Taking into account the distinction between compoundsubordinate bilingualism, Potter et al. (1984) proposes two models: one of word association
(subordinate) and other of concept mediation (compound). In these models a distinction of two
levels of lexical representation is made: the lexicon level (aspects of the form of words) and the
conceptual level (real world and words meaning knowledge). The model of word association
proposes that forms of L2 access to concepts through L1. This example uses the word flag from
English (L1) to French drapeau (L2):
Figure 11: Word Association Model
Potter, M .C., So, K.F., Von Eckardt, B. & Feldman, L. (1984). Lexical and conceptual representation in beginning and proficient
bilinguals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23(1) (p. 25). Quoted in: Bhatia, T. & Ritchie, W. (2012). The
Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism. John Wiley & Sons.
The model of concept mediation proposes that the forms of L1 and L2 have independent
access to a common conceptual representation, to which images have access as well.
| 54
Figure 12: Concept Mediation Model
Potter, M .C., So, K.F., Von Eckardt, B. & Feldman, L. (1984). Lexical and conceptual representation in beginning and proficient
bilinguals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23(1) (p. 25). Quoted in: Bhatia, T. & Ritchie, W. (2012). The
Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism. John Wiley & Sons.
In order to put these two models to test, Potter et al. (1984) elaborated two experiments,
one consisting in naming illustrations and the other in translating words. If the model of word
association was correct, translations should be faster than naming the illustrations, due to the
necessary access to the concept before the word, while translation would be direct without
accessing to the concept level. On the other hand, if the model of concept mediation was
adequate, both assignments would take the same amount of time, since both would need to access
to the concept before activating the form of L2 for the production.
In the study which counted with bilingual participants with more or less levels of fluency
in L2, it was found that both assignments took almost the same time, which favored the model of
concept mediation. However, subsequent studies with bilinguals of different levels of L2
competence reported that bilingual speakers with a lower degree of L2 competence took less time
to translate words than to name them. Henceforth, it could be assumed that word association is
necessary in these tasks to speakers of lower L2 competence, while bilingual speakers with
higher level perform the same tasks through concept mediation.
Kroll and Stewart (in Pavlenko, 2009) make a revision of these models in order to explain
not only the relation between the levels of lexical representation (lexical and conceptual) and the
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involved languages (L1 and L2), but also the degree of the bilingual speakers competence. These
authors propose the revised Hierarchical Model of lexical and conceptual representation in
bilingual memory. In the following scheme it is appreciated that L1 is represented by a bigger
chart due to the reason that bilingual speakers usually domain a bigger lexicon in their L1. The
connections among words in L1 and L2 and the concepts vary. At first, L1 measures the access to
the meaning of forms in L2, hence the links of L2 towards L1 will be very strong although not
vice versa. On the other hand, and due to L2 dependency on L1 to measure meanings, the links
between L1 and the concepts will be stronger than from L2 to the concepts. However, while the
speaker increases the level of competence in L2, stronger (direct) links between L2 and the
concepts are created.
Figure 13: Revised hierarchical model of lexical and conceptual representation in bilingual
memory
Kroll, J.F. & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections
between bilingual memory representations. Quoted in: Pavlenko, A. (2009). The Bilingual Mental Lexicon: Interdisciplinary
Approaches. M ultilingual M atters. p.143
The type of lexical organization proposed by Weinreich (compound, coordinate and

subordinate), depends on the type of words to be considered. Concrete and perceived cognate
words in two languages count with a compound representation while abstract and not cognate
words count with a coordinate representation. If semantic memory and the effect of concrete and
abstract words in the representation of bilingual speakers are considered, it can be suggested that
concrete words share a bigger part of their representation of meaning between languages than
abstract words.
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2.5 The role of input

When referring to input, it is important to have a clear idea and distinction of this term.
Input is understood as the oral or written form of an L2 received by an acquirer or learner
depending on the case. It serves as a reference so as to determine language rules. According to
the different language theories, there are different approaches about the role of input in SLA. This
way, it is not a surprise to consider than from a behaviorist view a learner is conceived as a kind
of automatic language reproducer, with the aim of getting the appropriate information or input.
On the other side, from a generativist approach, the person is considered as a great initiator, that
is to say, equipped with certain necessary abilities so as to discover L2. The role of input is to be
detected.
From a behaviorist approach, the environment is the crucial element in L2 learning. The
input is offered through stimuli and feedback, in a way that the regulation of both produces
learning and habit formation. The main idea can be clarified as this:
I (input) L (learner)
There is a clear expression of the importance of the external elements in this theory.
From a different perspective and the one sustained in this research, the generative
approach proposes that the mere exposition to language cannot obtain a satisfactory acquisition of
the language. The input is considered as the element that triggers and activates the internal
mechanisms. The main idea of this perspective can be expressed as this:
A (acquirer) I (input)
The main elements to focus on are the internal ones.
The theory of input stated by Krashen is defined by him as: language acquisition, first or
second, occurs only when comprehension of real messages occurs, and when the acquirer is not
on the defensive53 .
53
Krashen, S. (2008). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. (Digitized ed.) Longman. p.6
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2.5.1 Input in the environment

The study of the natural linguistic means is composed of two main factors. The first one is
the foreign talk, which refers to the register used by the native speakers when they address nonnative speakers. It is influenced by diverse variables concerning the topics of conversation or the
age of the participants. Through this process, there are two formal characteristics in this type of
input.
1. Simplifications in the grammar structures
2. Structure simplifications lead to non-grammatical speech
This foreign talk is similar to motherese, that is to say, the way in which parents tend to
normally
talk
to
their little children by simplifying grammar structures to
carry out
communication. However, while in this motherese there is a high percentage of questions and
instructions (do you like it?, eat your food, etc.) so as to guide the childs behavior, the main
function of the foreign talk is focused on the information exchange, in other words, negotiation of
meanings. Taking a particular case of two speakers on a foreign talk situation, the native speaker
may try to exaggerate gestures, modulation, or voice volume, differently from a two native
speakers situation.
The other main factor of this topic refers to discourse, which is the register used by native
speakers when addressing L2 speakers. The discourse built by the two of them depends mainly
on the L2 speaker. The discourse attempts to overcome the difficulties that may be present in the
communication process. The role of the input received by L2 speakers concerns the relation made
with the previous knowledge by the application of different strategies. The negotiation between
this type of speakers allows input to be comprehensible.
2.5.2 The role and effects of input in SLA
In order to approach this point, it is important to consider the way in which the quality and
quantity of input, together with interaction, affect SLA. Two main factors are to be presented, the
effects on route and the effects on rate.
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The effects on rate refer to the speed of acquisition, relating cause and effect. To stimulate
SLA conditions such as a bigger quantity of input, motivation, or exposure are the ones that
encourage and induce SLA.
The effects on route refer to the changes during the process of SLA, in which input must
ease acquisition through frequency and comprehensible input 54 . Frequency refers to the specific
grammar forms that are unconsciously acquired by the speaker, which are to be established or
stored thanks to LAD. In the comprehensible input, the speakers need input containing certain
elements that are acquired in a natural order. This means that the simple exposition to L2 is not
enough and that a necessary input is required. Second language acquisition takes place when the
input becomes intake, which is the part of the input that is elaborated and acquired by the
speaker. It refers to demanding a little more from the level of linguistic competence. That is to
say i+1.
Comprehensible input is the essential element in SLA. All the other factors stimulate or
cause the optimal function of SLA only when they contribute to comprehensible input or there is
an open affective filter. Comprehensible input is necessary for acquisition, although it is not
enough, given that the affective filter works as a mental block that may be easy or difficult for
SLA. This affective filter hypothesis considers that affective variables such as motivation, selfconfidence and anxiety are the key for SLA. The lack of motivation, a low self-esteem, excessive
anxiety or any other stressing factor may make this filter active, producing the mental block that
may prevent comprehensible input to reach LAD, and become part of the acquisition process. A
positive affectivity is fundamental and needed for SLA.
There are plenty of elements to evidence and support this theory. First of all, it is reflected
in the speech of the caretaker that even with simplified phrases or texts the theory is oriented to
communication, facilitating the childs comprehension. The silent period is another element of
great relevance. Children acquiring an L2 in natural conditions tend to remain silent for a
considerable amount of time, using some short phrases they may constantly listen and whose
meaning is not completely understood. This period is very normal among children living in a
foreign country for the first six months. During this time, they are constructing their language
competence through comprehensible input.
54
Krashen, S. (2002). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. (Internet ed.). Pergamon Press, Oxford.
| 59
The age factor interferes in this process as well. While children have a better capacity for
SLA in a long term, adults can do this faster and from the beginning. Similarly, older kids acquire
an L2 more quickly than younger kids. This lays on the idea that they can process faster from the
first moments due to they obtain a more comprehensible input, while little children do it in a
better way on the long term due to the reason that their affective filter is completely open. The
differences between adults and children exist from the affective filter capability. It is a key issue
that this filter starts to interfere during puberty. However, the opposite happens with input which
is better regulated by adults due to the capability of demonstrating comprehension during a
conversation. Children perceive a much simpler input with a less complex grammar, and frequent
and more immediate vocabulary.
2.5.3 Poverty of Stimulus in L2
Plato, reviewed on chapter 1 and contextualized in language acquisition, considers the
idea of the language faculty overcoming the received input so as to obtain a high level of
language competence. There is an important aspect to bear in mind related to abstract principles
which are not necessarily granted by L2 input. When these principles are developed by an L2
acquirer, the poverty of stimulus principle presented by Chomsky can be proven. As White
(2003) explains:
it is not necessary for L2 learners to acquire the same knowledge as native
speakers in order to demonstrate a poverty-of-the-stimulus situation in L2
acquisition; it is sufficient to show that L2 learners acquire complex and subtle
properties of language that could not have been induced from the L2 input. 55 .
(p.22)
There are some elements involved in what is referred to as L2 stimulus, the logical
problem of languages. In the process of L1 acquisition there is a great amount of nongrammatical input that is received by children. With this respect, a similar situation occurs with
L2, formed by a combination of sentences. This alteration is named degeneracy which can be
observed in contexts of foreign or interlanguage talk, in which different forms of language are
interchanged.
55
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The line of the poverty of stimulus lays on the little stimuli received by children, children
who are able to construct an infinite number of different possible sentences by making use of
their creative ability. In the case of L2 speakers there is an application of their interlanguages so
as
to
produce
sentences
which may be grammatically correct or not,
a case of
underdetermination. The fact that L2 speakers make grammar mistakes is not relevant for the
purpose of acquisition in a sense that errors are to be corrected on time, which is easier than
acquiring some abstract concepts. This last aspect concerning underdetermination is presented by
White (1989a)
even if the L2 learner's grammar is not native-like, it can often be highly
sophisticated and complex, revealing linguistic properties which could not have
been induced directly from the input data... that is, knowledge is attained on the
basis of impoverished input, and this requires an explanation56 . (p.39)
While acquiring a first language, it is a common fact that children are not corrected when
making mistakes, at least not directly. They develop their language through a personal process
that gives the result of a good level of competence taking consciousness on grammar after this
progression. In a different way, L2 speakers, acquirers or learners receive a wide amount of direct
negative data, mainly related to grammar in the context of a class. In relation to this, L2 speakers
(adults specially) do have precise intuitions about grammaticality contrasts which are neither
learnable on positive evidence nor transferable from corresponding structures of the learner's
mother tongue57 . Despite the fact of the L1 effect, L2 speakers are aware enough of some
grammar constructions.
Sharwood Smith (1988) remarks that learners seem to behave in a systematic fashion in
ways which cannot be explained from an analysis of the input characteristics 58 . In spite of some
uncertainty, there are remarks on appropriate data that L2 speakers are accessible to, this is the
data that L2 speakers, adults mainly, work with so as to develop their level of language
competence.
56
Felix, S. (1988). UG-generated Knowledge in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Linguistic Theory in Second Language
Acquisition. Flynn, S. and Wayne O'Neil eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.285. Quoted in: Navarro, B. (2010). Adquisicin
de la primera y segunda lengua en aprendientes en edad infantil y adulta. Philologica Urcitana, 2, pp. 115-128
58
Sharwood Smith, M . (1988). On the role of linguistic theory in explanations of second language developmental grammars.
57
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2.6 The Critical Period

The hypothesis of the Critical Period suggests that there is a moment in human
development when the brain is predisposed for language acquisition success. The changes in the
brain development may affect the nature of language acquisition. According to this, language
increase after the end of this period would not be based on innate biological structures, but on
general cognitive abilities. While it is a right from birth that children reach a complete language
competence (L1), adults present a great variability in their level of competence in L2 which is
rarely comparable to the one of a native speaker.
This theory proposed by E. Lenneberg (2008) states that the capability of language
acquisition shrinks when reaching puberty due to the plasticity lost by the brain, a circumstance
that implies a sensible diminution of the capacity to acquire a language.
Most individuals of average intelligence are able to learn a second language
after the beginning of their second decade, although the incidence of 'languagelearning-blocks' rapidly increases after puberty. Also automatic acquisition from
mere exposure to a given language seems to disappear after this age, and foreign
languages have to be taught and learned through a conscious and labored
effort59 . (p.176)
On time, many hypotheses have been presented; some are less categorical and point to the
existence of an advantageous or privileged period, or those that highlight some multiple critical
periods for language acquisition. There is evidence demonstrating that the lateralization of the
brain occurs long before the onset of puberty, perhaps during the first year of life 60 . A
common denominator of all these ideas is that L2 acquisition after a certain age sensibly differs
from the one of the mother tongue, due to once the brain passes a certain evolutionary step it is
difficult for speakers to access to LAD and UG. There is a great controversy in this sense for
many interpretations and points of view differ greatly from this issue. The debate on the existence
of a Critical Period deals with very relevant questions concerning second language acquisition
and related to aspects such as the mental representations of L1 and L2 which are built by the
59
60
Lenneberg, E. (2008). Biological Foundations of Language. (Digitized ed.). Wailey. p.176

