Bulk Solids Handling

Special BULK EUROPE 2006
Bulk Solids Handling

An Historical Overview and
Current Developments
Alan W. Roberts, Australia
The industrial world depends, to a very large extent, on bulk solids
handling operations. As tonnages increase, there is the ongoing need
for more ecient, higher capacity storage, processing and transport
systems. In turn, more sophisticated analysis and design procedures
are a continuing necessity. Some signicant developments from the
various elds of bulk solids handling are highlighted herein.
So
review of the developments in Bulk Solids Storage,

Flow and Handling is presented. While noting that the
development of this subject spans a period of some
125 years, the paper focuses on the signicant contributions
over the past 50 years both during, and subsequent to, the
work of Jenike. The work has covered such topics as ow
property testing, theories of ow, modelling of particle systems by continuum theory and discrete elements, vibrations
of powders, blending and mixing and wall loads under initial
lling, ow and pulsing conditions. The problems in many industrial operations are often orders of magnitude more dicult than the level of fundamental research available to solve
them. So the approach is to apply a combination of theory at
the current state of knowledge, some basic mechanics and
engineering judgment. While this may satisfy the immediate needs of industry, the important spin o is the identication of areas for longer term research. While not diminishing the value of unconstrained, fundamental research, it is
particularly important that considerable research eort be
directed at those known, complex, industrial problems where
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BSH-08-06-Roberts-final.indd 392
improved solutions leading to more ecient performance

have a high priority. These objectives are illustrated and some
thoughts for future strategic research are presented.
Keywords: Bulk Solids; Particle Technology; Silos; Bins; Feeding; Flow; Stockpiles; Conveying
Introduction
Throughout the world, the handling and processing of powders and bulk materials are key operations in a great number
and variety of industries. Such industries include those associated with mining, mineral processing, chemical processing,
agriculture, power generation, food processing, manufacturing and pharmaceutical production. While the nature of the
handling and processing tasks and scale of operation vary
from one industry to another and, on the international scene,
from one country to another according to the industrial and
economic base, the relative costs of processing, storing, handling and transporting bulk materials are, in the majority of
bulk solids handling Vol. 26 2006 No. 6
04.10.2006 13:21:12
cases, very signicant. It is important, therefore, that handling

and processing plants be designed and operated with a view
to achieving maximum eciency and reliability.
The advances that have been made over the past four decades have emanated from the establishment of Particle Technology and Bulk Solids Technology as discipline areas in their
own right with strong overlapping roles. The interdisciplinary
roles of these two technologies are well recognised, so much
so that reference to one very often implies the inclusion of
the other. There is a third discipline, namely Geomechanics,
which must not be overlooked in view of its obvious interactive role with the other two.
Focusing on Bulk Solids Technology, reliable test procedures
for determining the strength and ow properties of bulk solids have been developed and analytical methods have been
established to aid the design of bulk solids storage and discharge equipment. There has been wide acceptance by industry of these tests and design procedures and, as a result, there
are numerous examples throughout the world of modern industrial bulk solids handling installations which reect the
technological advances that have taken place.
Notwithstanding the current situation, the level of sophistication required by industry demands a better understanding of
the behaviour of bulk solids and the associated performance
criteria for handling plant design. Experience indicates that the
solution of one problem, which leads to an improvement in
plant performance, often exposes other problems which need
to be solved. Problems in industry frequently multiply at a
faster rate than research outcomes. The importance of industrial orientated research cannot be too strongly emphasised.
The purpose of this paper is threefold. Firstly, to review the historical research developments leading to the establishment of
1796, just 8 years following the establishment of the First Settlement by the English in Sydney in 1788. The rst export of
coal occurred from the port city of Newcastle in 1801, a load of
some 600 tonnes bound for India. Newcastle, situated some
160 km north of Sydney, became an active bulk export port
during the nineteenth century, increasing in tonnage capacity
throughout the 20th and now 21st centuries. It is now the
worlds largest coal exporting port with annual tonnages currently in the order of 83x106 tonnes with the project expansion
taking this to over 100x106 tonnes.
Despite the design, engineering and construction of bulk handling port facilities that accompanied these early developments, research publications did not start to appear until towards the end of the 19th century. The need to store grain in
large quantities provided the impetus for research into silo wall
loads with a series of papers on this subject commencing in the
1880s and spanning a period of some thirty years. These papers, reviewed by R [1], emanated mainly from England,
Germany, Canada and the USA, with undoubtedly, the best
known work of this period being that of H.A. J, the German Engineer from Bremen, who published his epic paper on
silo loads in 1895 [2]. The lesser known work of J is of
particular signicance in view of its relevance to silo wall pressures during both symmetric and eccentric discharge [3,4].
2.2 Bulk Solids and Particle Technology Disciplines in their Own Right
The rst half of the 20th century saw increased research in
several aspects of granular and powder mechanics including
such subjects as the ow rates of bulk solids through orices
in the bottom of bins and through transfer chutes. In the area
of powder mechanics, the work of S and E led to a
re-discovery of Janssens equation [5]. The various studies of
granular ows relied heavily on experimental techniques,
with empirical type performance equations being derived
Some users of this text may feel that it touch

the disciplines of particle technology and bulk solids handling.
Secondly, to review the current state of knowledge and the developments in ow property testing. Thirdly, by means of case
study examples, to illustrate solutions to industrial problems
highlighting areas where further research is required.
Some users of this text may feel that it touches

upon too many apparently unrelated elds.
elds.
This may be true, but the inclusion of such elds
was made purposely to indicate the wide
applications of a subject which should receive
recognition as deserving a place in the
engineering sciences.
Historical Overview
2.1 Bulk Materials Handling - The Foundations

Throughout the 19th century, the emerging mining, manufacturing and agricultural industries, gave rise to an increased
need to store and handle bulk materials in large quantities.
While the focus for this activity may have been North America,
UK and Europe, industrial developments were also being made
elsewhere in the world, notably Asia and countries of the
Southern Hemisphere. Since communications had not been
widely established at that time, these latter developments
were not widely known, if at all. For example, coal was discovered in what is now known as the Hunter Valley of Australia in
from experimental results. Also the emphasis was mainly on

free owing, non-cohesive granular type materials. Refs. [615] are a selection of references covering this work. This period embraced included a number of studies into the performance of mechanical handling and conveying equipment, such
as screw conveyors, for bulk granular materials [16-21].
It was during this period that Particle Technology had its foundations. Reference is made here to the major contribution by
J.M. D in his book entitled Micromeritics which was
rst published in 1943 [22]. As D wrote in the Preface
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04.10.2006 13:21:50
to the First Edition, the title Micromeritics was coined to represent the science of small particles. The subject matter included in the text is broad ranging including such subjects as: dynamics; shape and size; particle-size measurement; packings;
behaviour of particles under pressure; diusion; electrical, optical, sonic, surface and chemical, properties; thermodynamics of
particles; ow of uids though packings; inltration and particle-moisture relationships; capillarity; particle surface determination; muds and slurries; transport of particles; dust clouds;
atmospheric and industrial dust; collection and separation of
particulate matter from air; theory of ne grinding; sampling.
D also wrote,
Some users of this text may feel that it touches upon too
many apparently unrelated elds. This may be true, but the
inclusion of such elds was made purposely to indicate the
wide applications of a subject which should receive recognition as deserving a place in the engineering sciences.
Clearly this statement reinforced the interdisciplinary nature
of this new named science. While the name Micromeritics
still remains, it has provided the foundation for what we understand to be been embraced by the title Particle Technology. There can be no doubt that Particle Technology is now
very rmly established amongst the engineering sciences.
2.3 The Inuence of Soil Mechanics
Soil mechanics as a eld of science and technology had already been well developed. Therefore, it is not surprising that
this eld of study had a signicant inuence on the research
into various aspects of bulk solids handling. Since soil mechanics is mainly concerned with retaining walls, buried
structures and foundation design, naturally, the internal
stresses are much higher than those encountered in bulk solids handling. Furthermore the main concern of soil mechanics is with the conditions existing within soil prior to failure,
whereas the primary interest in bulk solids handling is with
the conditions under which failure and ow can occur. Nevertheless, the general similarities between the two elds of
study permit some important comparisons to be made.
The work of H [23] is of particular importance to the
understanding of the mechanism of consolidation and ow
of bulk solids. H, who studied the stress condition in
cohesive soils, showed that the peak shear stress at failure is a
function of the eective normal stress on, and the voids ratio
(or density) in the plane of failure; this condition is independent of the stress history of the sample. The work of H
was further extended by R et al [24], who established
the concept of a failure surface in the three dimensional space
of shear stress, normal stress, and voids ratio. They also
showed the existence of a critical voids ratio boundary at
which unlimited deformation could take place without
change in the stress condition and voids ratio.
2.4 Bulk Solids Handling Technology - The Jenike Era
The ow of cohesive bulk solids from storage bins is a complex
problem and it was not until the mid 1950s before any real
progress into the fundamental behaviour of such materials began to take place. The modern developments are very largely
due to the pioneering work of D. A W. J together
with D. J R. J, who commenced his research as a
394
Ph.D. student of J. A comprehensive historical review of

