Biology 1

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising
the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails).
Functions: Serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues; Excrete wastes, and
regulate temperature; is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and
temperature; Vitamin D synthesis.
The human skin is composed of a minimum of 3 major layers of tissue:
Epidermis: Thin, tough, outer layer made up of epithelial cells & it does not contain blood vessels.
Stratum corneum is the outermost portion of the epidermis, prevents most bacteria, viruses, and other
foreign substances from entering the body
Melanocytes produce the pigment melanin, function is to filter out ultraviolet radiation from sunlight
Langerhans cells are part of the skin's immune system which helps detect foreign substances and defend
the body against infection.
Dermis: Thick layer of fibrous and elastic that gives the skin its flexibility and strength. Contains nerve
endings, sweat glands and oil (sebaceous) glands, hair follicles, and blood vessels
Sweat glands produce sweat in
response to heat and stress.
The sebaceous glands secrete
sebum into hair follicles. Sebum is
oil that keeps the skin moist and
soft and acts as a barrier against
foreign substances.
The blood vessels of the dermis
provide nutrients to the skin and
help regulate body temperature.
Hypodermis: Its purpose is to
attach the skin to underlying bone
and muscle as well as supplying it
with blood vessels and nerves.
Fat Layer helps insulate the body from heat and cold, provides protective padding, and serves as an energy
storage area.
Botox treatment: It targets Epidermis layer of skin. Botox is a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium
botulinum.
Small, diluted amounts can be directly injected into specific muscles causing controlled weakening of the
muscles. Botox blocks signals from the nerves to the muscles. The injected muscles can no longer contract,
which causes the wrinkles to relax and soften.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Steps in Digestion: Ingestion, Digestion (Mechanical and Chemical), Absorption, Elimination.
Parts of Digestive system: The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal (Salivary glands, Pharynx,
Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine ending in the rectum and anus) and accessory
digestive organs (liver, gallbladder, and pancreas).
Food moves from one organ to the next through muscle action called peristalsis
The Salivary glands in the mouth produces Saliva which contains an enzyme amylase that digest the starch
from food into smaller molecules
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Biology 1

The Stomach has three mechanical tasks. To store the swallowed food, to mix up the food, liquid, and
digestive juice produced by the stomach and to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine.
The liver is the largest gland of the body. It secretes bile which helps the body absorb fat
The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It also makes a
substance that neutralizes stomach acid.
Small intestine has 3 divisions such as duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The inner wall of the small intestine
is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections called villi. The villi are the vehicles through
which nutrients can be absorbed into the body.
The large intestine secretes no enzyme and plays only a minor role in the absorption of nutrients. The
three divisions of large intestine are Caecum, Colon and Rectum. The rectum is where feces are stored until
they leave the digestive system through the anus as a bowel movement.
Disorders and Diseases of Digestive System: Gastrointestinal infections can be caused by viruses, by
bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, or E. coli, Hepatitis, a condition with many different
causes, is when the liver becomes inflamed and may lose its ability to function.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The Respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism used for respiration.
Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract: Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The nostrils (also called nares) act as
the air intake; called cilia protect the nasal passageways and other parts of the respiratory tract.
Pharynx: Pharynx is part of the digestive system as well as the respiratory system because it carries both
food and air. Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps
protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis
Trachea (Wind Pipe): It
carries air from the throat
into the lungs. The inner
membrane of the trachea is
covered with cilia
Bronchi: The trachea divides
into two tubes called
bronchi, one entering the left
and one entering the right
lung.
Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi
continue to divide and
become bronchioles, very
narrow tubes, less than 1
millimeter in diameter.
Alveoli: Individual hollow
cavities contained within
alveolar sacs. Alveoli have
very thin walls which permit
the exchange of
gases Oxygen and Carbon
Dioxide. Thorax or the chest
cavity is the airtight box that
houses the bronchial tree,
lungs, heart, and other structures.