Flynn, S. & M anuel, S. (1991). "Age-Dependent Effects in Language Acquisition: an Evaluation of 'Critical Period'
Hypotheses". Point counterpoint - Universal Grammar in the Second Language. Eubank, L. John Benjamin Publishing
Company. p.130
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bilingual speakers independently in a common way; or if transference is a legitimate language

process or a non-wished symptom. In this sense, the existence of a Critical Period will be
compatible with the idea that human beings are equipped with internal mechanisms for language
acquisition, but it will also suggest the existence of development sequences that would be
genetically determined.
From a practical point of view the existence of a Critical Period would be associated to a
series of limitations related to the last level of competence that L2 acquisition could obtain and
that should guide to certain realism in relation to educative objectives. If it is proven that the
Critical Period is essential to reach a linguistic competence level similar to the one of a native
speaker, then SLA would be based on modest objectives and it would affect the type of
methodology used in a classroom. Effectively, the lack of access to UG for the speaker who is
starting L2 contact once the gap of opportunity is closed, would force him/her to appeal to
cognitive resources and mechanisms of general character so as to begin a learning process in
which the teaching strategies would have to agree with such cognitive abilities.
In the Critical Period theory, there are two very different and closely attached positions to
consider. These are the Fundamental Difference and the Fundamental Identity hypothesis.
2.6.1 The Fundamental Difference
This perspective concerning the main factor of age in terms of language acquisition deals
with statements sustaining a wide difference between L1 and L2 acquisition, due to the reason
that the mother tongue is involved with LAD, UG or other aspects mentioned in previous
chapters. SLA is approached in a different form, related to the skill of problem-solving which is
very common in varied processes of adult reasoning, that the function of the domain specific
acquisition system is filled in adults (though indirectly and imperfectly) by this native language
knowledge and by general abstract problem-solving system. I shall call this proposal the
Fundamental Difference Hypothesis 61 .
There are different areas that present the complications for adult L2 acquisition such as
variation of success, fossilization, and general failure, among others. For this reason is that this
61
Bley-Vroman, R. (2003). "What is the Logical Problem of Foreign Language Learning?" Linguistic Perspectives on Second
Language Acquisition. Gass, S. and Schachter J. eds. (Digitized ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.50
| 63
process is proposed to be related to the problem-solving skill due to consciousness, concerning

other issues differentiated from child acquisition. The distinction made between the language
faculty and the problem-solving skill is the one believed to be problematic for SLA.
In addition to this, it is important to bear in mind the hypothesis of the Affective Filter
where there are many subjective factors that may interfere with the language acquisition process.
According to this, the LAD is effective still in doing its appropriate work, though the affective
filter is the one restricting it.
2.6.2 The Fundamental Identity
This hypothesis sustains the notion that the way in which first language acquisition is
guided may equally serve for L2 acquisition. Even though this process is extremely rare, there are
some mature people who are able to manage the same language competence than the one of a
native speaker. This idea would lead the position that LAD is to continue its course of function
during a very long time, serving for SLA.
Put simply, Dulay and Burt (1974a), Bailey, Madden, and Krashen (1974),
d'Anglejan and Tucker (1975) and others found that second language acquisition
is, in crucial respects, like first language acquisition, and the same theoretical
constructs can be invoked to explain both. As they showed, developmental L2
errors tend to mimic those committed by the L1 learner, and, with respect to the
morpheme studies, the order of acquisition of certain morpheme in L2 mirrors
that in L1 (for L1 order of acquisition studies, see Brown, 1973; de Villiers and
de Villier, 1973). Although the L2 morpheme acquisition studies are not
unproblematic (see Rosansky, 1976), they, along with other evidence, resulted in
a new consensus about L2 acquisition, namely that UG may not shut off at
puberty. At the same time, evidence mounted that an L2 learner's grammar, far
from being a mere hodge podge of deviant forms, itself obeys the crucial
properties of naturally occurring human languages, subject to the same
principles of organization and constraints (for evidence to this effect from syntax,
| 64
see Adjmian, 1976 and Ritchie, 1978; from phonology, see Eckman, 1981) 62 .
(pp.38-39)
This statement may imply that differently from the Fundamental Difference, the
Fundamental Identity hypothesis discards the role of an affective filter intervening in SLA. The
importance of this theory lies on the fact that it applies the Generative theory of language into the
acquisition of a second language.
2.7 Principles and parameters in interlanguage

Even though UG has been presented as a significant theory in the fields of L1 acquisition
and interlanguage, it becomes necessary to show some proofs that help and support the fact that it
also constrains 2LA. As a consequence, there has been a healthy tendency to focus in the deepstructure which at the same time relates to concepts such as structure-dependence, subjacency,
etc; in other words, referring to matters of L1 acquisition.
A pivotal characteristic of the
evidence is that it is provided by the learners institution. All this information is collected through
intentional or elicited replies or mere production of the target language in grammatical quizzes.
Consequently, Felix (1988;2009) enlightens the field of the basic principles of UG by
stating that they are effective in L2, presenting outstanding supportive evidence by indicating that
German students, who are learning English as a second language, are clearly constrained by UG.
Along the studies, the major worry has been the one concerning the proficiency shown by the L2
learners.
Learners might violate a universal not because of the non-availability of UG,
but because the structure in question is beyond their current capacity, and they
are just stringing words together in an arbitrary fashion 63 . (p.61)
In the same matter, to rely on intuition as reliable evidence might be considered improper.
Felix accounts that:
Newmeyer, F. & Weinberger, S. (1988). The ontogenesis of the field of second language learning research. Linguistic theory
in second language acquisition. Flynn, Suzanne and Wayne O'Neil. eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp.38-39
63
62
| 65
if a subject judges a grammatical sentence as ungrammatical, then there is no

principled way of knowing whether the judgment is motivated by, say, stylistic
consideration or simply indicates inaccessibility of UG. That is, factors other
than UG generated knowledge may be responsible for this judgment. If, in
contrast, an ungrammatical sentence violating UG-principles is judged as
grammatical, then this suggests that the subject has, in fact, no access to UG,
since other factors are simply irrelevant in this case 64 . (p.286)
Consequently, this means that the sentences can be also judged by pragmatic or semantic
knowledge, not giving any chance to syntactic properties; what is more, there is also a problem
with the influence coming from the first language, producing a phenomenon such as Language
Transfer. White (1989a) states that if a particular principle operates in both the L1 and L2, and
if it turns out that L2 learners observe this principle, this does not provide clear evidence for the
operation of UG; it might just be due to transfer of L1 knowledge 65 .
It is also possible to recognize that meaning properties knowledge provided by L1 may
not only interfere in syntax, but also in grammatical constructs. However, the role of the
influence of the L1 can be alleviated, which is demonstrated by the following comparative
experimental study applied by Otsu and Naoi (cited in White, 1989a:64) in relation to the
formation of questions, taking into consideration the following ensuing backgrounds:
Language: English Vs. Japanese
English is a structure-dependent movement language
Japanese does not allow the change of dependent structures; on the contrary it shows a
steady SOV structure.
Finally, the claim is to know whether native speakers of Japanese and L2 learners, can
create questions correctly in relation to a relative clause matter. It finally came as a conclusion
the fact that Japanese who are L2 learners of English can make the questions perfectly, which
indicates that they can also see the already named structure-dependency, allowing them to create
the questions correctly.
65
64
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2.7.1 The Subset Principle in L2A

The Subset Principle has a remarkable role in L1 acquisition, since it makes possible the
continuity of the language acquisition process. As children lack negative linguistic data in early
stages, the only solution to keep the process in movement is to be submerged in an environment
of positive data, representing the bases of the Subset Principle. This principle helps the child not
to generate a grammar with the inclusion of negative constructs. It is White (1989a), who
explained the relationship among UG and the Subset Principle using the following words:
There are two possible ways in which the Subset Principle may interact with
UG. One is that UG is so constructed that principles and parameters are ordered
within UG via markedness, with the unmarked value generating the subset and
the marked value the superset. In this case, the Subset Principle is an instruction
to try the unmarked value first. Alternatively, markedness can be removed from
UG and parameters within UG can be unordered, leaving the Subset Principle to
compute the markedness hierarchies, a position argued by Manzini and Wexler
(1987) and Wexler and Manzini (1987)66 . (p.139)
Furthermore, White agrees with Manzini and Wexler's theory indicating that learning
principles and UG may be in different 'modules', allowing for the possibility that these modules
no longer interact effectively in second language acquisition67 . Thus, if the Subset Principle
finishes running in SLA, it will give step to the issue that certain cases of mother tongue
influence and also fossilization68 .
To validate this, White applied empirical studies strongly based in the issue of the Subset
Principle into SLA. To achieve this study, she takes the reality of French native speakers who are
acquiring English as L2. The dilemma refers to the adjacency parameter because French is not a
strict adjacency language, whereas English is. In other words it means that English does not
admit interruptions in the order of verb + object, but French does. White postulates two different
hypotheses:
66
Ibid. p.148
68
White, L. (1989b). The adjacency condition in case assignment: do second language learners observe the Subset Principle?.
Linguistic Perspective on Second Language Acquisition. Gass, S. and Schachter J. eds. Cambridge University Press. p.135
67
| 67
The Language Transfer phenomena, then, will mean that the Subset Principle will not be
applied by adults who are acquiring a second language. It means that French who are
acquiring English as L2 will commit errors violating the interlanguage grammar, since
they are assuming that L2 is less strict in adjacency matters than their mother tongue;
On the contrary, the Subset Principle applies itself into SLA data, producing no change in
adjacency matters belonging to the interlanguage grammar produced by French who are
L2 acquirers of English.
Consequently, the outcome of the study strongly supports the former hypotheses. Hence,
many of the learners assume English to be like French in allowing adjacency
violations. These results are not consistent with the subset hypothesis; if the
Subset Principle had been applied, subjects should have totally rejected
adjacency violations in English, contrary to what was found here 69 . (p.153)
However, in UG terms the interlanguage will be still constraining for: L2 learners might
be still constrained by UG in terms of the types of interlanguage grammars that they come up
with, without any longer being constrained in terms of the order in which different hypotheses
are tried out70 .
What is more, White (1989b) places more emphasis in the issue than in the main
difference between L1 and L2 acquisition, that is, in the function played by the Subset Principle
in the acquisition of the L1. As a further support to White hypotheses, Clahsen (1989) indicates
the following:
if one can find a way to integrate the subset principle into UG as the principle
structuring parameter theory, then White's position, assuming the nonavailability of the subset principle to L2 learners, and ours, claiming that
parameter setting is not available to L2 learners, are not as different as might be
supposed at first sight71 . (p.26)
White, L. (1989b). The adjacency condition in case assignment: do second language learners observe the Subset Principle?.
Linguistic Perspective on Second Language Acquisition. Gass, S. and Schachter J. eds. Cambridge University Press. p.153
70
Ibid. p.139
71
Clahsen, H. & M uysken, P. (1989). The UG paradox in L2 acquisition. Second Language Research, 5(1), 1-29. p.26
69
| 68
Consequently, the incorporation of negative data in adult second language assumes the
absence of Subset Principle in later stages of SLA. It finally means that after the absence of the
Subset Principle, adult acquirers will not be capable of recovering this principle again. Thus, the
relevance of UG in SLA is represented in options of values of parameters in UG (i.e., subset
grammar values with respect to the L1) are accessed. Without permitting a direct access to UG,
we are left without an explanation for how seemingly subset values are ever acquired 72 .
2.7.2 German verb placement and the null subject parameter in SLA
The parameter of Head Position has been highly revised along time in L1 and L2
acquisition. According to this parameter and taking into consideration the strict order of SVO
(Subject-Verb-Object) in the early development of German language acquisition, no matter the
prior background of the first language, the raised question is how acquirers are able to manage
the correct order of SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) of the German language in the latter stages.
To start approaching this question, Clahsen and Muysken (1989) indicate the following:
the observed differences between L1 and L2 learning can be explained by
assuming that child first language acquisition falls under the parameter theory of
language development, whereas the acquisition strategies used by adults in L2
development may be defined in terms of principles of information processing and
general problem solving73 . (p.23)
The problem is that there is a noticeable incoherence in the standards of the language
acquisition process. On one hand, in the L1 acquisition the correct placement of verbs as well as
the verbal correspondence or agreement which happens in the surface level, take place at the
same time. What is more, the two processes occur independently from each other.
The issue is that the adult learners of German are able to get the correct order by learning
principles, not by a modification or reset of the head parameter of the mother tongue. However,
Schwartz and Tomaselli (1991) provide a different perspective to this matter. They finally
indicate that the parameters are:
72
73
Schwartz, B. (1987). The Modular Basis of Second Language Acquisition. Diss. Graduate School of Southern California. p.312
Clahsen, H. & M uysken, P. (1989). The UG paradox in L2 acquisition. Second Language Research, 5(1), 1-29. p.23
| 69
Transferred over the path of SLA

Reset according to the second language correct information
On the other hand, the null subject parameter gives lights about the fact that these subtle
properties are impossible to acquire only by input, indicating that there is also an intervention of
UG. One of the particular characteristics given to the pro-drop or null languages, as contrary to
non-pro-drop languages is the imminent production of sentences with null subject, and with other
similar properties. Diverse studies were applied based on this issue, being the most remarkable
the one applied by M. Phinney (1987;2010). Two contrastive languages in the matter of null or
overt pronoun are to be considered; Spanish (pro-drop) and English (non-pro-drop).
In this study, two different conjectures were taken into account:
Whether there would be a transfer provided by the primary linguistic data into the
interlanguage;
Whether there is a reset of the prior parameter, so as the correct information provided by
the target language takes place.
Finally the results were really similar to what happens in the verb order situation. It shows
both the presence of transfer of the mother tongue, and the resetting of the L1 prior data of the
pronoun.
It is also worth to mention the difference in time, expressing that English speakers
learning Spanish were faster than Spanish native speakers in resetting the prior knowledge to the
target correct information.
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III. Second language acquisition and formal education

The different theories developed during the last decades have been based on the functions
of the human mind as well as on the teaching practice. Differences lie mostly on the importance
that different researches have assigned to the different elements involved in the process of SLA,
such as innate mechanisms and knowledge, interactive skills, learned elements, context, linguistic
input and the different characteristics of the students. The importance given to each of these
factors, along with the type of variables (neurological, cognitive, affective, linguistic and
situational) have served as a base for those investigations that present different theories on second
language acquisition as a result.
In terms of the context, there are several differences between an L1 acquisition process
and L2 learning, as previously seen. When a first language is acquired, humans experiment a
complete linguistic immersion where the subject interacts with the environment producing a high
level of performance. On the other side, learning or trying to acquire a language exclusively in
the classroom presents many and varied limitations that will lead to certain determined results.
However, this does not mean that the exposure to L2 in the classroom will not benefit students; in
the words of Krashen (2009) The classroom will probably never be able to completely overcome
| 71
its limitations, not does it have to. Its goal is not to substitute for the outside world, but to bring
students to the point where they can begin to use the outside world for further acquisition 74 .
Nevertheless, not all educative contexts are the same. There are some institutions in which
second language is presented in a context of linguistic immersion where results indicate their
satisfactory level of language competence. In this situation, different subjects are taught through
the use of the target language, henceforth, the great input and quality of language tend to increase
the amount of time exposure and the different methodologies to apply, considering this way more
collaboration between the teacher and the student, more opportunities of interaction among
students, less support on non-verbal communication and more explicit correction. Consequently,
the results on L2 competence will be of great magnitude. Lyster (2007) says that research has
clearly demonstrated that immersion students, regardless of program type, develop much higher
levels of second language proficiency than do non-immersion students studying the second
language as a regular subject75 .
3.1 The childs language environment
Focusing on the context in which a child is immersed, there are two general stages in
which the acquisitions of an L1 first, and an L2 can be divided and differentiated. As previously
seen, the first stage is related to the stimulus and the development of a mother tongue through the
use of the LAD. The second stage concerns the way in which a second language can be acquired,
applying different strategies and developing language skills.
An ideal language environment focuses on developing receptive skills with no elements of
pressure. In a freer context, no books, contents or marks are involved in the process; in fact,
repetition is a useful resource for children and all the different aspects of language (grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.) are integrated. The process is closely attached to the discoveries
made by the speaker, since the stimuli is mostly new, dealing with a natural order of interests.
While it may seem overwhelming and even confusing, intrinsic abilities guide the process of
language acquisition. In a living language context, surrounded by native speakers, there are high
possibilities for a child to develop an L2, differently than an adult studying with the use of
textbooks.
74
75
Krashen, S. (2009). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. (Internet ed.). University of California.
Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and Teaching Languages Through Content: A Counterbalanced Approach. John Benjamins
Publishing Company. Amsterdam. p.14
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Nevertheless, it is not common to be exposed to that situation. As the processes of