the Jenike/Johanson story has been written by J [25].
J saw the need to learn from the research conducted in
soil mechanics and relied heavily on the work of the Russian
author S [26]. He also recognised the importance
of plasticity theory in order to explain the ow or yielding
conditions in deforming bulk solids [27, 28]. This led to the
establishment of the eective yield locus and the yielding
theory associated with solids ow [29].
The original research of Jenike and Johanson was conducted
at the University of Utah, with the three University of Utah
publications, Bulletins 108, 116 and 123, [30-32], and the paper by J [33] laying the foundations of the modern
theory of bulk solids storage and ow. The signicant results
and outcome of this work included the following:
Establishment of the two principal ow modes, Mass-Flow
and Funnel-Flow.
Radial stress theory describing the ow in mass-ow hoppers and limits for mass-ow which depend on the wall friction angle for the bulk solid in contact with the hopper
wall, the hopper half angle and the eective angle of internal friction .
Flow/No-Flow criteria
Direct shear apparatus for the determination of the ow
properties of bulk solids
The Jenike theory is well proven in its application to design
and analysis associated with industrial problems and projects.
Jenikes work generated a great deal of interest and stimulated
a new wave of research eort in the eld of bulk solids handling throughout the world.
2.5 The Latter Years
The last 30 to 40 years has seen important developments on several fronts including research into the properties and behaviour
of particulate solids during storage and ow, further work on bin
loads and applied research aimed at improving the eciency of
industrial operations. Important break-throughs have been
made possible through more sophisticated scientic equipment
for experimental work and modern computer technology to assist the solution of complex problems. A snap-shot of some of
these developments with selected references is presented:
Re-examination of the mass-ow and funnel-ow limits taking account of the surcharge head at the hopper/cylinder
transition and the establishment of the conditions for intermediate-ow [34,35].
Development of test equipment for characterising bulk solids
and powders in terms of their stress/strain relationships and
ow properties including boundary or wall friction [36-51].
Analysis of vibration of bulk solids in relation to ow promotion [52-54].
Studies of friction, adhesion and wear in bulk solids handling operations [55-59].
04.10.2006 16:47:43
Flow property measurement and reactor vessel design for

handling and processing of stringy bulk solids, such as domestic waste [60], and wet bulk solids.
Dust control and measurement of dustiness [61].
Flow rate predictions for ne powders discharging from
mass-ow hoppers [62-64].
Flow characteristics in hoppers and discharge equipment in
relation to anti-segregation and mixing including the application of inserts [65-68].
A new look at the prediction of rat-hole geometry in funnelow bins [69].
Wall load predictions for symmetrical mass and funnel-ow
bins [70-86] as well as for eccentric discharge.
Analysis of silo quaking in bins of various geometrical congurations [87-93].
Investigations of pressures acting at the base of stockpiles
and procedures for predicting the live capacity during gravity reclaim [94-104].
Hopper/feeder interfacing for optimum draw-down and
feeder load prediction and drive torque control [105-108].
Performance characteristics of various feeder types including belt, apron, vibratory, screw, rotating table, tube, oscillating plate and rotary valves [108-120].
Discrete and continuum approaches to the modelling of
bulk solids ow [121-124].
Pilot scale testing of bulk solids equipment using dynamic
simulation [125,126].
Studies of the ow of bulk solids through transfer chutes
and development of models for chute design, including analytical and numerical methods for optimising chute proles
for minimum wear [127-137].
Mechanical conveying - belt, special belt, screw, bucket,
chain [138-142 ].
Pneumatic conveying - lean phase, dense phase, slug and
plug ow [143-145].
Hydraulic conveying, slurry, paste pumping [146, 147].
great deal of overlap, perhaps the main distinction lies in the

range of particle sizes involved and the associated elds of
application. Particle Technology is associated more with ner
particles commonly less than a few millimetres down to micron size and currently, down to nanometres. On the other
hand, Bulk Solids Technology, while concerned with ne particles in the micron size range when dealing with powders
and dust, the size range often extends to much larger particles which may exceed one metre in size. Such is the case
when dealing with ROM ores in mining operations. Furthermore bulk solids handling is often thought of as being end
on to the process when the operations of storage and transport are only considered. This is erroneous. While not diminishing the importance of storage and transportation, bulk
solids technology is very much an integral part of most, if not
all, industrial process operations.
In considering the interdisciplinary nature of the subjects of
Particle and Bulk Solids Technologies, it is important not to
overlook a third research discipline, namely, Geomechanics,
which embraces Soil Mechanics. All three share a common
core area which embraces particle characterisation and modelling. The interactions between these three principal research disciplines are illustrated in Fig. 1.
Developments in Bulk Solids Testing
3.1 General Remarks

The foundations of process and handling plant design lies in
the determination of the bulk solid ow properties and the
correct interpretation of these properties in relation to the
particular applications. Therefore, it is not surprising that this
is a subject that has received a great deal of attention over the
past three decades, with several new testers being introduced.
A review of the various test methods has been presented by
S [36]. Since its introduction, the Jenike direct shear
test has been under fairly intense scrutiny, perhaps more so
than other test methods. The European Working Party on the
Mechanics of Particulate Solids of the European Federation
of Chemical Engineering has completed a detailed study of
the Jenike direct shear test [37].
A recent project of the Working Party was concerned with
the application of the Jenike shear tester for measurement of
wall or boundary friction, that is, the friction between a bulk
solid and sample of hopper lining materials. Even though a
series of tests was performed using the same bulk solid and
same lining material, signicant variations in the results occurred. Wall friction is one of the most important parameters
in bulk solids handling systems. It is clear that it is a subject
not fully understood and requiring signicant research.
In parallel with the foregoing, research into the widely varying

areas of Particle Technology has been proceeding at a very impressive rate. Of particular note are the quite exciting developments in nanotechnology, such as in applications to medical science, particle ow analysis and computer technology.
The spin-o from this research to the broader areas of particle
and bulk solids technology will continue to be of great value.
The limited travel of the Jenike type direct shear tester is overcome in the torsional or ring type shear testers which allow
continuous shear strain to occur, making consolidation to critical state conditions easier to achieve. While several torsional
or ring type testers have been developed, the more recent
Schulze Tester is one which is being widely adopted [38].
2.6 Interdisciplinary Roles

The interrelation between Particle Technology and Bulk Solids Technology requires clarication. While clearly there is a
The need to standardise various test methods for powders

and bulk solids has received the attention of various standards organisations throughout the world. For example, the
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04.10.2006 13:22:44
increases, as indicated in Fig. 3. This is a similar characteristic

to the reduction in shear strength with increase in voidage as
in the H diagram. The shear stress as a function of
vibration velocity amplitude is given by
The constant U in Eq. (1) is the bulk solid vibration velocity

constant. The experimental evidence suggests that U is independent of the consolidation pressure and applied normal
pressure. By way of example, U = 7 mm/s for pyrophyllite and U
= 10 mm/s for iron ore. Knowing the value of U for the particular bulk solid, the values of the relative amplitude Xr and frequency f for maximum shear strength may be estimated from
Fig. 1: Interdisciplinary roles of particle technology
Australian Standards Association recognises the Jenike test

