ME 429

Introduction to Composite Materials

Dr. Ahmet Erkli
2005-2006 Fall Semester

Composite materials Introduction

Definition: any combination of two or more different
materials at the macroscopic level.
OR
Two inherently different materials that when
combined together produce a material with
properties that exceed the constituent materials.

Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibers)

Binder phase (e.g., compliant matrix)

Advantages

High strength and stiffness

Low weight ratio
Material can be designed in addition to the structure

Applications

Straw in clay construction by Egyptians

Aerospace industry
Sporting goods
Automotive
Construction

Types of Composites
Matrix
phase/Reinforc
ement Phase

Metal

Ceramic

Polymer

Metal

Powder metallurgy
parts combining
immiscible metals

Cermets (ceramicmetal composite)

Brake pads

Ceramic

Cermets, TiC, TiCN

Cemented carbides
used in tools
Fiber-reinforced
metals

SiC reinforced
Al2O3
Tool materials

Fiberglass

Kevlar fibers in an
epoxy matrix

Polymer
Elemental
(Carbon,
Boron, etc.)

Fiber reinforced
metals
Auto parts
aerospace

Rubber with
carbon (tires)
Boron, Carbon
reinforced plastics

MMCs

CMCs

PMCs

Metal Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Comps.

Polymer Matrix Comps

Costs of composite manufacture

Material costs -- higher for composites

Constituent materials (e.g., fibers and resin)

Processing costs -- embedding fibers in matrix
not required for metals Carbon fibers order of magnitude

higher than aluminum

Design costs -- lower for composites

Can reduce the number of parts in a complex

assembly by designing the material in combination
with the structure

Increased performance must justify higher

material costs

Types of Composite Materials

There are five basic types of composite materials:
Fiber, particle, flake, laminar or layered and filled
composites.

A. Fiber Composites
In fiber composites, the fibers reinforce along the line of
their length. Reinforcement may be mainly 1-D, 2-D or 3-D.
Figure shows the three basic types of fiber orientation.
1-D gives maximum strength in
one direction.
2-D gives strength in two
directions.
Isotropic gives strength equally
in all directions.

Composite strength depends on following factors:

Inherent fiber strength,
Fiber length, Number of
flaws
Fiber shape
The bonding of the
fiber (equally stress
distribution)
Voids
Moisture (coupling
agents)

B. Particle Composites
Particles usually reinforce a composite equally in all directions
(called isotropic). Plastics, cermets and metals are examples of
particles.
Particles used to strengthen a matrix do not do so in the same
way as fibers. For one thing, particles are not directional like
fibers. Spread at random through out a matrix, particles tend to
reinforce in all directions equally.
Cermets
(1) OxideBased cermets
(e.g. Combination of Al2O3 with Cr)
(2) CarbideBased Cermets
(e.g. Tungstencarbide, titaniumcarbide)
Metalplastic particle composites
(e.g. Aluminum, iron & steel, copper particles)
Metalinmetal Particle Composites and
Dispersion Hardened Alloys
(e.g. Ceramicoxide particles)

C. Flake Composites - 1
Flakes, because of their shape, usually
reinforce in 2-D. Two common flake
materials are glass and mica. (Also
aluminum is used as metal flakes)

C. Flake Composites -2
A flake composite consists of thin, flat flakes
held together by a binder or placed in a
matrix. Almost all flake composite matrixes
are plastic resins. The most important flake
materials are:

1. Aluminum
2. Mica
3. Glass

C. Flake Composites -3
Basically, flakes will provide:
Uniform mechanical properties in the plane of
the flakes
Higher strength
Higher flexural modulus
Higher dielectric strength and heat resistance
Better resistance to penetration by liquids and
vapor
Lower cost

D. Laminar Composites - 1
Laminar composites involve two or more
layers of the same or different materials. The
layers can be arranged in different directions
to give strength where needed. Speedboat
hulls are among the very many products of
this kind.

D. Laminar Composites - 2
Like all composites laminar composites
aim at combining constituents to produce
properties that neither constituent alone
would have.
In laminar composites outer metal is not
called a matrix but a face. The inner
metal, even if stronger, is not called a
reinforcement. It is called a base.

D. Laminar Composites - 3
We can divide laminar composites into three basic types:
Unreinforcedlayer composites
(1) AllMetal
(a) Plated and coated metals (electrogalvanized
steel steel plated with zinc)
(b) Clad metals (aluminumclad, copperclad)
(c) Multilayer metal laminates (tungsten, beryllium)
(2) MetalNonmetal (metal with plastic, rubber, etc.)
(3) Nonmetal (glassplastic laminates, etc.)
Reinforcedlayer composites (laminae and laminates)
Combined composites (reinforcedplastic laminates
well bonded with steel, aluminum, copper, rubber,
gold, etc.)