language acquisition have been studied, language learning and acquisition strategies are the main
elements to focus on. In order to approach this topic, there must be some considerations in
relation to the child interests which do not have anything to do with grammar rules or the
importance of acquiring an L2.
3.1.1 Learning strategies of the child
The importance of language for a child deals with accomplishing his/her own interests in
a very practical use. In the case of using the language, mistakes that emerge from the creative
capability of generating new sentences are of no importance as long as the message is understood
and, as a matter of fact, the child would be successful in the use of the language.
Children appreciate the repetition of different elements surrounding them such as games,
images, songs and language. By repeating, children organize ideas creating a sense of security.
By elaborating the direction of certain elements, they can also infer grammar constructions.
Along with this, the main interests of children are the ones that guide, benefit and support the
language acquisition process, capturing their attention completely. Any aspect of language
connected to that focus of interest will generate a permanent significant learning. From this facet
it can be stated that children may be very selective with the language they acquire, differently
from an adult who may receive huge amounts of information on varied language elements that
might generate confusion. This last consideration remarks the issue of the amount of information
managed by an adult, putting emphasis on the moments and quantities of second language
exposure. Children do not understand every single piece of language, but control part of it. As
some educative models present it (Montessori, for instance), children have the freedom of
selecting and ignoring the topics to focus on, advancing at his/her own rhythm. This is quite
interesting not only for the results in terms of language, but also in the manner in which different
perspectives make humans live different realities and ways of perception.
Childrens focus of attention is mostly directed to immediate things, of the present and
closely surrounding them. The most important way in which they refer to these elements is by
their names. Nouns, rather than prepositions, adjectives or verbs, receive more attention due to
they are easy to infer. This is why they feel a spontaneous need to ask for things by saying their
| 73
names, being prosperous in their use of language together with gestures, generally, pointing with
a finger.
There is a wish in children to get involved in the immediate context, by imitating others
around them. Observing the speaking capability of other people, children desire to manage it as
well. They may not even understand the real meaning of a word or phrase, but through
observation they infer that those words are used in certain contexts. Consider the following
situation: a child always observes that after someone is given something, that person uses the
phrase thank you. A similar situation occurs with greetings. Another fact is observed through
the advance of time, in which they gradually add more words that increase their vocabulary.
It is remarkable how children make use of some words or sentences soon after they
manage them to be successful in their language performance and in this way to strengthen their
confidence. This last element is of great importance due to it is the reason that motivates and
maintains the use of language. If a child is not confident enough to make use of language it will
be hard for him/her to develop it. However, all humans (under healthy and regular conditions) are
able to accomplish this relevant feature. On the contrary, and ironically, adults are not that
flexible with themselves. They tend to feel embarrassed, insecure, or even too demanding with
their level of performance.
A final strategy in the process of language acquisition deals with the fact that children do
not fear to be mistaken. Failure or inhibitions are not a topic of discussion, which is a key
element for developing language competence. Children tend to use language as they please, even
managing concepts differently, and away from the structured patterns. The wisdom of their
attitude is the one that allows successful second language acquisition.
3.1.2 Differences between child and adult students
Some investigations affirm that application of strategies commonly related to the mother
tongue on an L2 assure success in the acquisition of a second language. This is based on the
principles of acquisition that in both cases happen to be similar In second language acquisition
research concerns the question of whether or not the process of learning a second language (L2)
is guided and controlled by the same natural principles that appear to operate in first language
| 74
(L1)76 . It is important to consider the age factor and the difference between both situations, in
which the L1 is acquired at an early age, differently from an L2. The relevance is noticeable in a
sense that when children acquire a mother tongue, they have not acquired a complete social and
cognitive development yet, that is to say, the acquisition process is implicitly presented with no
metalinguistic reference, nonetheless, it is added to the difficulty of the intellectual child
development. On the contrary, adults count with this advantage that may ease the process. One
difference between first and second language acquisition is that the former is an intrinsic
component of a childs overall cognitive and social development, whereas in second language
acquisition this development has already been more or less completed77 . Children are the ones
who enjoy of many other advantages due to their youth which seems to be the ideal moment to
initiate the process of first and second language acquisition. Lenneberg (2008) sustained that the
short age of students enormously benefits acquisition due to the plasticity of their brain which
assimilates very complex information in an unconscious way. He suggested that between the
age of two and puberty the human brain shows the plasticity, which allows a child to acquire his
first language78 .
It can be added that even when it is extremely complex for adults to reach a native
speakers level, they experiment a faster development during the first stages. In other words, it is
simpler for adults to memorize vocabulary and analyze grammar structures due to the cognitive
maturity, which implies that the advance on learning will be faster in adults rather than in
children during the first stage.
All these biological differences between learners and acquirers in relation to their age
produce the teaching option that educators will use for applying diverse methodologies. With
children, teaching will be based mainly on the interaction with the teacher and the classmates,
developing oral skills, which are a priority in these contexts. Among the different approaches that
normally adjust to the students needs at this stage, there are some very common and important
factors to bear in mind as the Total Physical Response, the Communicative Approach,
77
Klein, W. Quoted in: Navarro, B. (2010). Adquisicin de la primera y segunda lengua en aprendientes en edad infantil y
adulta. Philologica Urcitana, 2, pp. 115-128
78
Loc. cit.
76
| 75
Assignment Focus, etc. All of them allow the work with children in very different ways, putting
great emphasis on skills, abilities and different intelligences.
On the other side and in relation to adults, a more grammatical and analytic approach has
been used. Due to the cognitive abilities of this kind of students, explicit teaching of grammar has
been much extended. In this context, teachers are more focused on the teaching of contents than
self-learning. The student takes a secondary role in this methodology in which the teacher is
like a conductor, [] the teacher controls the actions in the classroom, does a lot of the talking
by explaining, giving directions and asking lots of questions which pupils answer 79 .
Finally,
it is observed
that children and adults manage diverse advantages or
disadvantages for the process of SLA. Children may acquire a greater competence on the long
term, due to the reason that language develops unconsciously. Contrary to this, adults may obtain
a more specific knowledge of grammar rules, although they might fail in the proper use of
language due to the lack of integration of this knowledge. Adults acquiring a second language
may transform it into a continuous learning process of constant readjustment of the previous
knowledge.
3.2 Motivation
Most problems of teaching are not problems of growth but helping cultivate
growth. As far as I know, and this is only from personal experience in teaching, I
think about ninety percent of the problem in teaching, or maybe ninety-eight
percent, is just to help the students get interested. Or what it usually amounts to
is to not prevent them from being interested. Typically they come in interested,
and the process of education is a way of driving that defect out of their minds.
But if children['s] [...] normal interest is maintained or even aroused, they can
do all kinds of things in ways we dont understand 80 . (Chomsky, N. Creation
& Culture Conference. 1992)
79
80
Brewster, J., Ellis, G. & Girard, D. (2002). The Primary English Teacher's Guide. Penguin Books. p.41
Chomsky, N. (1992). Creation & Culture. Alternative Radio. Rec. on November 25th. Barcelona, Spain.
| 76
Motivation is the one key factor that influences the capabilities of a learner. Its effects on
second language learning would mostly generate a high level of second language performance.
Gardner (2003) presented a socio-educational model that is involved with the learning of an L2,
detecting some correlated elements interfering in the process. This model specially focuses on the
teaching of a foreign language inside the classroom and considers four aspects of SLA which
encompass the socio-cultural milieu, individual differences, language acquisition contexts and
language learning linguistic outcomes 81 .
The socio-cultural milieu deals with the context that surrounds the learner, including the
whole community. This implies the values and principles to be acquired in relation to other
cultures and language notions. The great influence of these ideas would be observed on the
process of SLA. Such is the case of monolingual communities who consider that minority groups
should adapt to the majority, while contrary to this there is the situation of bilingual (or even
multilingual) communities, whose people are a reflection of multiculturalism. The existing
notions of certain cultural aspects will set the basis of the learners disposition for learning or
acquiring an L2.
In relation to the individual learning differences, there are four crucial variables to bear in
mind. They consist on intelligence, language aptitude, motivation and situational anxiety 82 , and
second language acquisition is influenced by them. Along with this, the learning setting plays a
closely related role, in which two types or contexts are observed: the formal instruction,
consisting on the classroom environment and the unstructured language acquisition, presented in
a natural environment. The variable of each individual such as intelligence and language aptitude
concerning formal instruction may vary given certain external conditions. The other two variables
of motivation and situational anxiety participate in both types of contexts.
The last aspect of linguistic outcomes is related to effective real learning and language
skills. This part is more specific in a sense that reflects a quantitative aspect based on marks or
standardized tests. However, the other implicit part of this lies on the non-linguistic consequences
that are related to the attitude that a learner can demonstrate towards second language. Those
students who are able to mix both develop the higher levels of L2 proficiency.
81
M acIntyre, P. (2002). Motivation, anxiety and emotion in second language acquisition. Individual differences in second
language acquisition, pp.45-68.
82
Giles, H. & Coupland, N. (1991). Minority language group status: A theoretical conspexus. Journal of M ultilingual and
M ulticultural Development. 11(1-2) pp.37-55
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Gardners model observes three general elements of motivation which combined can set
the basis for ideal language conditions. They consist of effort, desire and affect, time, the actions
invested to study a second language, and how eager the learners are so as to be successful in the
process. The emotional element is a key factor at the moment of applying any learning method.
3.2.1 Integrative and Instrumental Motivation
Considering the most successful L2 speakers, there are some common motivational
elements that are related to socio-cultural aspects, such as the interests towards native speakers,
the cultures related to the target language or the desire to be part of a society whose language is
the target one. These objects are part of the Integrative Motivation which once applied on people
who become inhabitants of a target language community, are significant in language proficiency.
Under such conditions it is essential to manage an L2 so as to properly unfold in that society. By
means of Integrative Motivation, acquisition is highly expected to be successful and the use of
language and pronunciation, are very likely to resemble the one of a native speaker.
In an EFL context the actual meaning of integrative is more related to the feeling of
becoming bilingual and bicultural while being in the context of certain culture and identity.
However, in a monocultural society interaction is much difficult to happen and the integration of
the target language becomes very limited.
The Instrumental Motivation, on the other hand, refers to the practical interest towards the
target language. Its aim is to satisfy the instrumental usage of a second language. Different
examples of this are the ones applying for a job, translation work, or reading technical material
among many other cases.
Both models of motivation may seem very relevant for L2 production, however
Integrative Motivation has been the one that proves to be successful for SLA in a formal learning
environment. Nevertheless, the model for SLA is not exclusive. L2 speakers mix both
orientations while learning a language. As a way of example, foreign students residing in an
English spoken country can take courses of English for academic purposes while trying to
integrate the community and culture of that place.
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Motivation is one of the many factors involved in the process of SLA and it has proven to
be a key for second language success. It is of great importance to find a fair measure among both
models, which may vary depending on each L2 speaker.
3.2.2 Motivation in a foreign language classroom
Things occurring in a foreign language classroom depend on the teachers attitude
towards the language and the elements to focus on. Dornyei (2001) explains that teacher skills
in motivating learners should be seen as central to teaching effectiveness 83 . These words reflect
on approaching a second language by means of motivational strategies.
Firstly, it is important to set some factors that interfere in the learning process, starting
with the relationship between the teacher and the learner. There is an interaction strongly based
on roles of power according to established social constructions. Depending on the general views
about education, values or ethics, certain role patterns are constructed, establishing the type of
relationship between teacher/student. According to Wright (2008) there are three forms of power
to be distinguished: coercive, reward-based and referent. Coercive power is based on
punishment, given by a figure of authority to the subordinated one. The reward-based type
consists of giving the students a prize for something done effectively. Rewards are delivered to
those who present what is considered a proper behavior. This last concept would depend on the
authority figure that decides according to certain parameters. It is quite common to observe
situations in which the power of rewarding is put into practice, such as offering good marks to
those who know an answer or give benefits to well behaved students. Another type of power is
based on motivation, where all participants involved are committed to the educative, social and
affective construction of all students.
Another important factor interfering with the learning process and atmosphere is the
social group in which the educative practice is developed. All social groups differ in their form,
dynamics, or interactions, thus all of them advance in a similar way. Group processes may be
guided through four different stages from its very beginning, establishing significant impacts on
each of its members.
83
Dornyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Pearson Education Limited. p.116
| 79
Stage 1 Forming : Members of the group depend on a leader to guide them from the start,
being generally anxious due to the new experience and aware of what kind of behavior to
adopt.
Stage 2 Storming : Some conflicts may already appear in smaller groups and the leader is
questioned, so are the relations inside the group.
Stage 3 Norming : Cohesion grows among the members of the group, supporting and
respecting each other. Ideas are properly discussed and differences are accepted.
Stage 4 Performing : Most problems are resolved and there is a great deal of interpersonal
activity. Everyone is devoted to completing the tasks they have been assigned.
Most social groups follow this line of behavior finishing with a strong feeling of union
and balance, increasing each individuals potential.
3.2.2.1 Motivational strategies
The way in which teachers are able to motivate their students may be considered as a skill
due to its level of comprehension and application and success, being a key aspect in the learning
process. Nevertheless, many teachers have been working under some contradictory approaches,
elaborating fun activities and adapting them to the students so as to make them as enjoyable as
possible to encourage motivation. When the school activities are boring, teachers engage students
in tasks through the use of rewards and punishment. As a contrast the spectrum of other
potentially more effective motivational strategies is so broad that it is hard to imagine that none
of them would work84 .
In order to create an appropriate outline to apply motivational strategies, Dornyei and Otto
(1998) elaborated a process-oriented taxonomy composed by the following structure and order:
Creating the basic motivational conditions
Generating student motivation
Maintaining and protecting motivation
Encouraging positive self-evaluation
84
Dornyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Pearson Education Limited. p.119
| 80
There are some previous conditions needed to apply these strategies so as to generate an
effective motivation (see fig.14). It is important for the teacher to present an appropriate behavior
and a good relationship with the students together with the implementation of a relaxed and
supportive environment in the classroom, and a consolidated group that works under agreed
norms to cooperate with each other.
Figure 14: Schematic representation of the Process Model of L2 Motivation
S ource: Dornyei, Z. & Otto, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation (p.48). Working Papers in Applied
Linguistics (London: Thames Valley University), 4: 43-69.
| 81
3.2.3 Creating students motivation

It is natural that all children have an inborn desire to explore which is the way to discover
the world. At this stage they have a great potential to develop creativity, making the learning
experience very enjoyable. However, schools have transformed in places in which this curiosity
is diminished by academic responsibilities, standardized tests, compulsory attendance and the
reward to accomplish them. To avoid frustration and a negative attitude towards learning,
Robinson (2006) affirms that:
kids will take a chance. If they dont know, theyll have a go. Am I right?
Theyre not frightened of being wrong. Now, I dont mean to say that being
wrong is the same thing as being creative. What we do know is, if youre not
prepared to be wrong, youll never come up with anything original. And by the
time they get to be adults, most kids have lost that capacity. They have become
frightened of being wrong. And we run our companies like this, by the way. We
stigmatize mistakes. And were now running national education systems where
mistakes are the worst thing you can make. And the result is that we are
educating people out of their creative capacities. Picasso once said this. He said
that all children are born artists. The problem is to remain an artist as we grow
up. I believe this passionately, that we dont grow into creativity, we grow out of
it. Or rather, we get educated out if it 85 . (Robinson, K. TED Conference. 2006)
There are some concrete elements that may be applied so as to generate motivation among
the students. There are many students who are not sure of the reason why they are learning a
specific content or performing a task because all their goals are set by a third person. Students
may be the ones involved with the definition of the criteria for their goals. It is quite important to
incorporate students interests into the curriculum. It is also very common that students manage
low expectations on their own progress due to the methodologies used in classes. In order to
dismiss these beliefs it is crucial for them to comprehend the real significance of acquiring an L2
and that such process can be developed by different means that should be discovered by them,
taking the ones that work better for each of them.
85
Robinson, K. (2006). TED Conference. Schools kill creativity. M onterey, California
| 82
To protect motivation, some personal aspects of students must be developed. This is a

collaborative task that is maintained between all the agents of the school, family and the
immediate context of the student. In relation to this, two important strategies must be considered:
increasing the learners self-confidence and creating learner autonomy. For the first one, teachers
should manage a way in which everyone is interested in the activities, feeling that they are
contributing.
This can change the conceptions of L2 competence through simple successful practices. The fact
that the class environment is relaxed reduces the levels of anxiety, bringing positive feedback
which is a useful tool to encourage them to become more active as well. For the second strategy
related to autonomy, students should comprehend that through self-discovering they take the
learning process into their own hands becoming owners of their development and behavior. The
most effective way to value their work is by giving them free and responsible choices so as to
cultivate autonomy. Moreover, the process gets a more optimistic focus.
The
affective
factor
determines
the
way
students
feel
about
their
personal
accomplishments after completing an activity. To take advantage of such moment, teachers must
apply suitable strategies that engage ensuing learning tasks, guiding to a positive self-evaluation
that forces them to be aware of their advances.
The fact is that given the challenges we face, education doesn't need to be
reformed -- it needs to be transformed. The key to this transformation is not to
standardize education, but to personalize it, to build achievement on discovering
the individual talents of each child, to put students in an environment where they
want to learn and where they can naturally discover their true passions 86 .
(p.311)
3.3 Multiple Intelligences and the ESL classroom