applied to coal [39], and the American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM) has established several standards on ow
property testing such as the shear tests due to J [40] and
S [41]. An alternative bulk solid shear test procedure
is the Indicizer developed by J [42,43] which has
also been taken up as an ASTM standard. A general comment
needs to be made: While these standards focus on the specications for the test procedures, as far as it is known, there is
no specication for the required stiness of the load cells. Errors can occur when dynamic eects, such as slip-stick, are
wrongly attributable to the bulk solid rather than to the test
equipment.
From a practical point of view, the application of high frequency (f 100 hz) and low amplitude ( 0.1 mm) vibration
generally produces the best results in promoting ow. Some
studies of the transmission of vibration energy through consolidated bulk solids have also been undertaken [53].
3.3 The Inverted Shear Tester
A disadvantage of the Jenike direct shear tester for wall friction measurement, Fig. 4(a), is the inability to determine the
wall or boundary yield locus in the low pressure and tensile
stress zones. This diculty may be overcome by the inverted
shear tester, Fig. 4(b). In this way the properties of adhesion
and cohesion may be deduced [55-57]. The complete wall
yield locus is depicted in Fig. 5. In the test equipment of Fig.
4(b), the retaining shear cylinder is retracted during each test
The need for a greater fundamental understanding of the

stress/strain behaviour of particulate solids created the need
for more sophisticated equipment, notably the biaxial tester
[44-47]. The complexity of these testers rather restricts their
application to research rather than to ow property testing
for design applications. The uni-axial tester provides an alternative to the direct shear apparatus, [48-51].
The extreme variability of both bulk solids and their industrial applications has necessitated special test equipment to
be developed. These include the dynamic shear test for bulk
solid vibration analysis, inverted shear tests, large scale shear
cell tests, shear tests for funnel ow where higher pressures
are experienced, submerged shear tests for wet solids and
owability tests for quality control analysis. These are now
briey discussed.
Fig. 2: Test arrangements for vibrated shear cells

Fig. 3: Shear stress attenuation as a function of relative velocity on
shear plane: -1 mm Pyrophyllite; 5% M.C. (d.b.) consolidation pressure = 7.9 kPa; X1 = 0.01 mm
3.2 Dynamic Shear Test for Vibration Analysis

In the area of ow promotion using vibrations, the reduction
both in bulk strength and wall friction as a function of vibration frequency and amplitude have been investigated [5254]. The vibrated shear cells used in this work are shown in
Fig. 2.
For a given consolidation condition, vibration excitation during shear deformation has shown that the shear strength reduces exponentially as the amplitude of vibration velocity
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04.10.2006 13:23:07
pressures to be achieved, a smaller shear cell of 65 mm diameter is often used. These cell sizes are satisfactory for most
applications particularly for mass-ow design where the focus is on the cohesive arch analysis for ow to occur.
Fig. 4: Test arrangement for determination of Wall Yield Loci
However, there are applications where the restriction to the

ner particle size range is too conservative. This applies to
funnel-ow and expanded-ow, particularly in the case of
gravity reclaim stockpiles, where the ratholes are large in diameter and several metres high, being formed by a large size
range of particles. For this reason a 300 mm diameter direct
shear tester has been developed at the University of Newcastle. Furthermore, in the case of ROM stockpiles for mineral
ores, it is not uncommon for consolidation stresses to approach 1 MPa. Since it is not practical to achieve such pressures using weights, a hydraulic load cylinder is incorporated
in the large shear tester.
There are also advantages in wall friction measurement to be
able to test a wider size range of bulk solids. For this reason, a
300 mm diameter inverted shear tester based on Fig. 4(b) has
also been manufactured. The larger diameter shear cells oer
advantages in testing stringy, brous bulk materials such as
domestic waste [60].
Fig. 5: Wall friction and adhesion
Fig. 6: Build-up on surfaces

S = shear force; B = body force; Fo = adhesive force
a sucient amount clear of the lining material surface. The

low pressure properties are relevant to chutes and standpipes
where sucient body forces must be generated to prevent
build up on inclined, vertical and overhead surfaces as illustrated in Fig. 6.
3.4 Large Scale Shear Testers
The standard Jenike type shear testers employ shear cells of
95 mm internal diameter, with the maximum particle size
commonly limited to -4 mm. To allow higher consolidation
3.5 Shear Tests for Wet Solids

Wet solids handling is an area of increasing interest. At
present, it seems to fall in no mans land between rheology
and bulk solids. Applications commonly concern the design
of vessels for the storage and gravity ow of super-saturated
bulk solids. Where the solids may settle out of suspension
during storage, it is necessary to ensure that gravity discharge
may occur without blockages due to arching or ratholing.
For this reason the storage vessel should be designed for
mass-ow. The required hopper geometrical parameters may
be determined for saturated bulk solid samples using submerged shear tests as depicted in Fig. 7. Clearly, this is an area
requiring more research.
3.6 Flowability Tester
A owability tester, developed by University of Newcastle, is
depicted in Fig. 8 [51]. In eect, this is an unconned compression test in which the lateral pressure is controllable during the consolidation phase by means of pneumatic actuators attached to the three segments of the mould cylinder.
Fig. 8(a) shows the segments of the mould cylinder retracted
and their support arms swung clear. Fig. 8(b) shows the arms
lock in place and the segments clamped together to contain
Fig. 7: Submerged Shear Tests
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04.10.2006 16:48:10
The required normal load is applied by weights on top of the

sample holding bracket. The bulk material is cycled back to
the surge bin via a bucket elevator and chute. The apparatus
is left to run for extended periods interrupted at intervals to
allow measurement of the test samples weight and surface
roughness as required. The measured weight loss is then converted to the loss in thickness of lining material.
a) Arms Swung Clear
b) Mould Segments Clamped

Togehter
Fig. 8: Flowability tester
the bulk solid or powder sample during the consolidation

phase of the test. For the unconned phase of the test, the
segments are retracted to leave the consolidated cylindrical
sample exposed so that the axial load may be applied to effect failure. When compared with the Jenike direct shear test
which is somewhat time consuming, the owability tester
provides a much quicker analysis of the ow properties of a
bulk solid, the device being particularly suitable for quality
control testing.
3.7 Abrasive Wear Tests
Test equipment to measure the wear characteristics of hopper and chute lining materials has been developed. The tester due to J and R [58] employs a screw extruder type apparatus which forces the bulk solid against a sample of lining material prepared as circular disc and which is
driven in rotation by dynamometer device. A disadvantage
of this arrangement is the preparation of the lining sample in
circular form to t the dynamometer. The diculty is more
pronounced in the case of hard lining surfaces which cannot
be machined.
The apparatus shown in Fig. 9 overcomes this diculty since
the test sample which is nominally 150 mm square does not
need to be prepared with great accuracy [55,56]. The belt delivers a continuous supply of the bulk material at a required
velocity to the sample of material to be tested, which is held
in position by a retaining bracket secured to load cells that
monitor the shear load. The bulk material is drawn under the
sample to a depth of several millimetres by the wedge action
of the inclined belt. Three body wear conditions are thus generated.
Fig. 9: Linear action wear test apparatus
398
While the linear action wear tester described above has been
shown to be a very eective wear tester, the disadvantage lies
in the bucket elevator recirculating system which is subject to
equipment wear. To overcome this problem, the circular wear
tester illustrated in Fig. 10 has been developed [59]. In this
tester a plough, followed by a surface levelling and consolidating device, is incorporated to turn over the bulk solid wear
media to present a fresh surface of bulk solid to the test
sample each revolution. The tester has the advantage of allowing two lining samples to be tested at the same time
3.8 Dustiness Tests
For obvious environmental reasons, the control of dust in
bulk solids handling and processing plants has a high priority.
Through proper design, passive (non energy) dust control
can be achieved in process plants such as in conveyor feeding
and transfer operation. In open transport operations such as
rail wagons and large storage systems, notably stockpiles, the
control of dust generation due to windage needs to be
achieved. This is particularly important in the case of the
storage and transport of mineral ores such as coal where the
propensity for dust generation will vary with moisture content and coal type.
Australian Standard AS 4156.6-2000 [61] provides the specication of the test equipment and measurement procedures
for the determination of the dust versus moisture relationship
for coal. The test is also of value for the assessment of surface
sealing surfactants for controlling dust losses due to windage
from open stockpiles. While the Standard refers specically to
coal, it is equally useful as a test for virtually all bulk solids.
The test equipment is shown in Fig. 11. It consists of a rotating
drum tted with eight longitudinal vanes or lifters to assist the
dust dispersion. The test sample is placed in this drum and air
is drawn through the sample as it rotates carrying dust particles to the stationary lter collection bag held within the
sealed stationary compartment. The specic details of the test
procedure are given in the Standard. Besides this particular
test, wind tunnel tests are also used for dustiness tests.
Bin Wall Loads
4.1 Early Silo Research