D. Laminar Composites - 4
A lamina (laminae) is any
arrangement of unidirectional
or woven fibers in a matrix.
Usually this arrangement is
flat, although it may be
curved, as in a shell.
A laminate is a stack of
lamina arranged with their
main reinforcement in at least
two different directions.

E. Filled Composites
There are two types of filled composites. In
one, filler materials are added to a normal
composite result in strengthening the
composite and reducing weight. The second
type of filled composite consists of a skeletal
3-D matrix holding a second material. The
most widely used composites of this kind are
sandwich structures and honeycombs.

F. Combined Composites
It is possible to combine
several different materials
into a single composite. It is
also possible to combine
several different composites
into a single product. A good
example is a modern ski.
(combination of wood as
natural fiber, and layers as
laminar composites)

Forms of Reinforcement Phase

Fibers

cross-section can be circular, square or hexagonal

Diameters --> 0.0001 - 0.005
Lengths --> L/D ratio
100 -- for chopped fiber
much longer for continuous fiber

Particulate

small particles that impede dislocation movement

(in metal composites) and strengthens the matrix
For sizes > 1 m, strength of particle is involves in
load sharing with matrix

Flakes

flat platelet form

Fiber Reinforcement
The typical composite consists of a matrix holding
reinforcing materials. The reinforcing materials, the
most important is the fibers, supply the basic
strength of the composite. However, reinforcing
materials can contribute much more than strength.
They can conduct heat or resist chemical corrosion.
They can resist or conduct electricity. They may be
chosen for their stiffness (modulus of elasticity) or for
many other properties.

Types of Fibers
The fibers are divided into two main groups:
Glass fibers: There are many different kinds of glass,
ranging from ordinary bottle glass to high purity quartz
glass. All of these glasses can be made into fibers.
Each offers its own set of properties.
Advanced fibers: These materials offer high strength
and high stiffness at low weight. Boron, silicon, carbide
and graphite fibers are in this category. So are the
aramids, a group of plastic fibers of the polyamide
(nylon) family.

Fibers - Glass
Fiberglass properties vary somewhat according to the type of glass
used. However, glass in general has several wellknown
properties that contribute to its great usefulness as a reinforcing
agent:

Tensile strength
Chemical resistance
Moisture resistance
Thermal properties
Electrical properties

There are four main types of glass used in fiberglass:

Aglass
Cglass
Eglass
Sglass

Fibers - Glass
Most widely used fiber
Uses: piping, tanks, boats, sporting goods
Advantages

Low cost
Corrosion resistance
Low cost relative to other composites:

Disadvantages

Relatively low strength

High elongation
Moderate strength and weight

Types:

E-Glass - electrical, cheaper

S-Glass - high strength

Fibers - Aramid (kevlar, Twaron)

Uses:

high performance replacement for glass

fiber

Examples

Armor, protective clothing, industrial,

sporting goods

Advantages:
higher strength and lighter than glass
More ductile than carbon

Fibers - Carbon
2nd most widely used fiber
Examples

aerospace, sporting goods

Advantages

high stiffness and strength

Low density
Intermediate cost
Properties:

Standard modulus: 207-240 Gpa

Intermediate modulus: 240-340 GPa
High modulus: 340-960 GPa
Diameter: 5-8 microns, smaller than human hair

Fibers grouped into tows or yarns of 2-12k fibers

Fibers -- Carbon (2)

Types of carbon fiber

vary in strength with processing

Trade-off between strength and modulus

Intermediate modulus

PAN (Polyacrylonitrile)
fiber precursor heated and stretched to align structure

and remove non-carbon material

High modulus

made from petroleum pitch precursor at lower

cost
much lower strength

Fibers - Others
Boron

High stiffness, very high cost

Large diameter - 200 microns
Good compressive strength

Polyethylene - trade name: Spectra fiber

Textile industry
High strength
Extremely light weight
Low range of temperature usage

Fibers -- Others (2)

Ceramic Fibers (and matrices)

Very high temperature applications (e.g.

engine components)
Silicon carbide fiber - in whisker form.
Ceramic matrix so temperature resistance
is not compromised
Infrequent use