All human beings are able to discover the world in different forms. According to the
theory of Multiple Intelligences everyone is capable to comprehend the world depending on the
type of intelligence they have. Howard Gardner (2003) defines intelligence as the ability to
86
Robinson, K. (2009). The Element: How Finding Your Passion Changes Everything. Viking Adult. p.311
| 83
solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings. This
definition implies that marks or scores are not a real piece of evidence to measure intelligence.
There is not just one way of thinking and conceiving the world, actually there are several ones.
Every different field of human society has been developed by experts on varied issues, that is to
say, they managed different types of intelligences that allowed them to be successful in a specific
area. There are no better or worse ways of intelligence, there are many diverse ones. The fact
that intelligence is conceived as an ability means that more than a genetic component it is a skill
to be developed.
I have posited that all human beings are capable of at least seven different
ways of knowing the world -- ways that I have elsewhere labeled the seven
human intelligences. According to this analysis, we are all able to know the
world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation,
musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an
understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where
individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences --the so-called profile
of intelligences -- and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and
combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in
various domains87 . (p.12)
All humans are born with genetically marked potentialities, although they will be
developed one way or the other depending on the stimuli, socio-cultural context, life
experiences, or emotionality among others.
Teachers are conscious about this issue, considering that every class is composed by
several forms of behavior. Every single student is different from the other considering social,
economic, familiar or cultural backgrounds, resulting in a wide variety of interests, personalities
or strengths. Now that there is awareness of the multiple intelligences, there is even more
questioning on proper teaching methods for all students.
87
Gardner, H. (2011). The unschooled mind. Basic books. p.12
| 84
Figure 15: Multiple Intelligences
A Spatial/Visual (Picture smart)

B Logical/Mathematical (number
smart)
C Musical (music smart)
D Linguistic (word smart)
E Bodily/Kinesthetic (body smart)
F Intrapersonal (self smart)
G Interpersonal (people smart)
Traditionally, students used to be treated as a homogeneous group with the same needs
and capabilities. Education followed a behaviorist approach exclusively, with teachers repeating
contents to all students and receiving memorized answers in a specific period of time. Students
were treated as empty vases that should be filled with the teachers knowledge. Evaluations were
the same for everyone and focused on memorizing contents, rewarding those who were the best
according to these parameters. Nowadays, these methodologies are still observed, although they
have proven to be mistaken if nothing else is applied. Methodologies must include different
educational models so as to engage most students.
... some acknowledgement that people do learn, represent and utilize
knowledge in many different ways is important to my argument (...) these
differences challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone can
learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure
suffices to test student learning. (...) I argue that a contrasting set of assumptions
is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are
identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students -- and perhaps the
society as a whole -- would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a
| 85
number of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means88 .

(pp.12-13)
It is one of the teachers responsibilities to get involved with the group by getting to
know the students better so as to identify the different characteristics of the class, of the
individual, of the group diversity, of the weaknesses, of the strengths and of the interactions.
This investment of time helps to construct a solid teacher-student relation and a learning process
of quality. The theory of Multiple Intelligences is just the preliminary stage to construct a
harmonious learning environment.
Some teaching implications should be focused on applying this theory in the classroom
by encouraging students to use their own skills and abilities to transform the learning process
into a creative and accessible one. When they have a more advanced type of intelligence they
should take advantage of it from the beginning. If a student presents a developed musical
intelligence the teacher should encourage this student to apply this knowledge in the learning and
acquisition of second language, as well as any other student presenting a different type of
intelligence.
If different ways of entry are applied by teachers, any form of learning will be effective,
implying a flexible view on the methodologies to use as a way to present more than one chance
for every student. Of course it may be extremely difficult to include all the multiple intelligences
in every single class, but the awareness of the teacher, having a clear view of the intelligences
interacting in the class, will be constantly creating options for students through different
strategies. In addition to this, low developed intelligences should also be encouraged to be fullgrown. As Gardner (2011) states:
Not only are chances of acquiring understanding enhanced if multiple entry
points are recognized and utilized, but in addition, the way in which we
conceptualize understanding is broadened. Genuine understanding is most
likely to emerge, and be apparent to others, if people possess a number of ways
of representing knowledge of a concept or skill and can move readily back and
forth among these forms of knowing 89 . (p.13)
88
89
Gardner, H. (2011). The unschooled mind. Basic books. pp.12-13

Ibid.p.13
| 86
3.4 Applied Grammar

Considering the main issue of generative grammar into the field of formal instruction of a
second language, the following will tend to explain the relation between them. How UG bases
can be applied into the formal education of the language is key realm according to this chapter
where the first step is to underline some of the most important facts in relation to UG.
UG is a system of rules able to create all the possible sentences, taking into account that
this system, UG, is underdetermined by phonetics (phonological component), syntax (syntactical
component) and semantics (semantic component). To begin it is advisable to say that the
phonological component defines the phonetic form of a sentence generated by the syntactic rules,
which in other words means that the phonological component makes the syntactic product be
represented by a particular and specific sound, directly attached to the surface structure. The
semantic component, on the other hand, is in charge of the semantic representation or
interpretation, and relates the syntactic product to a particular meaning being directly represented
by the deep structure. Consequently, the phonological and the semantic component are both mere
interpretations produced by syntax.
On the one hand there are two possible ways how grammars can be justified. The first
better known as the linguistic intuition can represent or describe the objects of the real world. In
reference to the internal systems, a grammar can be justified in the sense that it allows the
primary linguistic data to be internalized, associated, and then used.
According to this rationale, language cannot be really taught and the only possible way to
solve this problem is to provide students with the proper conditions under which they would be
able to develop this spontaneously. Therefore, the grammatical rules and their inherent properties
will never reach a domain if there is a lack of appropriate experience to turn the language into
factual operation. Furthermore, as The principles of grammar form an important, and very
curious, part of the philosophy of the human mind 90 , the language faculty is the only ability of
the human brain. Thus, formal instruction must be prepared to deal with all the rest of human
faculties to solve the problem of language learning.
90
Beattie, (1788) cited in Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. M IT Press. p.59
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Consequently, as the interest of teaching real language has been questioned along the time
due to traditional doctrines of how to teach grammar, the communicative language teaching has
come to stay in the teaching of an L2 and states that communication cannot take place in the
absence of structure, or grammar, or a set of shared assumptions about how language
works....91 . It is necessary to say that the language competence must be part of the
communicative competence (Savignon, 2009). Considering the students needs, L2 learning can
be seen as conflictive if there is not a clear aim to direct the language instructors doing; on one
side the students need to know rules just to be graded on, and on the other side the students can
have a real communication if they are living in an L2 country; thus, the necessity to find the best
way to combine the form and meaning to teach an L2.
To solve this conundrum, teachers may work on integrative grammar which is
characterized by a combination or integration of meaning and form. Spada and Lightbown (2006)
have also argued that form focused instruction and corrective feedback provided within the
context of communicative interaction can contribute positively to second language development
in both the short and long term 92 . One of the most optimal and remarkable features of this
approach is the ability of wrapping all different abilities and intelligences in spite of having
different needs and varied kind of students; this approach is able to create the corresponding
conditions so as to make everyone learn inside a classroom. In the same sense students are able
to learn rules explicitly, but then they must be given the chance to put them into practice in real
and authentic tasks. She also adds that the students can be given the opportunity of scrutinizing
the language rules in one sentence so as to see how rules work.
A further point within the approach of Integrative Grammar is the strong hypothesis
supported by Vygotsky (2003) where he recalls upon the importance of the healthy relation
among the cognitive development and the learning process. Similar to the principles of the
Integrative Grammar that encourages interaction while learning, Vygotsky mentions that
interaction with the social environment is fundamental in the cognitive development since from
the very beginning of life children start looking upon their parents to reach acceptance from
society. Coherent to that idea there is the ZPD or Zone of Proximal Development which can be
defined as the gap or step among two different stages. Firstly, children explore by themselves
91
Savignon, S.J. (2002). Communicative Language Teaching: Linguistics Theory and Classroom Practice. Interpreting
communicative language teaching: contexts and concerns in teacher education, 1-27. p.7
92
Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2006). How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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and, later with the help of a more skilled and experienced person they become more skillful. It is
upon this base that the first grounds of teaching can be found as it is clear that through a mediator
the students learn and accomplish different objectives along the time. Taking into consideration
all these previous backgrounds, it is time to refer to the main issue of this chapter which seems to
be the perfect combination of meaning and form in Integrative Grammar: the EEE method
(exploration, explanation and expression) which was presented by the Russian psychologist Pavel
V. Sysoyev (1999;2012).
Exploration is considered to be the first stage. As inductive learning takes place,
statements can be given a certain list of sentences underdetermined by a particular rule. After this
first exposure they are asked to find similar patterns to formulate the rule. As exploration can be
considered exciting, it becomes an outstanding tool imparting motivation among the students as
they are given the opportunity to find out everything, being able to ask only when necessary. A
common feature in this stage is to highlight the endings or the important words so as to discover
the rule easier.
According to Integrative Grammar, explanation is to be considered the second step in the
process of learning. As an ensuing necessary step to the exploration, after having found the
patterns and similarities in the sentences given, the teacher wraps all the information discovered,
focusing on the surface structure. The explanation of rules helps student feel safer, since they can
know how the construct works in this level of structure.
Expression is the final step in the L2 learning process, after having discovered the patterns
in the surface structure of the given sentences and after clarifying the hidden rules; in this period
the students start producing meaningful constructs thinking about real communication and
interactive tasks. The aim of this stage is to provide students with meaningful practice so as to
apply all the knowledge acquired in previous levels. In reference to principles and features of UG
it can be said that as motivation is raised learners can put into practice what they have learned;
not only can they find the real meaning of the sentence in relation to the deep structure, but also
when and where to use it (pragmatic competence).
Having described the main steps of how the EEE method theoretically works, it is the
opportunity to expose and explain along the following lines an actual serial of lessons taken from
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a study made by Sysoyev (1999;2012) so as to see the real effect and results in the students. It is
worth mentioning that the students under study were:
4 Russian collegiate
2 Ukrainian collegiate
1 Taiwanese collegiate
3 Chinese collegiate
Moreover, all of them had scores lower than 500 points in TOEFL and were also involved
in an ESL context with great previous experience in their native countries.
Taken all these
characteristics into consideration the last point to mention is that the grammar focus of the unit
was the formation and use of the present simple.
Rule to teach: The ending s with the verbs in third person singular.
Stage 1: Exploration
The teacher gives the students the following sentences.
Then they are asked to find the hidden pattern within the sentences.
Script of the first stage:
1.
T: Now, I want you to look at the board. You will see several sentences. In some of them
we add "-s" to the verb, in some we do not. (T points at every sentence.) Thus, where
ending "s" is, it is underlined (sentences 2 and 3). In sentences where we don't have "-s"
(points at 1, 4, and 5) the underlining shows where it could be. Words in bold determine
whether we should add "-s" to verbs or not. Your task will be to think why we sometimes
use and sometimes don't use "-s" with verbs. Imagine yourself being scholars who are
finding the pattern or making a new rule. Do you see any sequence?
2.
Chien: because of the ... how do you say the ... the nouns in the first.
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3.
T: OK, so we do not use ending -s with "I", right?
4.
Chien: Yes.
5.
T: Ok. We don't use it with an "I". Do we use it with "mother"?
6.
Chien: Yea.
7.
T: Is it only with "mother" or with any noun?
8.
...
9.
T: ok is "mother" singular or plural?
10.
Olga: Singular, right?
11.
T: If instead of "mother" we use a different word, such as "father" or "son" will we put
ending "s" or not?
12.
Olga: Yea, because that singular, right? If it is singular we should put "s."
13.
T: But "I" is also in singular.
14.
Olga: Yea
15.
T: And "mother" is in singular.
16.
Olga: Yea
17.
T: So, why do we add "s" to the verb used with "mother" and don't add "s" with "I"?
18.
Olga: ...
19.
Chien: Because I is a first ... what is that?
20.
T: First person.
21.
Chien: Ye, and that's the third person.
22.
T: That is a third person. Right. So, we do not add "s" with the nouns in the third person.
Good, so, if we pass to "Water boils at 100 C". What is here?
23.
Olga: We use -s in singular, right, and that is a third person, no not a third person ...
24.
Alex: Third person? Yea.
25.
T: Third person. That is correct. Ok, now let's go to the examples number 4 and number 5.
Here we have "friends play" and "they ride."
26.
Olga: That is plural, right? My friends play tennis with we, that is right because that's the
plural, right?
27.
T: Hu hu.
28.
Olga: And they ride cycles. That's right, because it is plural too.
29.
T: Good. So, can we form a rule?
30.
Chien: Yes, you mean?
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31.
T: In what cases we add
32.
Alex: -s at the end of the verbs?
33.
T: Yea.
34.
Alex: If the noun is singular and third person and this is present simple tense we add -s at
the end of the verbs.
35.
T: And if it is in plural?
36.
Alex: we don't put -s.
Source: Sysoyev, P. (1999). Integrative L2 Grammar Teaching: Exploration, Explanation and Expression. The Internet TESL
Journal, 5(6). Quoted in: The international Research Foundation for English Language Education. (2012). Grammar
Instruction:Selected References. Retrieved from http://www.tirfonline.org/.
Analysis of Exploration stage