While silos have been in existence for many centuries, the rst
meaningful research into silo loads was performed over the
period embracing of some 30 years commencing in the early
1880s. A review of this early silo load research is given in Ref.
[1]. The most widely known work in the early period of silo
research is that due to the German Engineer, H.A. J [2].
This work is signicant in that it recognised some fundamental aspects of internal and boundary friction which limit the
magnitude of the loads on silo oors and walls. By comparison, little is known of the work of the Canadian Engineer, J.A.
04.10.2006 13:24:02
a) Photograph of Wear Tester
b) Elevation of Tester
Fig. 10: Circular action wear tester
J [3,4], whose contributions over the period 1902-04

are twofold. Firstly, during symmetrical discharge he showed
that the wall pressures increased above the lling pressures
during discharge. Secondly, and even more signicantly, he
examined eccentric discharge and showed that the wall loads
on the side nearest the discharge outlet are lower than those
for symmetrical discharge, but greater on the opposite side.
Thus he demonstrated the non symmetry of the wall pressures. Had his research been more widely known, some of the
silo failures that occurred some 80 or more years later may
have been avoided.
4.2 More Recent Research
Following the foundation work of J, the study of bin wall
loads gained new impetus [70-80]. With the ow modes
clearly dened and the advantages of mass-ow being identied, the need for determining the wall loadings in mass-ow
bins became a necessity. In addition, the better understanding of the characteristics of funnel-ow and the denition of
the eective transition provided the scope for formalising
the computation of wall loads in funnel-ow bins. There was
the realisation that bin wall loads are directly related to the
ow pattern developed during discharge, and this led to the
conclusion that, wherever possible, bin shapes should be kept
as simple as possible. While symmetry of the ow channel is
Fig. 11: Dustiness tester
seen as a desirable goal, from a practical point of view, it is

virtually impossible to guarantee symmetrical loading. For
instance the lling of the bin needs to be exactly central
which, from a practical point of view, is unlikely. Secondly, the
interfacing of the hopper with the feeder may skew the ow
pattern.
The need for ongoing research into bin wall loads had also
been encouraged, to a signicant extent, by an increase in the
number of reported bin and silo failures. As a result, there
was a pressing need to revise existing bin load codes and to
develop new codes in countries where such codes have not
previously existed. The Australian Standard AS3774-1996 is
one example of the latter [81]. This standard is quite comprehensive, addressing a wide range of silo loading conditions
including eccentric loads due to non symmetrical ow patterns. The new Eurocode covers the subject of silo loadings in
great detail [82].
Major advances in the study of bin loads have been achieved
through the application of nite element analysis [83-86].
This has greatly assisted the analysis of complex loading patterns in multi-outlet bins and bins operating with eccentric
discharge.
Other problems in silo loading have been investigated. These
include grain silos where an increase in moisture content of
the stored grain due to aeration can lead to grain swelling.
This can cause reverse friction at the wall leading to an exponential increase in the normal wall pressure [80]. If this occurs, wall pressures several times the static value given by
J equation may result. A similar eect may occur as a
result of temperature variations on a daily as well as seasonal
basis. Settlement of the stored product during the expansion
phase leads to increased pressures during the contraction
phase. Other research has involved the application of antidynamic tubes to control the pressures in tall grain silos [79].
4.3 Silo Quaking and Honking
A recurring problem in bin and silo loadings is that due to the
phenomenon of silo quaking. Gravity ow in bins and silos,
characteristically, is a cyclic or pulsating type ow. The pulsations arise as a result of changes in density and dilation during
ow and by varying degrees of mobilisation of the internal
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04.10.2006 13:24:27
friction and boundary wall friction. The quaking problem is

largely a slip-stick eect and is
more pronounced at low ow
rates where the period of pulsing may be from a few seconds
to many seconds or even minutes. The outcome of the quaking may range from nuisance
value arising from the transmission of shock waves through the
ground to disturb neighbouring
areas, to structural fatigue failure when the natural frequencies of the silo and structure itself are excited by the ow pulses. Research into the quaking
phenomenon, supported by industrial case studies has been
reported by R and W at the University of Newcastle [87-91].
Fig. 14: Pulse period versus velocity - a = 1 m/s2
Fig. 12: Tall mass-ow silo
A variation of the silo quaking problem is silo music and silo

honking have been reported by T and G
[92,93]. The honking phenomenon is known to occur in tall
aluminium silos which store plastic powders. In this case the
higher frequency components of the ow pulsations can give
rise to loud, periodic, fog horn type sounds that have a decidedly nuisance eect.
Silo quaking can occur in bins of all shapes and under a variety of ow patterns. The phenomenon has been experienced
in tall mass-ow silos, tall funnel-ow silos, squat funnel-ow,
expanded-ow and intermediate ow bins and multi-outlet
bins. As an illustration, the case of the tall mass-ow silo depicted in Fig. 12 is briey reviewed.
W [89,90] used hypo-plasticity theory to study the
shock waves travelling up tall silos during discharge. He showed
that the amplitude of the wave front increases exponentially
up the cylindrical section of the silo as illustrated in Fig. 13.
From a practical point of view, quaking is known to occur if the
height of ll is above a critical height Hcr where Hcr D, D being
the silo diameter or width (Fig. 12). Above the height Hcr, plug
type ow occurs with the velocity prole substantially uniform
across the cross-section. Below the critical level, in the region of

the transition, the ow starts to converge due to the inuence
of the hopper and the velocity prole is no longer uniform. The
velocity prole is further developed in the hopper as shown. As
the ow pressures generate in the hopper, dilation of the bulk
solid occurs. As a result of this dilation, it is possible that the
vertical supporting pressures decrease slightly reducing the
support given to the plug of bulk solid in the cylinder. This
causes the plug to drop momentarily giving rise to a load pulse.
The cycle is then repeated.
Based on the dynamic load condition as depicted in Fig. 13, a
theory for predicting the pulse period T has been developed,
the period being shown to be a function of the strain rate or
average velocity of discharge in the upper cylindrical section
of the bin. The period is also shown to be a function of the
average particle size y. A sample set of pulse period results
is shown in Fig. 14. These results compare closely to those
measured in the eld.
A critical factor in the operation of silos under quaking conditions is the inuence of the dynamic characteristics of the
overall structure. By way of illustration, Fig. 15 shows a typical
arrangement of a silo supported on columns from a concrete
base which, in turn, is supported on piles driven into the
ground. In view of the signicant decrease in the silo mass
from the full to the empty condition, there is a corresponding
increase in the natural frequencies as follows:
Fig. 13: Dynamic loads induced in silo
4.4 Dynamic Loads Due to High Load-Out Rates

Dynamic loads also occur during ood type loading of mineral
ores into rail wagons. As an illustration, the case of an iron ore
train loading bin, illustrated in Fig. 16, is considered. Each wagon
holds 120 tonnes of ore, the lling time per wagon being approximately 50 sec. The load out is controlled by a clam shell
gate operating on a swinging chute as depicted. As an empty
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04.10.2006 13:24:54
Fig. 15: Simplied dynamic model

of silos
wagon moves under the

bin load-out chute, there is
an initial surge in the ow
rate peaking around 60,000
t/h. This causes high vertical and lateral impact loads.
Once the chute chokes, the
remainder of the wagon is
loaded at a rate of approximately 7000 t/h, with the
ow rate reduced to zero as
the gate closes with the
wagon full. The shock loads
on the bin and structure
need to be taken into account in the design.
Gravity Reclaim Stockpiles
centre with the pressure at the centre decreasing as depicted in