Biology 1

Diaphragm: located below the lungs. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and
continually, and most of the time, involuntarily. The tidal volume is the volume of air that is inhaled or
exhaled in a single such breath.
Breathing is a constant process where you breathe in and out constantly throughout the day. Respiration is
a process where the body breaks down the oxygen, so that the cells in the body can use it.
The process of Respiration: In a process called diffusion, oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood
through the capillaries (tiny blood vessels) lining the alveolar walls. Blood contains Hemoglobin a
specialized protein that binds to oxygen in the lungs so that the oxygen can be transported to the rest of
the body.
Carbon dioxide, which is produced during the process of diffusion, moves out of these cells into the
capillaries, where most of it is dissolved in the plasma of the blood.
Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes airways to contract, tighten and
narrow. Often triggered by irritants in the air such as cigarette smoke, asthma flares.
Smoking has two fold effects on respiration; it may irritate the cells lining the respiratory tract. Long term
effects include diseases like emphysema [over inflation of air sacs/alveoli] or fibrosis [excess of fibrous
connective tissue] of which the earlier is much common.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of water and dissolved materials throughout the
body, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste.
The structure of Circulatory System, The heart has four chambers: Right Atrium, Left Atrium, Right
Ventricle, and Left Ventricle.
The bottom part of the heart is divided into two chambers called the right and left ventricles, which pump
blood out of the heart.
The upper part of the heart is made
up of the other two chambers of the
heart, the right and left atria.
Arteries carry blood away from the
heart. They are the thickest blood
vessels, with muscular walls that
contract to keep the blood moving
away from the heart and through the
body
Two coronary arteries provide oxygen
and nourishment to the muscles of
the heart.
Veins carry blood back to the heart;
waste products such as carbon
dioxide are also removed by the
capillaries.
The working of Circulatory system: One complete heartbeat makes up a cardiac cycle, which consists of two
phases: In the first phase, the ventricles contract sending blood into the pulmonary and systemic
circulation then the ventricles relax and fill with blood from the atria, which makes up the second phase of
the cardiac cycle.
The normal heart beat is 70-72 per minute in males and 78-82 per minute in females. The heartbeat of a
child is more than that of an adult. I.e. 140/min.
The sinoatrial or SA node, a small area of tissue in the wall of the right atrium, sends out an electrical signal
to start the contracting of the heart muscle.
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Biology 1

These electrical impulses cause the atria to contract first, and then travel down to the atrioventricular or
AV node. In the systemic circulation, blood travels out of the left ventricle, to the aorta, to every organ and
tissue in the body, and then back to the right atrium.
In the pulmonary circulation, blood low in oxygen but high in carbon dioxide is pumped out the right
ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which branches off in two directions.
Coronary Circulation: The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle.
Blood: The blood transports life-supporting food and oxygen to every cell of the body and removes their
waste products
Blood has two main constituents. The cells, or corpuscles, comprise about 45 percent, and the liquid
portion, or plasma, in which the cells are suspended, comprises 55 percent
The blood cells comprise three main types: Red blood cells, or Erythrocytes, White blood cells,
or leukocytes, Platelets, or thrombocytes
Diseases of the Blood, Anemia: Anemia is a deficiency of hemoglobin in the blood. It can be caused by
blood loss, abnormal destruction of the red cells, and inadequate red cell formation by the bone marrow.
Leukemia: A great increase in abnormal leukocytes may occur for unknown reasons, resulting in the
diseases known as the leukemias
Heart Diseases: Atherosclerosis is a disorder of large and medium-sized arteries, such as the large coronary
arteries that supply the heart muscle with oxygen. The disorder is characterized by a buildup of fatty
deposits, called plaques, on the inner walls of arteries.
Vein Diseases: The most important peripheral vascular disease of the veins is thrombophlebitis or phlebitis.
This disorder involves the formation of a blood clot (or clots) in large veins, usually in the leg or pelvis.
Hypertension: High blood pressure is often secondary to hardening of the arteries. As the arteries lose
their elasticity, the heart has to beat harder to force the blood through. The result is high blood pressure.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions and
transmit signals between different parts of its body.
The central nervous system of vertebrates contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina.
The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia,
and nerves connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system.
Neuron: The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system.
All neurons have three parts: Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to
the cell body. The axon conducts messages away from the cell body
Three types of neurons occur: Sensory neurons carry messages from sensory receptors to the central
nervous system. Motor neurons transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to
glands). Inter neurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.
Schwann cells serve as supportive, nutritive, and service facilities for neurons
Node of Ranvier: serves as points along the neuron for generating a signal.
The junction between a nerve cell and another cell is called a synapse.
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a
synapse
Brain: The Forebrain: The forebrain is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It consists of the
cerebrum. The cerebrum contains the information that essentially makes us who we are: our intelligence,
memory, speech, ability to feel etc.