In this stage the teacher gives way to group exploration by asking them to find the pattern.
Then he elicits their answers. The way the teacher invites the student to work (see turn 1) has
proved to have tremendous and powerful effects on students. Since it contains several other
messages within it helps the students to motivate themselves to look and discover the rule and to
be active participants of their own process of learning, being able to research to find answers. All
this course or flow of interaction among teacher-students must be under the control of the same
teacher, since there can be misunderstandings or confusions with the rules that the monitor must
solve in order to put the students in the right trail. A clear example of this situation is in L2 where
a student tends to clearly over generalize the rule, which in turn 13 the teacher rearrange the
student in the correct trail. Furthermore, in turn 15 to 17 the teacher raises cognitive processes by
asking them to find the differences in singular person, specifically among I, He and She.
The interaction in the class is clearly governed by the teacher who is the only person who
monitors and manages the entire situation. However this relation among teacher-student
sometimes breaks into student-student which represents an optimal condition for learning. When
this break happens there is a clear example of the ZPD theory. The students begin the unit only
with the knowledge they have and with the help of the teacher they are able to improve their
knowledge of the rules. As soon as they feel that they domain the rule, they will clearly break
into the teacher-student interaction producing the student-student interaction. Furthermore and
behind all this first stage, the hidden interactional sequence can be noticed to understand the
grammatical structure. At the very beginning of the class the students are waiting for the task
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assignment and then they are given the responsibility of finding the rule by looking at a set of
sentences.
Practically, the paraphrasing role is highly relevant inside the cognitive process of
learning. When the teacher has no answer from the student instead of directly giving them the
correct answer, the teacher decides to ask in a difficult way so the students can be able to provide
what is expected from them and fill in the information gap (see turn 10 and 32). Moreover, a
major form used by the teacher is the use of questions so as not to give the response directly. The
students ask the teacher to confirm if what they are uttering is correct. It is easily noticeable in
turns 10, 23, 26, 32 when they use the word right?, expecting confirmation from the teacher.
Stage 2: Explanation
Having finished the exploration stage, the explanation one is above to start. In this level
the teacher must explain the grammatical rule explicitly. In here the level of the students is
significant for it can allow students to be independent from the textbook.
Excerpt of the second stage:
T: Very good. You proved to be very good scholars and found the rule correctly. You
were right. In using the present simple tense, we add ending s (-es) to the verb in the first person
singular, that is, when it refers to 'he,' 'she,' and 'it,' like in our examples: 'My mother works at the
IBM company,' and 'Water boils at 100 C' (shows on the board). In the other cases, like you can
see here (points at the other examples) we have just the infinitive of the verb or the way it is in
the dictionary without 'to.' You can use Present Simple tense to describe what you or others
usually/often/sometimes do. For example, "My wife's name is Linda. She works at the Giant. She
is a cashier. She likes to talk to people," and so on. Or we can use this tense to talk about facts
that represent a universal truth. For example, The sun rises in the East. Water boils at 100 C.
Analysis of the second stage
The procedure the teacher uses is based on cognitivism. No matter the examples provided
by the book, the teacher gives authentic examples of the daily life so as to create a bridge
between theory and real use. The teacher must do that to create a connection among the examples
and the prior explicit rules so as to build their learning on what they have discovered in the first
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stage. On the other hand authentic examples are not only meaningful, but also helpful as ensuing
models of usage in real interaction.
Stage 3: Expression
In this stage the teacher divides the class in pairs and gives them the task.
Script of the third stage:
1.
T: Now split into pairs and tell your partner about each of your family members,
friends, relatives: where they live, where they work, what they like to do, and so on.
You can imagine some things, if you want. Like not having a brother; imagine that and
think of what he does. After you listen to each other's stories, you will be asked to
report to the whole group about your partner's family or friends. Ok? Do you have any
questions?
2.
Ss: ...
Students split into pairs and began working in pairs. Interestingly, the tape recorder
had been placed near one pair (Olga and Alla), who apparently did not see it. Their
discussion was extremely valuable and interesting.
3.
Olga: So what we need to do?
4.
Alla: I will tell you about my family and you tell me about your. Then I will tell them
about you and you about me.
5.
Olga: So I ... not tell them about me?
6.
Alla: No. You will tell them about me and I will tell them about you. Is it ok?
7.
Olga: ye.
8.
Alla: ok. My family is very big. I have mother, father, two sisters and a brother.
9.
Olga: Wow, How old are they?
10.
Alla: I don't know about parents. Tanya, my sister is 12, Dasha, another sister is 16, and
Anton ... my brother is 14.
11.
Olga: They are smaller than you.
12.
Alla: Yes. So, now I will tell you about them.
13.
Olga: OK
14.
Alla: Tanya go ... goes to school. She likes to read books about love.
15.
Olga: Wow. I like about love also.
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16.
Alla: Dasha plays on the piano. She goes to the musical school in my town. She plays
very good. My brother Anton likes video games. He plays SEGA. And my parents
works ... oh work at school.
17.
T: How are you doing here? Do you have any questions?
18.
Alla: No, it's ok.
19.
Olga: it's ok.
20.
T: ok.
21.
Olga: Your parents teach?
22.
Alla: Yes, they are teachers and they teach mathematics. Now, what about you?
23.
Olga: ok. My family is small. My mother, father and I. My mother work at factory.
24.
Alla: You must say "works".
25.
Olga: ok. Works at factory. Why?
26.
Alla: because mother is one, singular and third person, remember?
27.
Olga: oh, yes. I forgot. My father works in his office. He is a businessman. He like ..ss
to read newspapers about politics and likes to eat tasty food.
28.
Alla: Does your mother cook or you go to the restaurants?
29.
Olga: Yes.
30.
Alla: what yes?
31.
Olga: ah?
32.
Alla: does your mother cook and you eat at home or you go to a restaurant? (more
emphatically)
33.
Olga: oh, at home. We eat at home. Yes, my mother cook..ss good food.
34.
Olga: so, what do we need to do now?
35.
Alla: he will ask me to tell about you and you will tell him about me.
36.
Olga: ye, ye, ye.
37.
T: Ok. Now your time is up. Now everyone will need to tell the whole class about your
partner. Who wants to start.
In transcribing, I decided to pass other students' answers and go to the pair near the
tape-recorder.
38.
T: OK. Now, it is your turn. Who would like to begin, Olga or Alla?
39.
Alla: I want.
40.
T: ok.
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41.
Alla: Here is Olga. Her family is small. Her mother works at the factory and her father
is a businessman. He likes tasty food, and he ... goes to the restaurants. And her mother
cooks good food. And Olga studies English, he he.
42.
T: Very good. It is so nice if a woman cooks well. Right? Ok. What about you Olga?
Tell us about Alla's family.
43.
Olga: Alla's family is big. Her father work and mother work, I mean her father and
mother work at school. They teach mathematics. Her sister plays on the piano, and
another sister reads books about love, he he.
44.
T: So, Alla has two sisters? And one plays the piano. Interesting.
45.
Olga: yes, she has two sisters. And she has one brother. He like(s) SEGA ... likes to
play ... SEGA.
Source: Sysoyev, P. (1999). Integrative L2 Grammar Teaching: Exploration, Explanation and Expression. The Internet TESL
Journal, 5(6). Quoted in: The international Research Foundation for English Language Education. (2012). Grammar
Instruction:Selected References. Retrieved from http://www.tirfonline.org/.
Analysis of the third stage

As opposite to the first stage where the teacher establishes a teacher-student interaction,
here the teacher establishes a student-student interaction. As it can be appreciated, the students
are sitting in pairs having roles or turns to speak about their respective relatives of families by
using the Present Simple Tense. As a consequence of taking turns in the group, both of the
students will have the even chance to participate.
Working in pairs can be advantageous, though the teacher must be aware of some aspects
such as different levels of performance, the students relation or he disposition to work. As it
happens in this stage, the teacher asks the students if there is any question in relation to the
assignment. The fact that no questions are made does not necessarily mean that the task is clear.
As Olga asks about the activity to her classmate, she relays on her in a way that Alla becomes the
leader. As feeling responsible for the achievement of the task, Alla feels worried about the form
as well. That is the reason why she corrects herself (see turn 14 and 16) and also her classmate
Olga when she makes mistakes. Not only do these corrections at this point of the Exposition
justify the methodology in all the previous stages, but also when she says remember, going
back to the cognitive previous stages. Sometimes, she focuses on form along the last stage (see
turn 24); most of this stage is based in the deep structure by the semantic component, reflecting
the main issue of the social nature, that is to say, interaction. The best example is in turn 9, where
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Olga redirects the conversation into "How old are they?" to get new information being a properly
natural reaction of a conversation. Furthermore, there are two extra situations that show natural
components of a colloquial conversation. When Alla tells the ages of her brothers, Olga keeps on
giving a natural reply: They are smaller than you (see turn 11). Or, after Alla tells that Dasha
likes reading love books, Olga again gives a natural reply (see turn 15).
One of the advantages of working in pairs, or in groups as it happens in the last stage of
the EEE instructional method, is that it creates some space, enabling frightened or shy students to
negotiate, to clarify and to accomplish the task by themselves, shifting from deep to surface
structure, from form to meaning, or from syntactic to semantic component, therefore resulting in
a spontaneous use of the target language.
Finally, during the previous pages a strong evidence about grammar applied in real use
and within formal instruction has been given. This EEE method has been provided to show that
student can relate all the features of grammar such as semantics, syntax and the inherent
phonological components into one performance. Over the procedure of this method the students
are eager to discover the rule by implying cognitive processes, then they are shaped in exactness
of surface structures and finally they are given the opportunity to interact by the integration of the
semantic component into a pragmatic approach. In this way, the teacher is not a passive teller, but
just a skilled person who monitors the student in the process of learning. Therefore, by the end of
the unit the students will produce spontaneous speech under the control of the instructor, being
able to underdetermine both grammatical structure levels into just one process.
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IV. Methodological framework

It is of great interest in this chapter to point to the particularity of the epistemological
paradigm that sustains Socio Constructionism as a theoretical approach and a pertinent view for
the social science studies. Constructionism is validated as a coherent interdisciplinary corpus to
give an account of the cultural phenomenon while it proposes the theoretical and methodological
principles that postulate it as an important input for contemporary studies in the areas of
psychology, sociology or philosophy, among others, appealing to the central concepts of their
principles according to the studies made by Kenneth Gergen (2009).
4.1 Introduction of the paradigm

The traditional dominant paradigm is related to the pretention of maintaining the natural
sciences referents in its knowledge construction, henceforth, they have adopted an interest to
reach validated universal postulates in which an investigator becomes interested in a reality with
one perspective or possible view, a reality that is external and autonomous, proportioning
evidence through a strict method. According to this, the researcher is conceived as a neutral
individual that approximates to the reality just as it can be observed, looking for real and valid
knowledge sustained in the precise domains of the methodological lineament from which an
objective knowledge is obtained. However, these ideas are questioned by scientific movements
that propose explicative and interpretative interests of the human scope, introducing a break with
the traditional form of knowledge accomplishment, according to transformations on the notions
of individuals and awareness and reality (or object) of the knowledge.
According to the idea of object/reality, the ontology proposes that the reality is not
unique, but variable, dynamic and multiple, in a way that it is not possible to obtain an ultimate
and definite knowledge about it. As object/reality is conceived this way, the conception of
knowledge itself varies in a sense that rules are not established and there is not one truth. In fact,
it is symbolically re-constructed through the process of knowledge, acquiring a new meaning due
to conceiving it as a product of the interaction made to the constructor of the reality, a being
immersed in a network of relationships (hence, significations) who knows the marks that the
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context
established
in
the conception of reality (variable,
multi-caused
and
open to
interpretation).
It is in this framework that Socio Constructivist studies of the human sciences find its
fundament and support to advance towards more flexible and dynamic methodological strategies,
in which the experience of the researcher acquires a main role, becoming an antecedent of
posterior approaches.
4.1.1 Assumptions and dimensions
There are five fundamental assumptions proposed as epistemological, theoretical and
methodological basis of constructionism that establish a starting point for the comprehension of
human, social and cultural phenomena:
a. There are not privileged forms of knowledge of reality (truth). It corresponds to the
idea that there is not a particular discursive configuration that explains reality just as it
is,
especially when dealing with human realities measured by processes of
symbolization and collective signification that have been transformed along human
history. From this position, the conception of the world is a product from historical
agreements on specific contexts. Similarly, it tries to approximate to a world that does
not control what humans do of it, but to comprehend it as a set of concerted and
negotiated versions; in other words, conventions that constantly circulate and vary on
time, which can be nominated as constructs that function as comprehensive concepts
rather than truths about particular realities. It is important to bear in mind that Socio
Constructionism is based on a paradigm that dismisses traditional ways of knowledge,
especially from a criticism to the dogmatic forms that can be imposed.
b. Reality and the self, find their origins through relationships. Many traditions have
pretended to give an account of the symbolic world as an abstract structure without
individuals. However, significations of the language and the general symbolism are
presented in daily relationships among individuals, thanks to the use of language
given in coordination between people and the world. This is how every speech
emerges from a community of language users that are constantly constructing, resignifying,
and
reconstruction.
transforming the referent frameworks as a process of world
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c. The primary function of language is social action, constituted by multiple versions.

This assumption is closely related to the previous one, due to the fact that
relationships are social actions that sustain the constitution of individuals, groups, or
society, that is to say, the culture. Gergen (2009) sustains that words acquire a certain
meaning through human relationships in the pragmatics of the language, according to
the performing function of language that makes it an action that reaches signification
only in the scope of relationships, as behaviors acquire meaning only in the
interchange among people. What is referred to as the real world is only a product of
the accomplished agreements in the human coordination. In this sense, to be a
participant of language is to take part of a cultural tradition that gives a space for
humans to construct their own versions of themselves, their interaction, and their
reality in a strictly local manner that cannot be interpreted in a universal code.
d. The discursive constitution of versions is essential for the emergency of the self and
realities. The fundamental role that language acquires from the Socio Constructivist
perspective is related to the way in which it configures the individual in the
interactions, since when being in coordination with others the world becomes
significant for the individual and from that point this one constructs identities
according to interests, goals, ideals, values, or shared passions. It is through the
relationships that the individual introduces him/herself to the society and creates an
external world that acquires a particular signification form while separating from
others. As a consequence, it is possible to track networks of shared significations in
the social organizations, groups, or institutions that follow an ethical function of
constructing a particular type of person that affiliates to certain regimes that,
simultaneously, include and exclude him/her of specific relations.
e. Through communicative relationships new orders of meaning so as new forms of
action are generated. As meaning is a human construction, situated between
preexisting parameters and coordinated actions, it is always open to transformation, to
the creation of possible worlds. From this view, the constructionist project supports
processes of social transformation that would imply games, creations, experiments,
and other forms of action, out of the habitual parameters, that through new forms of
communication and dialogue models explore what is forgotten, unexpected, or
different so as to dynamize, modify, and intervene in the domains of social action.
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From these principles, three main central concepts articulating the proposals become
evident: language, relationship, and culture. Every one of these points attend specific problems,
granting the Social Constructionism the identity of an interdisciplinary proposal.
These lines of thought propose a reflexive and critical awareness that explores the facts
and human values that, so far, have been set as rightful and general, due to the lack of recognition
of realities and concepts that are product of traditions of interaction (relational) such as
permanent, constant, and daily dialogues in the human interchange. In this sense, the importance
focuses on the ways of reality generated in the scientific and professional domain, either
economy, politics, philosophy, or natural and human sciences as forms that intervene in the way
individuals conceive themselves, others and the social world in general.
This research is focused on accomplishing proper suitable strategies to the different
contexts with the participation of the social actors, emphasizing how knowledge is built
collectively according to the space and time in which they are located by using the traditional
parameters in a more flexible way, by adapting them and by making them relevant.
4.1.2 The approach of knowledge
A particular slant of this study makes strong reference to the perspectives of knowledge
and how this can be seen or considered. Consequently, Gergen (2007) indicates that knowledge
can be seen as an element external or internal to the human mind. Under this interpretation,
knowledge can be regarded as endogenous and exogenous; the former centered in the mind,
whereas the latter focuses in the world. In spite of the current mind-world duality, there is a
strong agreement that knowledge is reached when the mind is able to represent with exactness the
real world. It is widely common to see how the exogenous thinker tend to observe and appreciate
with care and detail the acquisition of knowledge, considering the emotions and values as
subjective risks that can interfere in the process of learning; through observation of the external
world knowledge can be reached. On the contrary, despite having the same mind-world duality
and the same consideration about values or beliefs, the exogenous approach states that knowledge
can be reached by disposition of individual characteristics and abilities of the brain.
Into
the educational matters, the endogenous and exogenous perspectives make
outstanding differences. On the one hand, an exogenous based teacher is primarily focused on the
elementary natural inputs needed to obtain an exact mental representation of the external world;
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on the other, an endogenous-based teacher is centered in the intrinsic human abilities which are
natural or innate to create knowledge. Furthermore, these slants (the endogenous and the
exogenous) are also used as possible rationales to justify educational bases in the current system;
the exogenous realm is focused in the subject or curriculum, considering the student as an empty
element to be filled with particular information of the actual world by the promotion of books and
formal classes. What is more, the common features of the exogenous approach have strong
relation with the use of marks and formative assessments, meaning how much and how well the
empty element has been filled.
On the contrary, the endogenous approach concentrates on the student and not in the
quantity of contents or curriculum. In this sense, it is really important the issue of how the student
can think and make rationales by the use of different contents; in other words, how a common
student can use mathematics, philosophy or international languages to think and solve problems.
Therefore, instead of being preoccupied about the amount of matters, subjects, contents, grades
and marks, this approach promotes the discussion inside the classroom, the essays and the
reflection so as to encourage the use of real cognitive and autonomous rationale.
Notwithstanding, the exogenous approach can also serve to non-desired purposes, since
according to the impossibility (from theorist and philosophers) of answering how the mind
acquire the external world knowledge, the traditional educational principles can be considered
weak. Under the same traditional system, the students have been invited to consider themselves
as egocentric entities, lonely discoverers and individual researchers. It comes to favor a
narcissistic point of view where the similar and social aspect can be left aside. Furthermore, it
does not serve the final aim of a real education because it is promoting a me perspective: me
against you, or we against them, which later can also promote the use of armors and
contamination since they are considered products of individualism. We are not then speaking of
abstract and arcane philosophy, but of a system of beliefs that in certain respects may be inimical
to global wellbeing93 .
Nonetheless, a social construction is raised in education, having in mind that knowledge is
not a product of individualism, but a product of the individuals within the communitarian
93
Gergen, K. (2001). Social Construction in Context. SAGE. p.118
| 102
interchange, giving lights that the beginning of knowledge is the continuum coordination of
action (interaction) among human beings.
4.1.2.1 The pedagogical doing
According to the final aim of education that is to serve the worldwide welfare, it can be
said that the current Nutritionist model according to Freire (1998b), are not the corresponding
bases to reach the objective. Briefly explained, this systematical model is completely hierarchical
in which the only real and accepted knowledge is the one provided by the scientific community.
In the trail of hierarchy, the expert in curricula can be found followed by the administrators that
diligently select the contents. In the final step teachers are found, but just to be mere instruments
to fill the students, with the exclusive objective of giving the students knowledge.
Unfortunately, and in spite of having real support from most of the educational systems,
this schemata is showing how the students are passive beings waiting to absorb the knowledge
that is provided by the higher steps in the hierarchy line. From the socio-constructionist point of
view, the position and the order in the hierarchy do not serve the real and final purpose of
education as the discourse of foreign language has been transferred from the higher steps. This
knowledge of the foreign language to be taught in the last stages is completely weaken and
inadequate, and finally the only way to solve the problem is by giving the students a voucher
saying do not complain, this matter is worthwhile. The learning of a language becomes
meaningful through practice. There are many contents in a foreign language, but none of them
will be meaningful until practice is not provided. The simple present rules can be learned and
grasped in the classroom, but the expertise and real meaning will be reached when this content
interferes in a particular aspect of the life.
To conclude it can be said that education is the tool to domain and store knowledge from
external information; the pedagogical doing is really worth when it is able to provide meaningful
context to the students. Thus, the final aim of education does not deal with the exogenous
perspective, with the passive storing of knowledge, or with theories and heuristics, but with the
necessary content in which the discourse (subject and contents) can match the practice so as to
promote further interest and research.
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4.2 Type of study