Fiber Material Properties

Steel: density (Fe) = 7.87 g/cc; TS=0.380 GPa; Modulus=207 GPa

Al: density=2.71 g/cc; TS=0.035 GPa; Modulus=69 GPa

Fiber Strength

Matrix Materials
Functions of the matrix

Transmit force between fibers

arrest cracks from spreading between fibers
do not carry most of the load

hold fibers in proper orientation

protect fibers from environment

mechanical forces can cause cracks that allow

environment to affect fibers

Demands on matrix

Interlaminar shear strength

Toughness
Moisture/environmental resistance
Temperature properties
Cost

Matrices - Polymeric
Thermosets

cure by chemical reaction

Irreversible
Examples
Polyester, vinylester

Most common, lower cost, solvent resistance

Epoxy resins

Superior performance, relatively costly

Matrices - Thermosets
Polyester
Polyesters have good mechanical properties, electrical
properties and chemical resistance. Polyesters are
amenable to multiple fabrication techniques and are low
cost.
Vinyl Esters
Vinyl Esters are similar to polyester in performance.
Vinyl esters have increased resistance to corrosive
environments as well as a high degree of moisture
resistance.

Matrices - Thermosets
Epoxy
Epoxies have improved strength and stiffness properties
over polyesters. Epoxies offer excellent corrosion
resistance and resistance to solvents and alkalis. Cure
cycles are usually longer than polyesters, however no
by-products are produced.
Flexibility and improved performance is also achieved
by the utilization of additives and fillers.

Matrices - Thermoplastics
Formed by heating to elevated temperature
at which softening occurs

Reversible reaction
Can be reformed and/or repaired - not common
Limited in temperature range to 150C

Examples

Polypropylene
with nylon or glass
can be injected-- inexpensive

Soften layers of combined fiber and resin and

place in a mold -- higher costs

Matrices - Others
Metal Matrix Composites - higher
temperature

e.g., Aluminum with boron or carbon fibers

Ceramic matrix materials - very high

temperature

Fiber is used to add toughness, not

necessarily higher in strength and stiffness

Important Note
Composite properties are less than
that of the fiber because of dilution
by the matrix and the need to orient
fibers in different directions.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
OF COMPOSITES
Composite materials have succeeded remarkably in their
relatively short history. But for continued growth,
especially in structural uses, certain obstacles must be
overcome. A major one is the tendency of designers to
rely on traditional materials such as steel and aluminum
unless composites can be produced at lower cost.
Cost concerns have led to several changes in the
composites industry. There is a general movement
toward the use of less expensive fibers. For example,
graphite and aramid fibers have largely supplanted the
more costly boron in advancedfiber composites. As
important as savings on materials may be, the real key
to cutting composite costs lies in the area of processing.

The processing of fiber reinforced laminates can be

divided into two main steps:

Layup
Curing
Curing is the drying and hardening (or polymerization) of
the resin matrix of a finished composite. This may be
done unaided or by applying heat and/or pressure.
Layup basically is the process of arranging fiber
reinforced layers (laminae) in a laminate and shaping
the laminate to make the part desired. (The term layup
is also used to refer to the laminate itself before curing.)
Unless prepregs are used, layup includes the actual
creation of laminae by applying resins to fiber
reinforcements.

Laminate layup operations fall into three main

groups:

A. Winding and laying operations

B. Molding operations
C. Continuous lamination
Continuous lamination is relatively unimportant
compared with quality parameters as not good as wrt
other two processes. In this process, layers of fabric or
mat are passed through a resin dip and brought
together between cellophane covering sheets.
Laminate thickness and resin content are controlled by
squeegee rolls. The layup is passed through a heat
zone to cure the resin.

A. Winding Operation
The most important operation in this category is filament
winding. Fibers are passed through liquid resin, and then
wound onto a mandrel. After layup is completed, the
composite is cured on the mandrel. The mandrel is then
removed by melting, dissolving, breakingout or some
other method.

B. Molding Operations
Molding operations are used in making a large number of
common composite products. There are two types of
processes:

A. Openmold
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

Hand layup
Sprayup
Vacuumbag molding
Pressurebag molding
Thermal expansion molding
Autoclave molding
Centrifugal casting
Continuous pultrusion and pulforming.

1. Hand Lay-up
Hand layup, or contact molding, is the oldest and
simplest way of making fiberglassresin composites.
Applications are standard wind turbine blades, boats,
etc.)

2. Spray-up
In Sprayup process, chopped fibers and resins are
sprayed simultaneously into or onto the mold. Applications
are lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies,
truck fairings, bathtubes, small boats, etc.

