GRAMMAR SUMMARY

SIMPLE PRESENT
(a) Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.
(b) The world is round

The simple present says that something was true in the past, is
true in the present, and will be true in the future. It is used for
general statements of fact.

(c) I study for two hours every night.

(d) He always eats a sandwich for lunch.

The simple present is used to express habitual or everyday

activity.

(e)I have only a dollar right now.

(f) I dont recognize that man.

Certain verbs are not used in the progressive tenses. They

indicate a situation that exists right now.

INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS

1. Some common verbs followed by infinitives
agree
Determine
manage
promise
appear
Forget
mean
refuse
prepare
Happen
offer
remember
learn
Hope
plan
seem
decide
Learn
pretend
try
2. Some common verbs followed by gerunds
admit
Fancy
imagine
avoid
Finish
keep
deny
mind
forgive
dislike
Suggest
save
enjoy
prevent
practise

object (to)
risk
excuse
stop
miss

3. Some common verbs followed by either gerunds or infinitives

advise
Like
intend
allow
Love
start
begin
Permit
regret
continue
Propose
remember
hate
Recommend
prefer

stop
try
mean
agree
want

PAST PERFECT
(a) My parents had already eaten by the time I got home.
(b) Until yesterday, I had never heard about it.

The past perfect expresses an activity that was

completed before another activity or time in the
past.

(c) Sam had already left when we got there.

(d) Sam left before we got there.
(e)After the guests had left, I went to bed.
(f) After the guests left, I went to bed.

If either before or after is used, the past perfect

is often not necessary because the time
relationship is clear. The past tense may be used
then.

USED TO
(a) Jack used to live in Chicago

Used to expresses a habit, activity, or situation that existed in the

past but which no longer exists.

Using which to modify a whole sentence

(a) Tom was late. That surprised me.
(b) Tom was late, which surprised me.

The pronoun that refers to the idea of a whole sentence which

comes before. Similarly, which modifies the idea of a whole
sentence.

PRESENT PERFECT
(a) They have moved into a new apartment.
(b) Have you ever visited Mexico?
(c) We have had four tests so far this semester.
(d) I have met many people since I came here in June.

The present perfect expresses the idea that something

happened before now, at an unspecified time in the
past.
The present perfect also expresses the repetition of an
activity before now. The exact time of each repetition
is not important.
The present perfect also, when used with for for or
since, expresses a situation that began in the past and
continues to the present.

(e) I have been here since 7 oclock.

(f) We have been here for 2 weeks.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (PP)

TO EXPRESS FUTURE
(a) My wife has an appointment with a
doctor. She is seeing Dr. North next Tuesday.
b) Sam has already made his plan. He is
leaving at noon tomorrow.
c) A: What are you going to do this
afternoon?
B: After lunch I am going shopping with a
friend of mine.

The present progressive may be used to express future time

when the idea of the sentence concerns a planned event or
definite intention.

The future meaning for PP is indicated either by future time

words in the sentence or by the context.

BECAUSE OF and INSTEAD OF

(a) We were late because of the rain.

Because of is used as a preposition to show cause. It is used

before a noun or a pronoun.

b) Im happy because of you.

c) We went out in spite of the rain. (=
although it was raining.)
d) In spite of having a headache, I enjoyed
the film.

In spite of is used as a preposition which have the same

meaning as although. It can be followed by a noun or an ing
form.

e) She passed the exam in spite of her

teacher. (She had a bad teacher.)
In spite of is the opposite of because of.
f) She passed the exam because of her
teacher. (She had a good teacher.)
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Meaning of the IF
clause
True in the present/
future
(Type 1)

Verb form in
the IF clause
Simple present

Verb form in the

result clause
Simple present
Simple future

Untrue in the
present/
future
(Type 2)
Untrue in the past
(Type 3)

simple past

would + simple
form

Past perfect

would have + past

participle

Examples
- If I have enough time, I write to my
parents every week.
- If I have enough time tomorrow, I will
write to my parents.
- If I had enough time now, I would write
to my parents.
If I had had enough time, I would have
written to my parents yesterday.

REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotations marks are
used. Verb forms also change from direct speech to reported speech as follow.
REPORTED SPEECH

DIRECT SPEECH
a) She said, I watch TV every day.
b) She said, I am watching TV.
c) She said, I have watched TV.
d) She said, I watched TV.
e) She said, I will watch TV.
f) She said, I am going to watch TV.
g) She said, I can watch TV.
h) She said, I may watch TV.
i) She said, I might watch TV.
j) She said, I must watch TV.
k) She said, I have to watch TV.
l) She said, I should watch TV.
m) She said, I ought to watch TV.
n) She said, Watch TV.
o) She said, Do you watch TV?
Direct speech:
She said, Watch TV.
Reported speech:
She told me to watch TV.

She said (that) she watched TV every day.

She said she was watching TV.
She said she had watched TV.
She said she had watched TV.
She said she would watch TV.
She said she was going to watch TV.
She said she could watch TV.
She said she might watch TV.
She said she might watch TV.
She said she had to watch TV.
She said she had to watch TV.
She said she should watch TV.
She said she ought to watch TV.
She told me to watch TV.
She asked (me) if I watched TV.
If the reporting verb (e.g., said) is in the past, the verb in the
noun clause will usually also be in a past form.
In reported speech, an imperative is changed to an infinitive.
Tell is used instead of say as the reporting verb.
SHOULD

b) Drivers should obey the speed limit.