The study of the investigation presented in this chapter pretends to analyze an instrument
that has focused on the different techniques that students prefer to learn a new language. This
instrument allows a more realistic and concrete view of the students options, preferences, likes
or desires in relation to the learning and acquisition of an L2. The concern on this topic emerges
from the wide differences that exist among the students of the same region in relation to their
levels of language performance. Schools are extremely diverse in their aims, visions and goals in
terms of students profiles, graduates expectations, modalities, infra-structures, teaching staff, or
directive board, among several other factors that interfere in the educative process of each
individual
The objective of this research is to identify the different types of intelligences that can be
found in a class, from the most important to the least common ones, in order to guide teachers
and all agents involved in the educational process to apply certain methodologies that will
potentiate the students intelligence through the use of appropriate techniques. This study
introduces a comparison of the different socio-cultural realities seen at those institutions.
4.2.1 Instrument applied

Checklist:
It is an instrument that identifies certain behavior regarding attitudes, abilities or skills. It
contains a list of accomplishment indicators that help to verify, in a specific moment, the
presence or absence of these through the students performance (see Appendix 1). This
instrument permits to collect precise information about associated behavior manifestations or
learning. It is through this that evidence can be gathered from particular situations such as the
performance of a musical instrument, the manipulation of objects, the realization of experiments,
the elaboration of an artistic choreography, the physical exertions, the making of an oral speech,
etc. Likewise, it can gather data related to the students relationships by observing their attitudes
towards a certain fact, opinion, institutional rule, state law, etc.
The indicators taken into account are based on different techniques of language learning
and acquisition. They are presented in a double entrance chart, in which the first one contains 97
| 104
indicators organized vertically and the other entrance contains the categories of answers,
consisting on I do it and I would like to do it, leaving the negative answers as a blank space. For
every selected indicator, one point is assigned.
4.2.2 Context
The investigation was made in two educational institutions, Sara Braun and San Jos High
schools.
Sara Braun
The Sara Braun High school B3 is a polyvalent municipal institution, with specialty
classes of Nursing Attention, Tourism Services, Social and Recreational Attention, and Sales.
There is one class, though, that follows a scientific-humanistic modality. The school counts with
an enrollment of 280 students from 8th grade to 4th medio classes, in which the average per class
is of 20 students. Its vision is based on accomplishing an integrative, equitable, and inclusive
quality formation in a joint effort of the educative community. The students develop
competences, principles and fundamental values for their life, aspects that allow them to become
agents of change in the current society by assuming responsibly the environmental care. The
mission of the school consists of strengthening the students integral and multidisciplinary
development, potentiating the competences and capacities with a great commitment towards the
environment through a fundamental scientific humanistic and technological cross-curricular
teaching. There are some important aspects to consider that interfere in the learning process of
the students, concerning attendance that is of 82% (something that has improved in the last
months) and the failing rate that is of 11,1%. A very important program is the one of Integration
that considers students with different educational needs which may be intellectual, motor
functional, or psychological. From the totality of the students, 48 of them are part of this program
and most of them are exempted from English classes. A similar project elaborated by the school
is called the Passing Room, which includes all diagnosed students and those with suspicion of
having some special difficulties, but who are not able to be part of the Integration program.
Students participating in this project have mostly behavioral and intellectual complications. They
also assess pregnant girls, who tend to miss most classes. There are 18 students currently being
attended by the Passing Room. The school is also concerned about giving proper psychological
treatment to students; during the last year 20% of the students enrollment was derived to it.
| 105
A fact the school is very proud of is that the Nobel Prize winner, Gabriela Mistral, was
part of the educative community, leaving an important legacy in the institution and the region.
In relation to the infrastructure, the Sara Braun High school has a Center of Resources for
Learning (mostly known as the library) which counts with a wide collection of literary books and
enough English dictionaries. There are also three computer laboratories with internet access. In
relation to the spaces of the school, there are enough rooms for every class, program or group,
although while some of them are enormous, others are extremely small.
There is a total of two English teachers in the school who must accomplish them with four
pedagogical hours (of 40 minutes) in the 1 st and 2nd medio classes a week, three hours in the 3rd
and 4th medio classes, and two hours in technical classes. It is worth mentioning that the
percentage of exigency in the evaluations is of just 50%.
Figure 16: Sara Braun's organization chart
DIRECTIVE
BOARD
Parents and
Tutors
Council
Students
Council
General
Inspection
Technical
Pedagogical
Unit
School
Board
Secretary
Psycho
pedagogue
Students
Counseling
Technical
Professional
Coordination
Specialty Heads
Secretary
Secretary
Heads of Department
Head Teachers
Teachers
Education Assistants
Social
Assistant
STUDENTS
Psychology
Parents and Tutors
Source: Liceo Sara Braun (2011) Proyecto Educativo Institucional (P.E.I.)
| 106
San Jos
San Jos High school is a subsidised particular school, of scientific-humanistic modality.
It counts with an enrollment of 1128 male students from kindergarten to 4 th medio classes, in
which the average per class is of 43 students. As a catholic school, it belongs to the Salesian
Congregation as other catholic institutions of the region. Its vision is based on Don Boscos
perspective of an educational pastoral community, of quality and leadership in the region. This is
San Jos High school welcomes children and adolescents of different social, economic and
cultural realities. The community offers a scientific-humanistic formation through educativepastoral experiences that help to develop the students spiritual life as well as their cognitive,
affective, psychomotor, and voluntary capacities. The school focuses on having committed
students who will become the leaders of the society and of the church of Magallanes; along with
that, they are also expected to go to college and to be professionals someday. The motto of the
school is Sol sapientiae et scutum fidei (Sun of wisdom and shield of faith).
This institution provides the students with proper facilities such as a library with updated
material not only for English, but also for the rest of the subjects; it also has two laboratories with
excellent technology to make the students be at the avant-garde. Finally, there are three English
teachers for high school who divide the task of teaching into 4 pedagogical hours per grade. It is
worth mentioning that the classes are divided in three separate levels which are: Advanced,
Intermediate, and Elementary.
Figure 17: San Jos organization chart
Supporting Area
Academic Area
Welfare
Teachers
Directive
Board
School
Board
Parents and
Tutors Council
Administration and
Finances Area
Pastoral Area
Education
Assistants
Legal
Advisor
Students
Council
Communication
Area
Source: Liceo San Jos (2011) Proyecto Educativo Institucional (P.E.I.). Retrieved from http://www.liceosanjose.cl/
| 107
Standardized Tests
The first national English standardized test was applied in Chile in 2010 through the
SIMCE (Education Quality Measurement System), as a way to have a clear view of the Chilean
students receptive skills. The scores obtained in Listening and reading Comprehension were
distributed in subscales from 10 to 90 points, while the total score in a scale from 20 to 180
points corresponds to the addition of the scores obtained in each subscale. Those students with a
score equal or over 64 points in Listening Comprehension and equal or over 70 points in Reading
Comprehension are able to reach an A2 level according to the European Common Framework for
Languages.
Table 8: National SIMCE results, 2010
English SIMCE test
Listening Comprehension
Reading Comprehension
Total
Average National Results

48
51
99
Source: M inistry of Education, Curriculum and Evaluation Area (2010)
National percentage of students obtaining certification: 11%

Table 9: San Jos High school average scores
English SIMCE test
Average Score 2010
58
63
Total
121
Percentage of students obtaining certification: 23%

The Chilean Ministry of Education contemplates many classifications for the different
types of educational institutions, being one of them the socio-economic group (SEG). According
to this, San Jos High school is part of the High-medium level where 98% of the students have a
computer and internet access; their parents have over 16 years of schooling and there are no
students in social vulnerability condition.
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Table 10: Comparison of San Jos High school with other schools of the same SEG
English SIMCE test
Comparison with other schools of the same SEG
-1
Total
: The average score of the school is similar to other schools of the same SEG
Table 11: Sara Braun High school average scores

English SIMCE test
Average Score 2010
39
42
Total
81
Percentage of students obtaining certification: 1%

According to the SEG, the Sara Braun High school is part of the Low-medium level
where 58% of the students have a computer and internet access; their parents have between 14
and 15 years of schooling and 76% of the students are in social vulnerability condition, divided in
mental health, physical health, and socio-economic type of problems.
Table 12: Comparison of the Sara Braun High school with other schools of the same SEG
English SIMCE test
Comparison with other schools of the same SEG
-3
-4
Total
-8
: The average score of the school is significantly slower in relation to other schools of the same SEG
| 109
4.2.3 Variables of the study

In the city of Punta Arenas most municipal schools apply a Grammar Translation Method;
many subsidised private schools use a mix of the Communicate language teaching and the Direct
method, and some private schools make use of the Language immersion (as a general view).
However, these are not the only factors to bear in mind in order to develop a second language or
elaborate judgments. The different characteristics of the school and the familiar and socioeconomical background are, among many elements, some aspects that interfere in the teachinglearning process. Hence, some considerations should be taken into account such as the school
language environment, the amount of hours assigned to English classes, the resources that the
school has (ICTs, such as computer, speakers, or OHPs, paper, photocopies, etc.), the spaces of
the school, furniture, students attendance, parents commitment, integrated students, home
resources, school activities and workshops, new students, previous English classes (if there were
any), a comfortable environment, and students commitment. As it is quite complicated to create
the perfect setting to acquire an L2, the vital elements to work with to be successful are
motivation and the multiple intelligences.
4.2.4 Participants
The population sample is formed by different groups of students belonging to both
schools, Sara Braun and San Jos, without distinction of gender, age, school performance, or
behavior. The classes consist of 2nd, 3rd (Scientific-humanistic) and 4th medio (Tourism specialty)
from Sara Braun High school and 2 nd medio at different levels (intermediate and advanced) from
San Jos High school.
4.2.5 Development of the kind of study
The present research is based on the quantitative investigation, in which all the data is
quantified through charts and graphics, with a qualitative interpretation that generates reflections
and analysis.
To do this, the researchers had to use Howard Gardners Multiple Intelligences theory to
see its effectiveness of an L2 acquisition in the schools already mentioned. According to this
psychologist, intelligences are ordered as follows:
| 110
Spatial/Visual (Picture smart)

It consists on the ability to think and form a mental model of the world in three
dimensions. The Spatial/Visual intelligence allows the student to perceive reality, make mental
reproductions, recognize objects in different circumstances, anticipate consequences, compare
objects and relate colors, lines, forms, figures and spaces.
Typical activities related to this type of intelligence consist on the use of technologies,
creation of visual arts, expositions, graphic representations, demonstrations, manipulation of
objects, dramatizations, excursions, creation of collages, signs or sculptures, among others.
Common techniques to learn or acquire a language are:
Making posters
Making
Watching movies
pictures
Watching TV series
Constructing, creating or making crafts
Watching live shows
Painting or drawing
Watching videos
Using visual dictionaries
Playing
video
games
(or
computer,
relations
between
words
and
Using everything in a different language
cellphone, etc.)
(cellphone, Facebook, computer programs,
Surfing the internet
etc.)
Looking at signs on the street
Using didactic cards
Looking, watching or observing labels or

advertising
Logical/Mathematical (Number smart)

This type of intelligence is used to solve problems of logic and mathematics. It
corresponds with a way of thinking of the logical hemisphere and it was commonly been referred
to as the only intelligence or the most important one. The Logical/Mathematical intelligence uses
logic to understand cause and effect, connections, relations and ideas. It allows the students to
develop critical thinking, executing complex calculations, scientific reasoning, and establishing
relations between diverse aspects and to abstract and operate with mental pictures.
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The most typical activities of this type of intelligence are the use of labyrinths, making
crosswords, word searches, mathematical operations, solving numerical problems, using statistics
and analysis and interpreting graphics or schemes.
Playing table games
Making diagrams
Reading papers
Making maps
Reading instructions or manuals
Studying word by word
Following recipes
Using a dictionary freely
Using text books
Studying hardly
Elaborating
lists
of
words
with
their
Making summaries
translation
Making logical relations
Translating
Making lists
Learning the rules of the language
Learning a new word every day
Repeating
Doing worksheets
Memorizing
Making study cards
Making crosswords
Using translators
Being corrected
Memorizing monologues
Musical (Music smart)

This is the ability to understand or communicate emotions and ideas through music in
compositions and its execution. It is also related to the sensibility to music and sounds by
appreciating musical structures, recognizing, creating or reproducing musical schemes. The
Musical intelligence manifests sensibility towards sounds, melodies and rhythms perceiving
different tones.
Distinctive activities of this intelligence are the use of rhythmic patterns, musical
execution, singing and humming, rhythmic games, listening to recorded music, discriminating
sounds, etc.
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Listening to someone reading for me
Listening to people talking
Listening to songs
Inventing rhymes
Singing freely
Distinguishing everything you listen
Singing Karaoke
Linguistic (Word Smart)

It is the ability to use oral and written language to inform, communicate, persuade,
entertain and acquire new knowledge. This type of intelligence uses both hemispheres and it
influences directly the learning and acquisition of languages, understanding the meaning of
words, using words and explaining effectively the development of the sense of humor.
Distinguishing exercises related to this kind of intelligence are creating dialogues,
compositions, debates, readings, rhymes, short stories, poetry, narrations, tongue twisters and
language acquisition.
Listening to the radio or podcasts
Studying full sentences
Making podcasts or streamings
Writing texts (short stories, poems or
Reading books, poetry or plays
phrases)
Reading comics
Writing academic texts
Reading magazines
Watching videos or reading texts that you
Reading short stories
have already seen in your mother tongue
Reading or watching jokes or memes
Participating in forums or blogs
Writing sentences or dialogues.
Emphasizing proper speaking
Reading subtitles
Making clear that the message you want to
Improvising
give is understood
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body smart)

This is the capacity to utilize the body to make activities or solve problems. It is the
ability to use the body and mind in the execution of motor skills, physical assignments and
| 113
manipulation of objects, being related to learning through movements, sports, theatre and
performing studies.
Some of the most usual activities involved with this type of intelligence are using the
body to express ideas and feelings, producing and transforming objects manually, controlling
programmed or involuntary movements, expanding conscience through the body, perceiving the
connection between body and mind, improving corporal functions and mastering mime and sign
language.
Performing a sketch or play
Making activities outdoors
Using gestures or movements
Using puppets, dolls or toys
Dancing
Making imitations
Making exercise
Wearing costumes
Intrapersonal (Self smart)

The Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to take consciousness on the self and knowing
the aspirations,
goals,
emotions,
thoughts, ideas, preferences, convictions, strengths and
weaknesses of the individual. People managing it are able to develop self-assessment,

concentration, reflection, metacognition, self-discipline, personal recognition and expression and
establishing goals.
The most distinctive activities of the Intrapersonal intelligence are the elaboration of selfbiographies,
questionnaires,
inventories,
personal
stories,
reflections,
subjective analysis and personal projections.