3. Vacuum-Bag Molding
The vacuumbag process was developed for making
a variety of components, including relatively large
parts with complex shapes. Applications are large
cruising boats, racecar components, etc.

4. Pressure-Bag Molding
Pressurebag process is virtually a mirror image of
vacuumbag molding. Applications are sonar domes,
antenna housings, aircraft fairings, etc.

5. Thermal Expansion Molding

In Thermal Expansion Molding process, prepreg layers
are wrapped around rubber blocks, and then placed in
a metal mold. As the entire assembly is heated, the
rubber expands more than the metal, putting pressure
on the laminate. Complex shapes can be made
reducing the need for later joining and fastening
operations.

6. Autoclave Molding
Autoclave molding is similar to both vacuumbag and
pressurebag molding. Applications are lighter, faster
and more agile fighter aircraft, motor sport vehicles.

7. Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal Casting is used to form round objects such as
pipes.

8. Continuous Pultrusion and Pulforming

Continuous
is
the
counterpart
extrusion.
parts can be

pultrusion
composite
of metal
Complex
made.

Pulforming is similar to pultrusion in many ways.

However, pultrusion is capable only of making straight
products that have the same volume all along their
lengths. Pulformed products, on the other hand, can be
either straight or curved, with changing shapes and
volumes. A typical pulformed product is a curved
reinforced plastic car spring. (shown in figure.)

B. Closedmold
(1) Matcheddie molding: As the name
suggests, a matcheddie mold consists
of closely matched male and female
dies (shown in figure). Applications are
spacecraft parts, toys, etc.
(2) Injection molding: The injection
process begins with a thermosetting
(or sometimes thermoplastic) material
outside the mold. The plastic may
contain reinforcements or not. It is first
softened by heating and/or mechanical
working with an extrusiontype screw.
It is then forced, under high pressure
from a ram or screw, into the cool
mold. Applications are auto parts,
vanes, engine cowling defrosters and
aircraft radomes.

Material Forms and Manufacturing

Objectives of material production

assemble fibers
impregnate resin
shape product
cure resin

Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)

Chopped glass fiber added to polyester

resin mixture

Question: Is SMC isotropic or anisotropic?

Manufacturing - Filament Winding

Highly automated

low manufacturing
costs if high
throughput
e.g., Glass fiber pipe,
sailboard masts

Prepregs
Prepreg and prepreg layup

prepreg - partially cured mixture of fiber

and resin
Unidirectional prepreg tape with paper backing

wound on spools
Cut and stacked

Curing conditions
Typical temperature and pressure in autoclave

is 120-200C, 100 psi

Manufacturing - Layups
compression
molding

vacuum bagging

Material Forms
Textile forms

Braiding or weaving
Tubular braided form

can be flattened and cut for non-tubular

products

Fabric Structures
Woven:

Series of Interlaced yarns at 90 to each other

Knit:

Series of Interlooped Yarns

Braided:

Series of Intertwined, Spiral Yarns

Nonwoven: Oriented fibers either mechanically,

chemically, or thermally bonded

Woven Fabrics
Basic woven fabrics consists of two
systems of yarns interlaced at right
angles to create a single layer with
isotropic or biaxial properties.

Physical Properties
Construction (ends & picks)
Weight
Thickness
Weave Type

Components of a Woven Fabric

Basic Weave Types

Plain Weave

Basic Weave Types

Satin 5HS

Basic Weave Types

2 x 2 Twill

Basic Weave Types

Non-Crimp

Braiding
A braid consists of two sets of yarns, which are helically
intertwined.
The resulting structure is oriented to the longitudinal axis
of the braid.
This structure is imparted with a high level of
conformability, relative low cost and ease of manufacture.

Braid Structure

Types of Braids

Triaxial Yarns
A system of longitudinal yarns can be introduced
which are held in place by the braiding yarns
These yarns will add dimensional stability, improve
tensile properties, stiffness and compressive strength.
Yarns can also be added to the core of the braid to
form a solid braid.

Fabric effects on material properties

Resin transfer molding (RTM)

Dry-fiber preform placed in a closed
mold, resin injected into mold, then
cured

Material Forms
Pultrusion
Fiber and matrix are pulled through a
die, like extrusion of metals -assembles fibers, impregnates the
resin, shapes the product, and cures
the resin in one step.
Example. Fishing rods

Pultrusion

Manufacturing
Tube rolling - tubular products

Examples
fishing rods
golf clubs
oars

Prepreg tape typically used wrapped in 2

directions or spiral wrapped