Should is used to express advisability. The meaning ranges

in strength from a suggestion (a) (This is a good idea)
to a statement about responsibility or duty (b) (This is a
very important thing to do.).

c) You shouldnt leave your keys in the car.

Negative contraction: shouldnt.

a) You should study harder.

PASSIVE VOICE
ACTIVE:

Form of the passive:

Be + past participle

(a) Mary helped the boy.

S
V
O
PASSIVE:
(b) The boy was helped
S
V
by Mary.
ACTIVE:
(c) The boy slept.
PASSIVE:
(d) (none)

In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive
verb: the boy in (a) becomes the subject of the passive verb in (b). (a) and
(b) have the same meaning.

Only transitive verbs (verbs are followed by an object) are used in the
passive. It is not possible to use verbs such as happen, sleep, come, and
seem (intransitive verbs) in the passive.

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

(a) Mary helps Joe.

Joe is helped by Mary.

(b) Mary is helping Joe.

Joe is being helped by Mary.

(c) Mary has helped Joe.

Joe has been helped by Mary.

(d) Mary helped Joe.

Joe was helped by Mary.

(e) Mary was helping Joe.

Joe was being helped by Mary.

(f) Mary had helped Joe.

Joe had been helped by Mary.

(g) Mary will help Joe.

Joe will be helped by Mary.

(h) Mary is going to help Joe,

Joe is going to be helped by Mary.

(i) Mary will have helped Joe.

Joe will have been helped by Mary.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE TYPE 3

(a) If I had had enough time, I would have written

to my parents yesterday.
(In truth, I did not have enough time, so I did not
write to them.)

Conditional sentence type 3 is used to talk about past

situations that did not happen.
Verb form in the if-clause: had + past participle
Verb form in the result clause:
would have + past participle

TO INFINITIVE TO SHOW PURPOSE

(a) I sat down to rest.
(b) Im going to Britain to study English.
(c) To switch on, press red button.

We often use an infinitive to talk about

a persons purpose why he/she does
something.

(d) I moved to a new flat in order to/so as to be near my work.

(e) Im going to leave now, so as not to be late.

We can also use in order to or so as to.

We normally use in order/so as before a
negative infinitive.

(f) I went to the store for some food.

(g) I went to the store to buy some food.
NOT I went to the store for buying some food.

For is sometimes used to express

purpose, but it is a preposition and is
followed by a noun object, as in (f)

ADJECTIVES ENDING IN
-ING AND -ED
You can say:
- My job is

boring.
interesting.
tiring.
satisfying.
depressing.

You can say:

- Im bored with my job.
- Im not interested in my job.
- Im often tired when I finish work.
- Im satisfied with my job.
- My job makes me depressed.

The -ing adjectives tell you about the

job.

The -ed adjectives tell you how somebody feels (about the job).

Compare these examples:

interested
- Kate is very interested in politics.

interesting
- Kate thinks politics is very
interesting.

surprised
- Everybody was surprised that he passed the exam.

surprising
- It was surprising that he passed the
exam.

disappointed
- I was disappointed with the film. I expected it to be much
better.

disappointing
- The film was disappointing. I
expected it to be much better.
shocking
- The news was shocking.

shocked
- We were shocked when we heard the news.

WILL vs. BE GOING TO

(a) According to the weather report, it will be
cloudy tomorrow.
(b) According to the weather report, it is
going to be cloudy tomorrow.

When the speaker is making a prediction about future,

either will or be going to is possible.
There is no difference in meaning between (a) and (b)

(c) A: Why did you buy this paint?

B: Im going to paint my room tomorrow

To express prior plan, only Be Going To is used. In (c)

Speaker B has made a prior plan. She decided to paint her
room last week. She intends to paint her room tomorrow.

(d) A: The phone is ringing.

B: Ill get it.

To express willingness, only WILL is used. In (d),

speaker B is saying: I am willing, I am happy to get the
phone.

DEFINING VS. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

The man who is wearing a red tie is my father.
Defining relative clauses
a. follow words of imprecise or general meaning
which need further definition;
b. are essential parts of a sentence, which makes
incomplete sense without them;
c. can be used with that;
d. are not used with commas;
e. are spoken without a pause or a tone change.

My father, who is wearing a red tie, is doing his

business in Japan.
Non-defining relative clauses
a. follow words of precise meaning which need no
further definition;
b. are additions to a sentence, which makes complete
sense without them;
c. cannot be used with that;
d. are between commas or a comma and a full stop;
e. are spoken after a pause and with a tone change.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVE
1. Short adjectives
(1 or 2 syllables)
old
big
long
large
early
heavy
2. Long adjectives
(2/3 or 4 syllables)
modern
serious
expensive
interesting
comfortable
3. irregular
adjectives
good
bad
far

COMPARATIVE
-(i)er
older
bigger
longer
larger
earlier
heavier

SUPERLATIVE
the -(i)est
the oldest
the biggest
the longest
the largest
the earliest
the heaviest

more

the most

more modern
more serious
more expensive
more interesting
more comfortable
(irregular form)

the most modern

the most serious
the most expensive
the most interesting
the most comfortable
(irregular form)

better
worse
further/farther

the best
the worst
the furthest/farthest