Writing registers
Speaking to yourself
Speaking out loud
Inventing comics
Thinking in another language
Studying on their own
Writing notes
Clearing doubts
reflexive
journals,
| 114
Reading out loud
Comprehending what you read
Recording what you say
Being aware of pronunciation
Interpersonal (People smart)

This intelligence allows understanding others. It is the ability to capture feelings and
needs of other people, recognizing and establishing distinctions among them and developing
empathy towards others. People with Interpersonal intelligence know how to establish
relationships through verbal and non-verbal communication, manage leadership skills and work
cooperatively.
Activities concerning Interpersonal intelligence are team projects, conflict solution,
interviews, group discussion, tutorships, pair group and peer assessment.
Meeting people
Keeping distant friends
Living in a different place
Participating in workshops or activities
Attending to an institute or private classes
Interacting with people
Getting used to the language in a context
Participating in a study group
Speaking with other people
Socializing with foreigners
Sticking tags or notes
Emphasizing on good writing
Chatting
In relation to the aforementioned, every instrument applied to the students was assigned
with a number. For each type of intelligence the following classification was made:
Spatial/Visual Logical/Mathematical Musical Linguistic Bodily/Kinesthetic Intrapersonal Interpersonal

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
| 115
4.2.6 Description of the process

A checklist was elaborated to be answered by the different groups of students. In Sara
Braun High school and depending on the attendance, 26 instruments out of 63 students were
applied. In 2nd B 7 instruments, out of 20 students; in 3rd A 11, out of 27; and in 4th C 8, out of 10.
In San Jos High school from a totality of 87 students, 75 instruments were applied at random,
selecting 40 of them. In the Intermediate class (2I) 51 instruments out of 51 students and in the
Advanced class (2A) 30 out of 36. From both classes, 40 instruments were selected at random, 20
from each class (See appendix 1).
The instrument was applied to each class separately, monitoring the process and clarifying
doubts when necessary.
Some limitations concerning the application of the instrument were related to the
students attendance to classes, and the availability of time to answer the check list. An aspect
that affected the application of the instrument was related to the disposition of the person in
charge of the classes.
4.2.7 Results
The charts below show the data gathered from the instruments applied in both educational
institutions:
| 116
Table 13: Sara Braun. Amount of answers for each type of intelligence
4C
3A
2B
MI.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
TOTAL
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
1
14
21
7
13
6
12
11
3
13
1
4
1
4
3
5
2
1
3
0
0
2
2
6
12
5
8
2
5
7
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
6
7
3
6
0
2
2
3
13
20
5
14
3
4
7
10
20
6
13
7
12
11
0
3
4
2
0
2
1
4
10
14
6
8
3
8
7
2
0
3
0
0
2
2
2
4
1
2
0
3
0
5
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
6
5
3
1
0
1
0
10
15
4
8
2
6
5
6
7
3
4
3
1
0
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
2
2
1
1
2
5
7
13
14
4
10
4
8
9
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
5
4
2
3
0
2
2
8
13
15
6
15
3
3
1
4
1
1
3
0
0
0
-
9
6
11
3
5
0
5
2
-
10
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
-
11
9
10
4
9
2
0
1
-
Table 14: Sara Braun. Average of selected techniques per class:

A
TOTAL OF TECHNIQUES
15
4C
11
3A
8
2B
5
SCHOOL TOTAL
8
B
C
D
27
7
17
16
6
11
13
4
8
5
2
4
11
4
8
E
F
G
8
12
11
4
7
7
3
6
5
0
2
2
2
5
5
| 117
Table 15: Sara Braun. Total percentage of Multiple Intelligences for each applied
instrument
MI.
4C
3A
2B
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
1
93,3
77,7
100
76,4
75
100
100
20
48,1
14,2
23,5
12,5
33,3
27,2
33,3
7,4
14,2
17,6
0
0
18,1
2
40
44,4
71,4
47
25
41,6
63,6
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
40
25,9
42,8
35,2
0
16,6
18,1
3
86,6
74
71,4
82,3
37,5
33,3
63,6
66,6
74
85,7
76,4
87,5
100
100
0
11,1
57,1
11,7
0
16,6
9
4
66,6
51,8
85,7
47
37,5
66,6
63,6
13,3
0
42,8
0
0
16,6
18,1
13,3
14,8
14,2
11,7
0
25
0
5
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
40
18,5
42,8
5,8
0
8,3
0
66,6
55,5
57,1
47
25
50
45,4
6
46,6
11,1
57,1
17,6
12,5
0
45,4
6,6
0
0
0
0
0
0
53,3
7,4
28,5
5,8
12,5
16,6
45,4
7
86,6
51,8
57,1
58,8
50
66,6
81,8
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
33,3
14,8
28,5
17,6
0
16,6
18,1
8
86,6
55,5
85,7
88,2
37,5
25
9
26,6
3,7
14,2
17,6
0
0
0
-
9
40
40,7
42,8
29,4
0
41,6
18,1
-
10
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
-
11
60
37
57,1
52,9
25
0
9
-
Table 16: Sara Braun. Average percentages of type of intelligences tendency per each class
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
4C
75,8
58,3
78,6
64,7
46,9
54,1
65,9
3A
52,1
47,5
54,5
46
38,6
45,4
42,9
2B
34,3
19,6
34,6
20,9
5,4
20,2
22
SCHOOL TOTAL
54,1
41,8
55,9
43,9
30,3
39,9
43,6
| 118
Graphic 1: Total percentage of Sara Braun High school intelligences
G
14%
A
17%
F
13%
B
14%
E
10%
D
14%
C
18%
Considering the total results of what the students do and like, a high amount of students
selected the Musical Intelligence, being this of an 18% of the preferences, closely followed with a
17% by the Spatial/Visual Intelligence. There is an equal average of 14% among the
Logical/Mathematical,
Linguistic, and Interpersonal type of Intelligences; the Intrapersonal
Intelligence comes right after them with a 13% and in the last place with a noticeable difference
of 10%, the Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence is positioned.
| 119
Table 17: San Jos. Amount of answers for each type of intelligence in each applied instrument
2A
2I
MI.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
TOTAL
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
1
15
23
6
14
5
11
10
13
22
3
12
3
9
6
2
14
24
4
8
7
10
7
10
25
3
13
1
10
5
3
12
6
4
8
2
5
8
9
4
1
4
1
3
0
4
10
3
4
7
1
3
5
6
4
2
4
0
4
2
5
15
27
7
16
8
12
10
12
14
5
12
6
7
9
6
14
17
5
12
5
7
10
11
18
3
7
0
8
10
7
13
6
16
7
11
11
10
10
4
8
3
4
5
8
9
16
6
8
1
9
7
12
8
4
6
3
4
9
9
10
6
6
7
4
3
7
8
9
1
11
1
6
9
10 11
10 15
25 27
5 7
14 17
7 8
12 12
11 11
13 14
26 25
5 5
14 12
8 8
12 12
11 11
12
14
27
6
17
8
11
10
11
12
3
7
0
4
4
13 14
15 15
27 27
7 7
17 17
8 8
12 12
11 11
10 15
11 27
4 7
10 17
1 8
8 12
6 11
15 16
12 13
9 22
6 6
11 13
6 3
7 7
11 6
15 9
27 5
7 2
17 5
8 1
12 3
11 4
Table 18: San Jos. Average of selected techniques per class

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
TOTAL OF TECHNIQUES
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
2A
13
19
6
12
5
9
9
2I
11
16
4
11
4
8
8
SCHOOL TOTAL
12
17
5
12
5
9
9
17
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
9
13
3
7
3
4
5
18 19 20
15 8 11
27 7 6
7 2 3
17 4 8
8 1 0
12 1 2
11 0 4
10 15 15
9 27 24
6 7 7
13 17 16
8 8 8
7 12 12
10 11 11
| 120
Table 19: San Jos. Total percentage of Multiple Intelligences for each applied instrument
2A
2I
MI.
A
1
100
2
93,3
3
80
4
5
6
7
8
9
66,6 100 93,3 86,6 60 66,6
10
66,6
11
100
12
93,3
13
100
14
100
15
80
16
86,6
17
100
18
100
19
53,3
20
73,3
B
C
D
85
86
82
89
57
47
22
57
47
11
57
41
100
100
94
63
71
71
0
86
94
59
86
47
81
86
41
96
71
82
100
100
100
100
86
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
33
86
65
81
86
76
100
100
100
100
100
100
26
29
24
81
43
47
E
F
G
63
92
91
88
83
64
25
42
73
13
25
45
100
100
91
63
58
91
88
92
100
13
75
64
50
25
64
88
100
100
100
100
100
100
92
91
100
100
100
100 75
100 58
100 100
38
100
55
100
100
100
100
100
100
13
8
0
0
17
36
A
B
C
86,6
81
43
66,6
96
43
60
15
14
40
15
29
80 73,3 66,6 80 53,3

52 67
4
30 33
71 43 57 57 14
86,6
26
71
93,3
96
71
73,3
12
43
66,6 100 100

11 100 100
57 100 100
60
19
29
60
48
43
66,6
33
86
100
100
100
100
89
100
D
E
F
71
38
75
76
13
83
24
13
25
24
0
33
71
75
58
41
0
8
47
38
33
35
38
33
65
13
50
82
100
100
71
100
100
41
0
33
59
13
8
100 100
100 100
100 100
29
13
25
41
38
33
76
100
58
100
100
100
94
100
100
55
45
18
81
91
45
81
81
100
100
36
55
100 100
36
45
91
100
100
Table 20: San Jos. Average percentages of type of intelligences tendency per each class:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
TOTAL OF TECHNIQUES
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
2A
84,9
71,3
79,3
72,9
65,8
73,3
78,2
2I
75,6
51,3
58,5
62,3
49,6
57,7
68
SCHOOL TOTAL
80,3
61,3
68,9
67,6
57,7
65,5
73,1
| 121
Graphic 2: Total percentage of San Jos High school intelligences
G
16%
A
16%
B
13%
F
14%
E
12%
C
15%
D
14%
Considering the total interests of what the students do and like, there is an outstanding
predilection for the Spatial/Visual and Interpersonal Intelligences with a 16% of the preferences,
closely followed by the Musical Intelligence with a 15%. There is an equal average of 14%
between the Linguistic and
Intrapersonal type of Intelligences; the Logical/Mathematical
Intelligence comes right after them with a 13% and finally, with a 12%, the Bodily/Kinesthetic
Intelligence is positioned.
The variables considered in the instrument differentiate the selected techniques between
those who the students DO and those who they LIKE. The next charts and graphics are presented
considering them.
| 122
Table 21: Sara Braun. Techniques that students DO

MI.
4C
3A
2B
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
TOTAL
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
15
27
7
17
8
12
11
1
10
11
5
8
3
5
2
2
5
0
0
0
2
0
1
2
1
2
0
0
2
2
6
9
4
6
1
5
3
9
4
5
9
3
5
3
4
8
3
5
0
2
1
3
4
8
3
3
1
1
2
9
14
5
9
2
10
4
0
2
2
2
0
1
1
4
8
9
6
4
0
6
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
2
2
1
0
0
0
1
0
5
11
16
3
8
2
10
4
5
4
2
1
0
1
0
8
8
0
3
2
3
1
6
7
3
4
3
1
0
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
0
0
0
1
2
7
9
5
2
3
1
3
1
14
21
5
14
4
5
6
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
8
1
7
2
2
1
1
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
0
-
9
5
10
3
4
0
4
0
-
Table 22: Sara Braun. Average of selected techniques students DO

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
4C
7
9
4
5
1
4
2
3A
5
7
2
4
1
3
2
2B
3
3
1
2
0
1
1
SCHOOL TOTAL
5
6
2
4
1
3
2
10
10
13
3
6
1
9
3
-
11
2
2
1
4
1
0
1
-
| 123
Graphic 3: Total percentage of techniques that Sara Braun High school students DO
G
9%
A
22%
F
13%
E
4%
D
17%
B
26%
C
9%
Considering the total techniques of what the students affirm to do, the results assign the
biggest quantity to the Logical/Mathematical Intelligence with a 26%. In the second place the
Spatial/Visual presents a 22% of the preferences. The differences among the type of intelligences
are notably separated, as the Linguistic type shows a 17%, jumping to a 13% for the Intrapersonal
Intelligence and
to
a 9% for the Interpersonal Intelligence. Finally, with a 4% the
Bodily/Kinesthetic is positioned.
| 124
Table 23: San Jos. Techniques that students DO

MI. TOTAL 1
15
9
A
2A
2I
2
3
3
3
4
6
5 6 7
9 11 4
8
4
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
6 7 9 5 9 0 5 2 8 10 8 9
27
7 22 1
6 16 7
4 12 8 10 9
0 16 5
6 14 10
17
9 12 2
7 10 9
6 11 0
12
5 11 8
11
15
8 11 3
8 11
27
11 2
3 12 9 15 7
3 13 16 8
4 14 14 2
17
7 11 0
4 12 5
7 10 1
12
11
5
2
Table 24: San Jos. Average of selected techniques students DO

A
B
C
2A
42
30
3
2I
47
20
3
SCHOOL TOTAL
45
25
3
D
E
F
6
1
5
5
1
4
6
1
5
| 125
Graphic 4: Total percentage of techniques that San Jos High school students DO
E
1%
F
6%
G
3%
D
7%
C
3%
A
51%
B
29%
Considering the total techniques, the results notoriously assign the biggest quantity to the
Spatial/Visual Intelligence with a 51%. In the second place the Logical/Mathematical presents a
29% of the preferences. The rest of the type of intelligences is grouped in less than the fourth part
of the global view. The Linguistic Intelligence presents a 7% followed by the Intrapersonal
Intelligence with a 6%. The Musical and Interpersonal intelligences show a 3% and in the last
place with a 4% the Bodily/Kinesthetic is positioned.
| 126
Table 25: Sara Braun. Techniques that students LIKE
4C
3A
2B
MI. TOTAL
15
A
27
B
7
C
17
D
8
E
12
F
11
G
15
A
27
B
7
C
17
D
8
E
12
F
11
G
15
A
27
B
7
C
17
D
8
E
12
F
11
G
1
4
10
2
5
3
7
9
2
8
1
3
1
2
3
4
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
0
4
6
23
2
8
5
7
8
2
0
0
1
1
0
1
3
9
11
2
11
2
3
5
1
6
1
4
5
2
7
0
1
2
0
0
1
0
4
2
5
0
5
2
2
7
1
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
3
1
2
0
2
0
5
4
11
4
9
6
2
7
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
2
7
4
5
0
3
4
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
2
2
1
1
1
3
7
4
9
2
7
3
5
8
1
6
2
3
4
7
5
4
3
1
2
0
1
1
8
12
8
4
13
2
2
1
3
0
1
2
0
0
0
-
9
1
1
0
1
0
1
2
-
Table 26: Sara Braun. Average of selected techniques students LIKE