Fig. 17. One of the earliest papers to show the existence of the
dip in pressure towards the centre of the pile is due to S and
N [94], who performed small scale, bench top experimental studies. The M-distribution has also been shown to occur using DEM simulation. However, due to the current limitation in computing power, DEM is restricted to small heaps involving a few thousand particles, whereas actual industrial
stockpiles may contain in excess of 1012 particles of widely varying size and shape.
The problem has attracted the attention of a group of physicists whose aim was to produce a complete explanation of
the central dip in pressure under small sand piles. As shown
by W et al [99,100], the assumption of a xed principal axis (FPA) has allowed the development of a model that
can reproduce the classic pressure dip. The complexity of the
apparently simple sand pile problem has been highlighted by
A W who wrote [101],
the humble sand pile is to granular mechanics as Fermats Last
Theorem was to number theory: a tantalising simple problem
that stubbornly eludes solution.
A subject of importance to the mining and mineral processing industries concerns the design of gravity reclaim stockpiles. It involves the determination of live capacity, loads on
The recent research conrming the existence of the M-distribureclaim tunnels and the loads on reclaim hoppers and feeders.
tion by MB [102] is quite comprehensive and worthy of
Typically stockpiles range in
particular note. MB conducted exheight from 20 to 40 metres, Fig. 16: Load-out bin for lling iron ore rail wagons
periments on 2m high pilot scale conical
with one known copper ore
stockpiles formed by gravel. An example
stockpile in Irian Jaya having a
of his results is shown in Fig. 18(a). He also
height of 70 metres. On such a
established a limit slope theory to predict
scale, the consequence of failM-distribution of stockpiles of conical and
ure of the reclaim tunnel due to
other geometries. H Y J conthe high base pressures may
well be catastrophic, so the
temptation is to err on the conservative side in the design. Yet,
the cost of being too conservative cannot be sustained on
economic grounds. Hence, the
need to be able to predict the
base pressures under all loading
conditions is strongly emphasised.
5.1 Base Pressures
By way of background, the fundamental research into the pressure distributions under small
heaps or piles formed by free
owing materials is reviewed.
This research has been approached, essentially,
on three fronts, experimentally, analytically and
numerically using Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
and Discrete Element Modelling (DEM), [94-98].
Intuitively, it would seem that the pressures exerted at the base would be hydrostatic, the distribution mirroring the conical shape of the pile
with the maximum pressure occurring at the mid
point directly under the apex. It is now known
that the pressure distribution is M-shaped with
the maximum pressure occurring away from the
a) Train Loading Bin
b) Bin Flow Patterns and Loads
c) Wagon Load Rates and Total Load
d) Rail Wagon Load Patterns
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04.10.2006 13:25:26
The
The humble sand pile is to granular mechan
ducted extensive numerical simulations using a special FEA
package [103]. He also assumed axi-symmetry to accommodate
the 2-dimensional stress eld. As shown in Fig. 18(b), H
Y prediction of MB results show close agreement.
In both cases the pressures, as plotted, are normalised.
Fig. 17: Granular heap or stockpile

Fig. 18: Research into pressures under stockpiles
Th
Thee humble sand pile is to granular mechanics
mats Last Th
eorem was to number theory:
as Fermats
Theorem
a tantalising simple problem that stubbornly
eludes solution.
H Y research has extended to the loads on soft

ground and to the prediction of pressure distributions around
reclaim tunnels. The limitation of his work is that the analyses
are limited to free-owing cohesionless materials, but follow
up research on stockpiles formed from cohesive materials is
now underway.
In mining operations, the bulk solid is quite heterogeneous,
comprising a wide range of particle shapes and particle sizes
from large rocks to a few microns in a random packing array.
The random behaviour is inuenced by the loading arrangement and consequent segregation that may result. The bulk
solid is mostly cohesive, its strength varying with moisture
and consolidation. The consolidation conditions will vary with
time throughout the stockpile and be inuenced by the loading and unloading cycle, variations with weather conditions
and with external loading such as the use of large mobile
equipment, for example bulldozers, that may be used to work
the surface of the pile. In addition, dierential bonding or cementing of particles forming the pile usually occurs due to
drying or baking of the bulk solid. Under extreme rainfall conditions, stockpile slumping may occur giving rise to complex,
variable base loading conditions.
5.2 Loads on Reclaim Hoppers and Feeders
In order to relate current research to industrial stockpile design
some relevant aspects are briey reviewed. The purpose of a
stockpile is to store bulk solids and reclaim them by either mechanical means or by gravity ow as illustrated in Fig. 19. In the
case of gravity reclaim, mass-ow hoppers and feeders are employed as illustrated, discharge being by expanded-ow.
a) Experimental Work - McBride [102 ]
b) Numerical Simulation - H.Y. Jeong[103]
402
Knowing the ow properties of the bulk solid, it is possible to

estimate the draw-down hD and the corresponding shape of
the crater formed by gravity discharge. The use of mass-ow
reclaim hoppers interfaced with the feeders is important
from the point of view of achieving reliable feed, and, in particular, for controlling the loads on the feeders and the corresponding drive torques and powers. Due to the arched
stress eld conditions in the hopper after feeding has been
initiated, even if the feeder is then stopped with the stockpile
still relatively full, the load Qf on the feeder is independent of
the surcharge head. The load Qf is much lower than the initial
load Qi which occurs when the crater is lled from the empty
condition.
The initial load Qi on the feeder is more dicult to predict and
may vary considerably from when the stockpile is lled for the
rst time to when a pre-formed rathole or ow-channel is
lled from the empty condition after the stockpile has been in
use. While the very conservative approach is to assume that
the surcharge pressure ps is equal to the hydrostatic pressure,
this will normally result in an over-design which cannot be
justied on economic grounds. If a pre-formed ow channel
04.10.2006 16:48:37
an
As an approximation, it is reasonable to assume that 3 is

equal to the average consolidation stress
where = eective angle of internal friction

It has been found that an acceptable estimate of 1 is given by
where z = depth below stockpile surface, and r = angle of

repose
Fig. 19: Gravity reclaim stockpile
exists, then this channel will act as a pseudo bin or silo in

which the shear stresses generated at the boundaries will provide support for the load generated by the bulk solid and reduce the surcharge pressure ps. Even when a stockpile is lled
for the rst time, there is likely to be an initial settlement of
the bulk solid at the transition level of the hopper and stockpile. This will help to dene the ow channel and reduce, at
least partially, the surcharge pressure ps.
So much depends on the characteristics of the bulk solid, its
compressibility, particle size range and moisture content. Also the physical scale of the operation needs to be noted. For
instance, mass-ow hoppers, typically, may have dimensions
LT (Fig. 19) in the order of 10 to 15 m, while the apron feeders
may be such that B is 2 to 2.5 m.
5.3 Draw-Down and Live Capacity
The determination of draw-down and live capacity, based on
Fig. 20 is described in Ref. [104]. The procedures are adapted
from the J theory for funnel-ow design in which the
critical rathole diameter Df is determined from the following
equation:
where
= g = bulk specic weight

t = static angle of internal friction determined
from the Time Yield Loci
By calculating 1 for various values of z and applying Eq. (7) to

determine 3, the corresponding values of c are obtained
from the Time Flow Function determined from the ow property tests. Hence the critical rathole diameter Df as a function
of z = hD is obtained using Eq. (5). This enables the Df versus hD
graph shown in Fig. 20 to be obtained.
A somewhat empirical, but satisfactory approach to the determination of the draw-down and crater geometry is depicted in Fig. 20. It is assumed that the rathole forms as an ellipse
above the hopper transition with major axis DR equal to the
diagonal of the rectangle dening the hopper transition and
minor axis BR. The sides of the crater slope away at the angle
p on the sides and angle c on the ends. At the height hc the
rathole becomes circular and continues to slope away at the
angle c. The angles c and p depend on the angle of internal
friction and are given in Ref. [104]. Where the crater expansion line intersects the Df versus hD graph the rathole becomes critically stable. This denes the draw-down. Above
this level the bulk solid sloughs o at angle approximating
the eective angle of internal friction .
With the crater geometry determined as described, the predicted live capacity can be readily obtained using by computer simulation employing a suitable CAD package. As an example, Fig. 21 shows the simulation of a kidney-shaped iron
ore stockpile with twin outlets. The model was produced in
advance of the plant construction to predict the live capacity
Fig. 20: Determination of rathole geometry and stockpile
draw-down
c = unconned yield strength