A
B
4C
4
7
3A
3
6
2B
2
2
SCHOOL TOTAL
3
5
C
D
E
2
7
2
2
3
2
1
2
0
2
4
2
F
G
3
5
2
3
1
1
2
3
10
5
14
4
11
7
3
8
-
11
7
8
3
4
1
0
0
-
| 127
Graphic 5: Total percentage of techniques that Sara Braun school students LIKE
G
14%
A
14%
F
10%
B
24%
E
10%
D
19%
C
9%
Considering the total techniques of what the students sustain they like, the results
prioritize the Logical/Mathematical Intelligence with a 24%. In the second place the Linguistic
Intelligence shows a 19% of preference. The Spatial/Visual and Interpersonal type of
intelligences present a 14%, followed by the Bodily/Kinesthetic and Intrapersonal Intelligences
with a 10%. Finally, the Musical Intelligence is positioned with a 9%.
| 128
Table 27: San Jos. Techniques that students LIKE

MI. TOTAL 1
15
3
A
2A
2I
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
2
7
3
4
4
0
5 6 7
2 11 5
8
7
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 6 1 5 1 13 10 6 0 0 7 7
27
2 16 2
5 13 14 2
4 10 0
3 13 12
17
1 11 7
4 13 8
12
11
3 11 4
15
4 12 4
27
12 10 2
8 10 9
17
12
11
2 11 11 17 20 25 5
8 13 25 0
1 12 6
7 16 4
9 14 2
8 11 3
6 12 2
7 11 9
5 10 2
6
8
Table 28: San Jos. Average of selected techniques students LIKE

A
B
2A
5
6
2I
5
10
SCHOOL TOTAL
5
8
C
D
E
2
5
2
3
7
4
3
6
3
F
G
2
4
4
5
3
5
4 11 9
3
6
| 129
Graphic 6: Total percentage of techniques that San Jos High school students LIKE
G
15%
A
15%
F
9%
B
25%
E
9%
D
18%
C
9%
Considering the total techniques of what the students say they like, the results rank the
Logical/Mathematical Intelligence in the first place with a 25% of the preferences. In the second
place the Linguistic Intelligence shows an 18% of choices. The Spatial/Visual and Interpersonal
type of intelligences present a 15%, followed by the Musical, Bodily/Kinesthetic, and
Intrapersonal Intelligences with a 9% each.
| 130
4.2.8 Analysis and conclusions

The survey applied to students with different backgrounds and attending to the schools
mentioned previously, shows that most of the students have similarities in their choices towards
the techniques that motivate them to learn a second language in the classroom (see Appendix 1).
Even though both schools prioritize different types of intelligence, there is a common
pattern
that
points primarily to
a type of Spatial/Visual intelligence and
leaves the
Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence in the last place. The ranks of different percentage are not
significant among the diverse categories.
The techniques that the students affirmed they did to learn or acquire an L2, either in the
classroom or due to personal interests, were the: Spatial/Visual and Logical/Mathematical. The
fact that the Spatial/Visual area is preferred can be a consequence of the historical period and
current generation that is constantly receiving a huge amount of visual stimuli, a situation that is
advancing and becoming more common as time passes.
When my son, James, was doing homework for school, he would have five or
six windows open on his computer, Instant Messenger was flashing
continuously, his cell phone was constantly ringing, and he was downloading
music and watching the TV over his shoulder. I dont know if he was doing any
homework, but he was running an empire as far as I could see, so I didnt really
care.94 . (p.40)
On the other side, the second aspect of great preference is the Logical/Mathematical that
is highly stimulated due to the conventional type of educational system applied in the entire
region and in most part of the country. This aspect is mainly based on the assumption that
passive students are the ones who must achieve high scores in tests, a vision that works
preferably with a logic form of thinking. Even when there is great consciousness on this issue
and reforms have been made, politics and general practices are a vivid evidence of the
aforementioned issue.
Concerning the low preference to Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence, results demonstrate to
be coherent with this analysis. Most of the students do not prioritize a conscious work on their
body language or body movement as they are very restricted to stay individually sitting and
94
Robinson, K. (2009). The Element: How Finding Your Passion Changes Everything. Viking Adult. p.40
| 131
looking (or staring) at a board; these elements do not favor interaction as they are not coherent
with the aim of a constructivist society. Therefore, there is a huge amount of techniques and
methodologies that support collaborative work, indicating that there is also another huge amount
of students who have been excluded of the path of meaningful learning through the creation of
authentic context inside the class. It is also worth mentioning that in spite of referring to the
acquisition of a language, the linguistic intelligence is underestimated, giving lights that there is
no further interest in traditional forms of obtaining some particular information.
On the other hand the other category to be measured deals with motivation and the
interests of the students, particularly about how they like learning a foreign language.
Considering this qualification as highly significant in the process of learning, it can be said that
there are minor variations among the categories chosen by the students, providing a slight
inclination towards one kind of intelligence. The inclination towards the Logical/Mathematical
area can be an accurate reflection of the educational mechanisms as students expect to achieve
good qualifications in a practical way. Formative and standardized tests are a common practice
to measure them as this system is very effective for students who manage this type of
intelligence, something that can be observed in the SIMCE tests. The Logical/Mathematical area
contemplates many valuable abilities and skills that must be well recognized, although it does
not mean that the existing potential on many students should be diminished for being just
focused on one type of intelligence.
Consequently, it is highly relevant to find a balance among the diverse intelligences to be
applied into the teaching practice so as to approach the human development dimensions
(cognitive, personal, emotional, creative, affective, or physical) in the most appropriate and
effective way. This last statement can be strongly supported by the equity appreciated in the rest
of the areas presented by the instrument used to collect data on this theoretical field.
| 132
Conclusion
As stated at the beginning of this thesis, the aim has been to explore the influence of UG
into the acquisition of a second language, to clarify whether it is possible or not to acquire a new
way of communication through formal instruction inside appropriate learning environments. The
findings have indicated that there is a wide range of features that can help to approach language
education in the most pertinent course of action, taking into account the imperative requirements
of the Chilean government. At the same time, the results have shown the need for teachers to
deracinate the conventional practices and embrace an innovative social-based instruction.
Regarding English as a language-social phenomenon, grammar cannot be left aside.
Therefore, it can be said that there are inherent features of Universal Grammar to be taken into
account before a student starts educating him/herself. On the one hand, grammar may be
considered to be merely a set of rules, but indeed it is a system of principles and parameters that
all grammars share, giving lights that there is no need to learn different sentences, constructs, or
isolated information due to there is a systematical and finite amount of elements that create all
that infinite amount of constructs and sayings. Furthermore, not only a grammar reference is to be
found thanks to UG, but also additional relevant features which are involved inside any natural
utterance. For example, the unconscious knowledge of the language, known as the inner mental
representation, is also an outstanding property of Generative Grammar that cannot be excluded
when teaching.
Moreover,
UG also
provides magnificent information about the actual
employment of the language in concrete situations, supplying important guidelines for teachers so
as to check the progress of the students each time they emit a relevant argument, a coherent
response, or any other element of a natural, colloquial and meaningful discourse. If teachers
consider these peculiarities inside their praxis, they will be able to give the students better
directions about how languages work; since the inclusion of diverse functions of the language
will later result in a meaningful learning or understanding. In this way, teachers will keep
distance from the large quantitative reality of endless rules which seem to be complex, infrequent
and independent from their native language which only may risk the creative potential, the
motivation and the interest towards L2.
| 133
As a major concern in this thesis, the conception of a second language is a decisive detail
in the teaching practice, because it influences the methodological approach to be put into
practice. The aim and perspective assigned to an L2 defines its use and application, as it may be
considered as a practical tool or an intercultural medium. All the strategies used from the start of
the course to present the second language to the students, will condition their disposition towards
how they conceive, acquire and apply it. For this reason, it is advisable to manage clear notions
of UG and how they can be applied into teaching so as to reach the worth and valuable
meaningful learning.
The stimulus and input are also part of the teachers duty. This investigation has
demonstrated the role of both concepts in the acquisition of a second language. Therefore, it is
relevant and necessary for teachers to assure a supply of natural resources and materials which
can be found in newspapers, films, songs, books, comics and advertisement, among others. In this
way the students will feel closer to the second language and will be able to relate the principles
and parameters to what they are studying by meaningful situations. Besides, the students will see
how it is possible to acquire the language with the knowledge that they already possess provided
by their mother tongue, or how under the base of L1 they can build their own knowledge and
understanding of the L2. A major element concerning the stimulus has relation with the form how
the outward natural contexts of the target language is set inside the educational environment,
since it must include not only elements concerning the academic matter, but also the sociocultural
background or personal life experiences to make learning more significant. Consequently,
teachers must be able to create meaningful contexts inside the classroom, in which all these
inputs can be easily found and approached so as to help the process of SLA.
The motivational feature also needs to be considered as part of this process of acquiring a
second language. The curriculum designers, who take the knowledge provided by the scientific
community and researchers, deliver the information to be taught inside the classrooms, and
teachers only have to transfer it to the students as if they were passive or blank slates to be filled.
Alternatively, teachers should be aware of the preferences and abilities of all the students so as to
modify the contents to their real needs and interests. It will allow as well the application of some
proper techniques to expand the L2 knowledge as far as possible, encouraging students learning
under a palette of motivation, interest or joy. The use of the Multiple Intelligences theory has
| 134
demonstrated that in spite of having great similarities with the techniques already used and what
students like, there is still a lack of usage of several other intelligences, making it impossible for
students to really enjoy and understand the L2.
Consequently, the actual approach of teaching practice imparted by educators of a second
language must be examined. As it was mentioned in the epistemological approach, there is a
strong incoherence between the final purpose of real education and the one which is being taught
in the schools. Nowadays in Punta Arenas and in most cities of Chile, the students are being
commonly approached as if they were submissive characters with scarce prior knowledge.
English is being taught as if it were an isolated issue to mere individuals; on the contrary teachers
should be aware that language is a social phenomenon and that it must be learned through
interaction and socialization. If this does not happen in the schools, teachers will be only
instructing learners to use the language for shallow purposes, not coherent with the major
objective of education which is to construct a society. If there is no real aim behind the teaching
of a particular content, there is no use of learning it because it will be just a waste of time. On
these grounds the techniques used by teachers in the classrooms not only must assure
collaborative dialogue, but also co-construction and negotiation to make interaction among the
students naturally appropriate.
| 135
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Appendix 1: Study Instrument
How do I learn another language?

The objective of this instrument consists on obtaining information about techniques that
better work to learn another language. Mark with an X in each space with the option of your
preference, distinguishing between the ones you have used and those you would like to put into
practice. In the case you do not opt for some technique, leave a blank space.
School: __________________________________________
HOW DO I LEARN ANOTHER LANGUAGE

Writing registers
Prefer someone else reading for me
Making posters
Listening to songs
Listening to the radio or podcasts
Making podcasts or streamings
Watching movies
Watching TV series
Watching live shows
Watching videos
Playing video games (or computer, cellphone, etc.)
Playing table games
Reading books, poetry or plays
Reading papers
Reading instructions or manuals
Reading comics
Reading magazines
Reading short stories
Reading or watching jokes or memes
Surfing the internet
Looking at signs on the street
Following recipes
Looking, watching or observing labels or advertising
Using text books
Elaborating lists of words with their translation
Making relations between words and pictures
Writing sentences or dialogues.
Performing a sketch or play
Translating
Reading subtitles
Singing freely
Singing Karaoke
Using gestures or movements
Repeating
Class: _____________
I do it
I would
like to do it
| 144
Listening to people talking

Learning the rules of the language
Memorizing
Being corrected
Dancing
Making crosswords
Constructing, creating or making crafts
Making diagrams
Making maps
Studying word by word
Studying full sentences
Painting or drawing
Using a dictionary freely
Meeting people
Living in a different place
Attending to an institute or private classes
Writing texts (short stories, poems or phrases)
Writing academic texts
Studying hardly
Getting used to the language in a context
Speaking with other people
Making summaries
Speaking out loud
Thinking in another language
Using visual dictionaries
Writing notes
Sticking tags or notes
Inventing rhymes
Making logical relations
Speaking to yourself
Making exercise
Chatting
Keeping distant friends
Participating in workshops or activities
Inventing comics
Making activities outdoors
Interacting with people
Studying on their own
Participating in a study group
Clearing doubts
Making lists
Learning a new word every day
Using everything in a different language (cellphone, Facebook, computer
programs, etc.)
Using didactic cards
Watching videos or reading texts that you have already seen in your mother
tongue
Participating in forums or blogs
Doing worksheets
| 145
Making study cards
Socializing with foreigners
Reading out loud
Recording what you say
Using translators
Using puppets, dolls or toys
Making imitations
Wearing costumes
Memorizing monologues
Emphasizing proper speaking
Emphasizing on good writing
Emphasizing on distinguishing everything you listen
Comprehending what you read
Being aware of pronunciation
Making clear that the message you want to give is understood

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Universidad de Magallanes

Facultad de Humanidades, Ciencias Sociales y de la Salud

Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition from a

Students: Valentina Amigo Troncoso

Guide Teacher: Patricia Daz Aguilar

Punta Arenas, December 2012

When we study human language, we are approaching what some might

Noam Chomsky, Language and Mind

Linguistic theory and language acquisition .............................................................................. 1

What is language? ............................................................................................................. 1

The origins of language ............................................................................................. 2

Language and thinking .............................................................................................. 7

Language duality ..................................................................................................... 11

Pragmatics in linguistics .......................................................................................... 13

Surface and deep structures as two relevant levels in a sentence ..................... 16

External and internal language ................................................................................ 18

Linguistic competence and performance ................................................................. 20

The contribution of language processing recognition ............................................. 21

Language Acquisition ..................................................................................................... 22

The Language Acquisition Device .......................................................................... 23

The Modular Theory ................................................................................................ 24

Early grammar: early stages............................................................................................ 25

Experiments: The difficulty and the need of logic .................................................. 27

Platos problem ............................................................................................................... 28

UG and its role in L1 acquisition............................................................................. 31

Second Language Acquisition ............................................................................................ 36

SLA theories along time ................................................................................................. 37

2.2 What is Second Language knowledge? ............................................................................... 40

Second language acquisition and formal education............................................................ 70

3.1 The childs language environment ....................................................................................... 71

3.1.2 Differences between child and adult students ............................................................... 73

Methodological framework ................................................................................................ 97

4.1 Introduction of the paradigm................................................................................................ 97

Figures, Tables and Graphics

Table 8: National SIMCE results, 2010....................................................................................... 107

Key words: Universal Grammar, language, acquisition, constructionist, approach, learner,

And if so, what is the importance and implications of an appropriate learning

environment for second language acquisition?

are diverse in their socio-cultural condition,

significations, ideas, values, capabilities, skills, affections, companionship, or life experiences. If

Linguistic theory and language acquisition

1.1 What is language?

Table 1: Modern and older forms of words in Germanic languages

Old High German

Table 3: Similar words in four Romance languages

Table 5: English and Hopi languages

Table 7: Duality between language and speech

Realization. Materialization of each system.

Language is a code: General model for all

Personal use: The selection, the update of

Social phenomenon over the individual,

Individual phenomenon (dialect)

Psychic phoneme: Mental abstraction as a

Psychological phenomenon: Participation

Latent: It is in the brain in a virtual way as a

Patent: It is what is seen or heard, mainly in

Fixed: Synchronously, language is fixed

Varied: Peculiar form of giving use to

Homogeneous because it constructs a

Heterogeneous because there are several

Perdurable due to be maintained during the

Ephemeral due to be constantly adapting to

Product of the past because language