The function G(t) is given by J as a design graph in Ref.
[32]. It may be represented by the following empirical equation
It is noted that the Jenike analysis is based on a 2-dimensional

stress eld for both axi-symmetry and plane symmetry with
vertical and radial coordinates and major and minor principal
stresses 1 and 2 respectively. The strength of a rathole is
governed by the hoop strength, which is a function of the
consolidation stress 3 in the 3rd or circumferential direction.
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06.10.2006 12:16:14
and feeder loads. The photograph of the stockpile during

subsequent operation indicates good agreement with the
CAD model.
5.4 Areas for Further Research
The stockpile studies have highlighted areas for further research, particularly in the prediction of rathole geometry
during funnel-ow. It is noted that J has undertaken
work in this area with respect to funnel-ow and expanded
ow bins, where the diameter of the bin is shown to have an
inuence on the rathole geometry [69]. This is not taken into
account in the original J theory. Since in the case of gravity reclaim stockpiles, there are no dening bin wall boundaries, the problem is more complex.
a) CAD Simulation of Draw-Down Craters

b) View of Actual Stockpile Showing Draw-Down and Craters
Feeding of Bulk Solids
There are many types of feeders such as belt, apron, oscillating plate, screw, vibratory, rotary table, plough and rotary
valve and their selection is based on the particular process
requirements and properties of the powder or bulk solid. In
general, the subject of feeder loads and feeder design and
performance has been researched in some detail [105-120].
Fig. 21: Simulation and draw-down performance of iron ore stockpile
Two principal objectives need to be met. Firstly, to achieve

the correct interfacing of the feeder with the mass-ow hopper for optimum draw-down without segregation. Secondly,
to determine the feeder loads and drive powers for both
start-up and running conditions. These two objectives are
briey discussed.
6.1 Hopper/Feeder Interfacing
As an example, the interfacing problem of belt feeders and
mass-ow hoppers, illustrated in Fig. 22, has also been studied in some detail by S and S [107], and by
R [108]. The primary aim is to achieve uniform drawdown in the hopper in order to avoid localised wear of the
back or front walls of the hopper depending on the ow pattern as well as avoiding segregation problems. As shown by
R, the optimum divergence angle for uniform draw
down along the hopper varies with the length to width ratio,
L/B, as illustrated in Fig. 23.
As a further example, the case of screw feeders is considered,
where the optimum draw-down is achieved by combinations of
expanding pitch and tapered shaft as illustrated in Fig. 24. Where
it is necessary to smooth the discharge, such as when feeding into
a pneumatic conveying system, this may be achieved by a combination of plug extrusion and multi blade rotary scraper as illustrated in Fig. 25 [111]. It needs to be noted that multiple start
screws give rise to jamming and should not be used [110].
Fig. 22: Belt and apron feeders

Fig. 23: Optimum divergence angle versus L/B ratio for a range of
clearance ratios V = 0.75; Ce = 0.5
6.2 Feeder Loads and Drive Power

The determination of feeder loads and drive powers requires a
knowledge of the stress elds generated in the hopper. The relationship between the vertical pressure pv generated in a
mass-ow bin during both lling and ow and the feeder load
V is illustrated in Fig. 26. Under lling conditions, a peaked or
active stress eld is generated throughout the entire bin as
shown. Once ow is initiated, an arched or passive stress eld
is generated in the hopper and a much greater proportion of
the bin surcharge load on the hopper is supported by the up-
404
04.10.2006 13:26:57
tially exists in the hopper just prior to starting. This may be

achieved by such procedures as:
Cushioning in the hopper, that is leaving a quantity of material in the hopper as buer storage. This preserves the
arched stress eld from the previous discharge
Starting the feeder under the empty hopper before lling
commences.
Using transverse, triangular-shaped inserts
Raising the feeder up against the hopper bottom during
lling and then lowering the feeder to the operating condition prior to starting. In this way an arched stress eld may
be fully or partially established.
Fig. 24: Screw feeder
Fig. 25: Smoothing discharge
per part of the hopper walls. Consequently, the load acting on

the feeder substantially reduces as shown in Fig. 26(b).
It is quite common for the load acting on the feeder under ow
conditions to be in the order of 20% of the initial load. The arched
stress eld is quite stable and is maintained even if the ow is
stopped. This means that once ow is initiated and then the feeder is stopped while the bin is still full, the arched stress eld is retained and the load on the feeder remains at the reduced value.
The work on feeder loads [108] allows good predictions of
running torques and powers to be made. Referring to the belt
or apron feeder of Fig. 22, the analysis requires consideration
of the various components of the drive resistance based on
the loading conditions depicted. These components are:
The choice of mounting arrangement for a feeder can assist in

generating a preliminary arched stress eld near the outlet
sucient to moderate both the initial feeder load and starting power. In some cases belt feeders are mounted on helical
springs, where the initial deection of the springs during lling of the bin can assist in generating an arched pressure eld
near the outlet and reduce the initial load. An alternative arrangement is to incorporate a jacking system to lift the feeder
up against the bottom of the hopper during lling. Before
starting, the feeder is released to its operating position sucient to cause some movement of the bulk solid in order to
generate a cushion eect. The use of a slide gate or valve
above the feeder is another way of limiting the initial load
and power. The gate is closed during lling and opened after
the feeder has been started.
For emergency purposes, the provision of jacking or capstan
screws as illustrated in Fig. 27 can be used to lower the feeder
should a peaked stress eld be established on lling and there
is insucient power to start the feeder. Lowering the feeder
can induce, either fully or partially, an arched stress eld and
shear resistance of bulk solid along shear surface

skirtplate friction in the hopper zone and in the extended
zone beyond the hopper
belt or apron support idler friction due to combined bulk
solid and belt or apron load
slope resistance due to the inclination (or declination) of
the feeder
An important aspect of the design is to ensure that the hopper and feeder interface geometry is satisfactory to ensure
that there is sucient friction between the belt or apron surface to eect feeding without slip and consequent accelerated wear of the feeder surface.
Fig. 26: Vertical pressure and load variations on feeder

Fig. 27: Use of jacking screws to lower the feeder
6.3 Controlling Feeder Loads

The loads on feeders and the torque during start-up may be
controlled by ensuring that an arched stress eld fully or par-
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04.10.2006 13:27:21
allow the feeder to be started. This precaution is useful for

feeders installed under stockpiles where surcharge pressures
as high as 1000 kPa may be experienced.
6.4 Further Research
There is a need for more fundamental research into the stress
elds in the feed zones associated with the hopper and feeder
interface. Using a continuum approach, this is a three dimensional stress problem. The current theories, as outlined in Section 6.2, are mainly based on a lateral two dimensional stress
eld in the hopper with the application of equivalent friction
coecients to allow the shear forces in the orthogonal direction to the plane of stress symmetry to be computed.
Numerical and Experimental Simulation
Current advances in continuum and discrete element mechanics, and their associated computational methods FEA
and DEM respectively, are also helping push the frontiers of
particle and bulk solids technology forward at an impressive
rate. Such advances have been made possible through the
rapid developments of modern computing systems. Even so,
the simulation of bulk granular solids by FEA and DEM can be
costly in terms of computer time. While, for example, DEM is
currently limited by the number, size range and shape of particles to be handled, the method is particularly useful for
studying localised ow behaviour such as the interface zones
of hoppers and feeders. For such modelling to be accurate,
the need for research into the constitutive relationships to
describe the bulk material assumes a high priority.
There is much to learn from the physics of particle interactions and considerable work has been done on this subject.
As an example, the work of D [121] and of T [122] is mentioned, as is the work of the author in the
examination of the energy losses due to boundary and intergranular friction in chute ow [127]. There are many others,
including those involved in the sixties with the gravity ow of
spheres in hoppers as part of the work at that time in nuclear
science when pebble bed reactors were in vogue. There are
now numerous papers showing DEM applied to a wide range
of bulk solids handling problems. As an example, the work of
C [123] in simulating the operation of a ball mill is cited.
A critical review of DEM has been presented by T [124].
In acknowledging the developments in numerical simulation,
it is important not to neglect the old and tried method of
experimental simulation employing dimensional analysis and
dynamic similarity. These procedures have been successfully
adapted in model testing and prototype performance prediction of a range of bulk solids handling equipment and operations. These include gravity discharge from bins and bulk rail
wagons, stockpiles, screw conveyors for grain handling and
large feeding equipment for handling run-of-mine (R.O.M.)
prior to the primary crushing operation [125,126]. As an illustration, the simulation of the ROM feeder shown in Fig. 28
is briey reviewed.
The mechanics of such feeders as described in the cited references is based on several industrial projects performed at the
University of Newcastle. The feeding action is made possible
by the geometry of the hopper, which should be of mass-ow
406
Fig. 28: Open front, inclined apron feeder
design, and the inclination angle of the feeder. Since there is

no front face in the hopper and shear gate, the feeding action
in this case is made possible by both the large inclination angle and release angle . Typically, inclination angles range
from 18o to 26o.
While the scale for the model in relation to the prototype is
selected largely on practical grounds, account must be taken
of the measured ow properties of the bulk solid. The nondimensional consolidation stress parameter N1 is relevant in
this case
where 1 = consolidation stress, = bulk density and x =

characteristic dimension, which may be the head of bulk solids, h, or the hopper opening dimension B.
The corresponding speeds for the model tests are governed
by the Froude Number
Hence the corresponding speed for the model tests is given by
where the subscripts m and p refer to the model and

prototype respectively.
The non-dimensional parameters governing the mass throughput Q, torque T and power P are respectively,
Chutes for Feeding and Transfer
8.1 Chute Design Objectives

The ecient operation of belt conveyors depends on many factors, not the least of which is the eective loading or feeding of
bulk solids onto the belts at the feed end as illustrated in Fig. 29.
Not only is the chute required to direct the bulk solid onto the
belt without spillage, but it must also accelerate the ow so
04.10.2006 13:27:44
Fig. 29: Feeding onto a belt conveyor
Fig. 33: Transfer chute
that at the point of discharge onto the belt, the horizontal

component, vey, of the discharge velocity matches, as close as
possible, the belt speed. For accelerated ow, it has been established that a lumped parameter model provides a satisfactory
way of analysing the ow for chute design purposes. An equivalent friction factor is introduced in order to account for boundary and inter-particle friction losses [127,131,132,134]. For the
chute to be self cleaning during start-up after stopping, the cuto angle is governed by the condition, > tan-1 (e) + 5o.
parabolic and optimum [135]. The optimum prole is determined using an evolutionally computational technique that
mimics the process of biological natural selection based on
the work of W [136]. The particular case concerns the
transfer of Bauxite at a feed rate of 300 t/h from the belt feeder with an eective width of 1.0 and speed of 0.1 m/s. The
drop height HT = 2.5 m and the receiving belt speed is travelling at a speed of vb = 4 m/s. The bulk density of the bauxite is
1.4 t/m3. The friction angle for the bauxite on the chute surface is = 25o and the chute cut-o angle = 35o for which o
= 55o. Since the feeder speed is quite small, it is assumed that
the initial chute velocity Vo 0. Based on the measured wall
friction angle and ow pattern, an average value of the equivalent friction coecient e = 0.5 is assumed.
Chute design needs to take wear into account. Chute wear is

a combination of impact and abrasive wear. Impact wear may
occur at points of entry or points of sudden change in direction. Abrasive wear is a function of the normal pressure, the
friction coecient and velocity at the chute boundaries. It
may be expressed in non-dimensional form as
Chute geometry has an important inuence on the performance and wear. This is illustrated in the case shown in Fig. 30 in
which three chute proles are compared, constant curvature,
Fig. 30: Chute proles
All three chute proles satisfy the cut-o condition of o =

55o, and the optimum prole has been constrained to nish
at the same point as the parabolic chute. The optimum prole
is remarkably similar to the parabolic chute. The dierence is
mainly in the rst 1-1.5 m of the prole where the optimum
chute has a slightly tighter radius of curvature. The velocity
distributions for the three chutes are shown in Fig. 31 and the
corresponding wear proles are plotted in Fig. 32.
Fig. 31: Chute velocity proles
Fig. 32: Chute wear distributions
407
04.10.2006 13:28:09
8.2 Transfer Chutes

Transfer chutes are employed to direct the ow of bulk material
from one conveyor belt to one or more conveyors, often via a
three dimensional path. An example of such a transfer chute is
shown in Fig. 33. In this case the delivering and receiving conveyors are at 90o to each other.
8.3 Chute Design for Dust Control in Grain Loading
Operations
In grain loading operations, such as employed in loading
ships, dust generation is a recurring problem. In view of the
large drop heights, the grain velocities, which often reach terminal conditions, are well above the dust pick-up velocities.
Slowing the grain velocities by using cascade chutes has
shown to be unsuccessful since there is excessive dust emissions from the top feed end of the chutes. Research conducted at the University of Newcastle has shown that a much better approach is to entrain the dust within the owing grain
stream [137]. This has been achieved using the arrangement
shown in Fig. 34(a) which consists of a long radius spoon
load-out chute that is tted with an air-restrictive ap. For a
given grain mass ow rate, the ap is designed to rest just
above the grain stream exiting the spoon. In the pilot scale
tests, the ap consisted of a thin steel backing plate with attached reinforced rubber lip to allow for automatic adjustment for sudden changes in the product mass ow rate. From
visual observation, the ap successfully diverts the air stream
into the product stream exiting the spoon outlet. During pilot scale tests, reductions in dust emissions as much as 80%
were recorded. In order to examine the risk of the ap resulting in a pressure increase within the vertical chute, the top
section of the chute was vented to atmosphere, simulating
the conditions on site. The tests showed no visible dust escaping from the top vent. The engineering consulting company, Sinclair Knight Merz, has
applied the dustless chute design to a grain ship loading facility involving four load-out
chutes. One of the chutes is
shown in Fig. 34(b). Signicant
reductions in dust emissions
have been achieved.
Belt Conveying - Bulk Solids/Conveyor

Belt Interactions
9.1 General Remarks

Of the various modes of continuous conveying of bulk solids,
belt conveyors are of considerable importance in view of
their widespread use and proven reliability. Conventional
troughed belt conveyors have been used extensively in industry over a long period of time. While their usage is largely
associated with in-plant movement of materials, their application to long distance overland transportation is now widely established. This has been made possible through the development of steel cord reinforced belts, better quality control in the belt manufacture, improved reliability and life
through the application of belt condition monitoring and
greatly improved design methodologies. There is a wealth of
published literature on the subject of belt conveying; a selection of papers that illustrate the developments that have
taken place are given in a review paper by R [138].
Notable achievements in conveyor design include analyses
of belt conveyor dynamics during starting and stopping,
belt vibration analysis and improved models to predict belt
tracking under various loading and conveyor curvature conditions. Combinations of horizontal and vertical curves
which permit conveyors to be eectively integrated into the
terrain over which they traverse are now a proven reality.
Modern installations include single ight lengths of 10 to 15
km, increased belt speeds and increased tonnages typically
2000 to 6000 t/h with one known installation in Germany
having a capacity of 37000 t/h. Developments in belt materials include Aramid bre reinforced belts which oer signicant advantages due to weight reduction. The application of booster drives to reduce tensions in long overland
conveyors is a matter of some interest
but dicult to implement in practice
Recent research has shown that belts
ranging in widths from 800 to 1200
mm are the most viable in terms of
economics and eciency. In this way,
belt tensions are kept to acceptable
limits allowing longer, individual conveying distances to be realised for the
given range of belt SR values commercially available. For large tonnages, the
use of belts within the above mentioned range of widths and running at
higher speeds provides the best solution.
Fig. 34: Constant radius spoon

with air restriction ap
a) Schematic of chute
b) Installation on
ship loader
408
With regard to belt speeds, the economic evaluations clearly highlight

the advantages of employing speeds
greater than 6 m/s where large tonnage throughputs are involved. For
example, a 9.4 km long bauxite conveyor in Western Australia with 1060
mm wide belt is operating at 7.3 m/s.
This conveyor has machined and balanced idlers to reduce the noise emission. Conveyors operating at speeds of
8 and 9 m/s are a known reality and
04.10.2006 13:28:35
Belt cleaning including carry back measurement and development of improved cleaning eciencies.
Economic analysis applied to conveyor design.
Booster drives to reduce belt tensions and permit longer
individual ight length.
Design of horizontal curves.
Improved quality control in belt and component manufacture.
Fig. 35: Bulk density and packing ratio for coal
speeds up to 16 m/s are currently being investigated for long

distance transport.
The following list highlights some recent and current advances in conveyor research and development:
Special belt conveyors such as the pipe belts, aero belt and
Sicon belt
It is beyond the scope of this paper to review the various aspects of the foregoing developments. In keeping with the focus on the handling of bulk solids, the area of belt conveyor of
Conveyor dynamics - starting and stopping characteristics

and dynamic belt stresses.
Transverse vibrations of conveyor belts and the associated
inuence of idler spacing and troughing congurations on
such vibrations.
Conveyor belt idler resistance taking into account belt rubber hardness, sag, troughing conguration, idler/belt indentation and ambient operating temperature.
Conveyor transition geometry.
Stability of bulk solid on conveyor belts during motion on
horizontal and vertical curves.
Conveyor belt/drive drum friction taking into account rubber hardness, surface roughness wrap angle.
Steel cord splice design and analysis.
Conveyor belt monitoring as applied to steel cord and fabric belts
Belt rip detection employing ultra sonic devices.
Belt tension monitoring during operation.
Fig. 36: Conveyor load model
Fig. 37: Belt velocities for slip and lift o

E = 0.5; X = 1.0 m; o= 0
interest concerns the interaction between the bulk solid and

the conveyor belt [139]. Some aspects are now discussed.
9.2 Correct Choice of Bulk Density
In the past, insucient attention has been given to the correct choice of bulk density when determining the conveyor
throughput. Bulk density varies with the consolidation stress
or pressure as illustrated by the results for a coal sample
shown in Fig. 35. Also shown is the packing ratio based on the
measured solids density.
As discussed in Ref. [139], when loading a bulk solid onto a belt
conveyor, the bulk density will increase an amount p from
the initial loaded condition, L, to the running condition, R,
as illustrated in Fig. 35. At the load point the bulk density corresponds to the major consolidation stress 1L dened as
409
04.10.2006 16:49:07
At higher belt speeds, lower sag ratios must be employed.

The inuence of sag ratio on belt speeds for slip and lift-o for
a conveyor inclined at 10o is shown in Fig. 38. The idler spacing in this example is X = 1 m. If, for example, a conveying
speed of 15 m/s is required, the sag ratio for X = 1 m must not
exceed 0.0014 or 0.14%.
The interaction of bulk materials with belt conveyors has
been an ongoing research interest of the University of Newcastle for several years. This work has involved a series of experimental studies using a specially designed conveyor simulation test rig. The essential details of this rig are illustrated in
Fig. 39. This rig is used to simulate the conveying motion on
horizontal curves as well as inclined conveying.
Fig. 38: Belt velocities for slip and lift o as function of sag
conveyor slope = 10o; E = 0.5; o = 0
During running, after the load has settled, the bulk density
corresponds to the dynamic major consolidation pressure
1D dened as
9.4 Flexure of Bulk Solids on Conveyor Belts in Relation

to Idler Resistance
There are many other applications of bulk solids handling
that could be cited. As one further illustration, the exing of
the bulk solids during the motion of the belt as it moves over
the idlers is of particular interest. As the belt travels from one
idler set to the next, the bulk solid undergoes changes in the
stress eld from active to passive as illustrated in Fig. 40. In
long distance overland conveying, this may contribute as
much as 25% of the power consumption. The exing problem
has been studied in some detail by W [140,141].
10 Mechanical Conveying - Importance Of

Flow Properties
where
v
Ks
X
h
=
=
=
=
belt velocity
sag ratio
idler spacing
average height of bulk solid on belt
Research has shown that the increase in bulk density / is

in the order of 12% to 14%. This corresponds to the amount
of load settlement.
9.3 Slip Back and Lift O During Conveying
Referring to Fig. 36, as the belt moves between the idlers, the
bulk solid is subject to transverse acceleration in y direction. As
discussed in Ref. [139], this can result in
reduced bulk solid and belt surface friction
leading to slip during inclined conveying. If
the belt speed is fast enough, then lift-o
and fall-back may occur. Both slip and lifto can give rise to spillage. The problems
become more pronounced at higher belt
speeds indicating that low sag ratios must
be achieved and this may result in the need
to employ reduced idler spacing.
Apart from belt conveyors as discussed in the last section,

there are a number of dierent types of mechanical conveyors
used in bulk solids handling operations, particularly for inplant conveying loading and unloading and transfer. Typical
examples include special belt, screw, bucket, chain and vibratory [138-142]. As in the case of belt conveyors, it is particularly important that the design of all mechanical conveyors
take into account the relevant ow properties of the bulk
solid being conveyed. The following example illustrates the
importance of this approach.
Fig. 39: Photograph of test rig loaded with coal
As an example, Fig. 37 shows the belt velocities for slip and lift-o as a function of
conveying inclination angle for belt sag ratios of 0.2% and 0.5%, idler spacing of 1.0 m
and an equivalent friction factor of 0.5 for
the bulk solid in contact with the troughed
belt. The adhesive stress between the bulk
solid and belt surface is taken to be zero.
410
04.10.2006 13:29:20
Fig. 41 shows a Siwertel type vertical screw conveyor used at

a port facility for unloading coal from bulk ships [142]. The
screw conveyor is forced fed by means of a counter rotating
lower casing with feed vanes as illustrated. Hence the capacity of the screw conveyor is controlled by the feeding device
and not by the conveyor itself. To avoid blockages in the
screw intake, it is essential that the conveyor speed is high
enough for the ll ratio F < 1.
In the example being considered, the screw has a diameter of
790 mm with pitch of 540 mm and is 27 metres high. The
unloader failed to deliver the design throughput of 1400 t/h
at 400 rev/min with the installed motor power of, nominally,
430, kW. Samples of the coal were delivered to the University
of Newcastle for testing. The moisture content of the coal,
as-supplied, was 27%, which was at the top end of the specied moisture level for acceptance. As it so happened, this
moisture content corresponded to the level at which the
coal gained its maximum bulk cohesive strength. It was the
also the level at which the coal has its lowest bulk density
which partly accounts for the possible shortfall in tonnage
throughput.
However, the most signicant factors inuencing the performance of such a screw elevator concerns the friction generated between the bulk solid, in this case the coal, and the
screw and casing surfaces. The friction angles as functions of
normal contact pressure for the coal in contact with steel
surfaces deemed to be similar to that of the screw and casing
of the actual unloader were determined. The friction angles
for the screw and casing so determined gave a value of 25o
corresponding to the relevant normal pressures. These values
and the measured bulk densities were used to evaluate the
screw unloader performance for the specied throughput of
1400 t/h. Under forced feeding at 1400 t/h, it was recommended that the feeder operate at or above 300 rev/min for
which the ll ratio was calculated to be 74%. This ll ratio is
deemed to provide a satisfactory margin against jamming or
blockages. The operating speed of 400 rev/min was chosen by
the consulting engineers on site.
The power versus screw speed graphs are illustrated in Fig.
42. Also shown is the variation of screw ll ratio as a function
of speed. For the 400 rev/min, the required power for the
screw is 600 kW, this being the power that was nally in-
Fig. 41: Screw conveyor for ship unloading
Fig. 42: Power and ll ratio for ship unloader screw

D = 790 mm, p = 540 mm, H = 27 m
stalled. It is interesting to note that as polishing of the screw

surface takes place with use, and at lower moisture levels of
the coal which give rise to less cohesion, the friction angle for
the coal on the screw surface could reduce. As an illustration,
the power versus speed curve for the throughput of 1400 t/h
for a screw surface friction angle of 20o, and casing friction
angle of 25o is also illustrated in Fig. 16. At 400 rev/min, a reduction of 5o in the screw surface friction angle reduces the
power from 600 kW to 400 kW, a reduction of 33%, which is
quite signicant.
Figure 40. Dynamic Stress Sates in Bulk Solids During Belt Conveying (Wheeler [140]).
11 Concluding Remarks
The past 125 years has seen a remarkable
growth in the knowledge of the way powders and bulk solids behave during the
variety of processing and handling operations occurring in practice. In particular,
the expansion of the knowledge base over
the past 50 years has been very signicant
indeed and there is absolutely no doubt
that the discipline of Bulk Solids Handling
is now rmly established as a professional
discipline in its own right. So much has
been achieved that it has been only possible in this review paper to outline some
salient developments.
411
04.10.2006 13:29:51
Resources
are
limited; Creativity is unlimited
Resources
are limited;
Creativity is unlimited
The eld of bulk solids handling has greatly beneted by a

healthy blend of fundamental and applied research. This has
been the underlying philosophy of many universities and research centres throughout the world specialising in this area. In
acknowledging the importance of unconstrained fundamental
research in view of the spin os to practical applications that
may and do occur, the maintenance of a close rapport with industry is essential to the objectives of providing strong guidance
in directing research to the solution of important practical
problems. The complexity of problems in industry often multiply at a faster rate than current research outcomes. Hence, in
many cases, research has to play a catch up role. The ongoing
professional development of the discipline depends to a very
signicant extent on the undergraduate, graduate and continuing education programs. International conferences focusing on
the science, technology and practice of the discipline of bulk
solids handling will continue to have an important role to play.
In a climate of an ever expanding information and knowledge
base, the emerging generations of researchers in our eld will
need to be more discerning than ever before. They will need
to lter out the signals from the noise and not overlook
the important classical research contributions over the past
century that laid the foundations for the disciplines. They
should select the right problems to solve and not simply reinvent the wheel. They should be strongly encouraged to regard modern computer and instrumentation technology as a
means to an end and not as an end in itself. The disciplines
of Particle and Bulk Solids Technology impact our lives in so
many ways. The future is challenging and exciting.
Resources are limited; Creativity is unlimited
(Message spanning entrance gates of POSCO, Pohang Iron
and Steel, Korea).
About the Author
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