Biology 1

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex in the

inner part of the forebrain sits the thalamus,
hypothalamus, and pituitary gland.
The thalamus carries messages from the
sensory organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and
fingers to the cortex. The hypothalamus
controls the pulse, thirst, appetite, sleep
patterns, and other processes in our bodies
that happen automatically.
The Midbrain: The midbrain, located
underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts
as a master coordinator for all the messages
going in and out of the brain to the spinal
cord
The Hindbrain: The hindbrain sits
underneath the back end of the cerebrum,
and it consists of the cerebellum, Pons, and
medulla.
The brainstem takes in, sends out, and coordinates all of the brain's messages. It also controls many of the
body's automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, digestion, and blinking.
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for sudden stress.
The parasympathetic nervous system helps the digestive tract move along so our bodies can efficiently take
in nutrients from the food we eat.
disease and Huntington's disease, are due to imbalances of neurotransmitters Parkinson's is due to a
dopamine deficiency
Alzheimer's disease is associated with protein plaques in the brain
Problems of Nervous System, Brain tumors: Benign tumors usually grow in one place and may be curable
through surgery.
A malignant tumor is cancerous and more likely to grow rapidly and spread.
Meningitis and encephalitis: These are infections of the brain and spinal cord that are usually caused by
bacteria or viruses. Meningitis is an inflammation of the coverings of the brain and spinal cord, and
encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified:
(i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral (iii) Cardiac
Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human
adult is contributed by muscles.
Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it. A detailed study of the myofibril has established
that the striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins Actin and
Myosin.
Utilizing the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin to
form a cross bridge.
The myosin, releasing the ADP and Pi goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds and the cross-bridge is
broken. The ATP is again hydrolyzed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross bridge formation and
breakage is repeated causing further sliding.
Disorders of muscular system:
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Biology 1

Myasthenia gravis:
Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening and
paralysis of skeletal muscle.
SKELETAL SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS, JOINTS
Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a significant role in
movement shown by the body. Bone and cartilage are specialized connective tissues.
Axial Skeleton:
Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body. The skull, vertebral column,
sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton.
Skull: The skull is composed of two sets of bones cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones. Cranial bones
are 8 in number.
Vertebral Column: Our vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and is
dorsally placed. It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of the trunk.
Rib Cage: There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral column
and ventrally to the sternum. It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called
bicephalic.
Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs along with
their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each limb is
made of 30 bones. The bones of the hand (fore limb) are
humerus, radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bones 8 in number),
metacarpals (palm bones 5 in number) and phalanges (digits
14 in number).
Joints: Joints are essential for all types of movements
involving the bony parts of the body. Locomotory movements
are no exception to this. Joints are points of contact between
bones, or between bones and cartilages.
Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints do not allow any movement.
This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse
end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous connective tissues in the form of sutures, to form the cranium.
Synovial Joints: Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between
the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows considerable movement.
Cartilaginous Joints: In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of
cartilages.
Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and increased chances of
fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.
Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
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Biology 2

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND NUTRITION

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Glands & Hormones: Our body produces its own chemicals and uses them to control certain functions, and the
main system that coordinates these chemicals is called the endocrine system
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes
materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the
body
Exocrine glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside of the mouth.
Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where
they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body
2 Important Endocrine diseases Diabetes: Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person
has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond
to the insulin that is produced.
Type 1 diabetes: results from the body's failure to produce insulin, and requires the person to inject insulin
Type 2 diabetes: results from insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to use insulin properly, sometimes
combined with an absolute insulin deficiency
Growth Disorders: If the body produces too much growth hormone (GH), gigantism or acromegaly (gigantism in
adults) can occur; too little growth hormone results a condition called growth hormone deficiency,
Osteoporosis: is a condition in which bones become fragile and more likely to break.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): PCOS is a condition associated with symptoms of infrequent or irregular
menstruation
Thyroid Disorders: Thyroid hormones, hormones produced by the thyroid gland, influence nearly all of the
body's symptoms. Thyroid problems include hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone), hypothyroidism
Cushing's syndrome: Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body perform a number of important functions
including converting fat into energy, maintaining immune system function, and responding to stress
Addison's disease: Addison's disease occurs when the adrenal glands, which are located at the top of each
kidney, produce an insufficient amount of steroid hormones despite the presence of an adequate amount of
ACTH, the hormone that triggers the adrenal glands to release steroids.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Animals reproductive systems can be divided into the internal reproductive organs and the external
genitalia
Gametes are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called a zygote.
When the haploid male and female gametes unite in a process called fertilization, they form what is called
a zygote
In the male, testes produce sperm, and in the female, ovaries make eggs
Hermaphroditism is when one organism has both sexes. Earthworms and garden snails always have both
male and female organs
Parthenogenesis is the ability of an unfertilized egg to develop and hatch.
There are two major mechanisms of fertilization. In external fertilization, used by many aquatic
invertebrates, eggs and sperm are simultaneously shed into the water, and the sperm swim through the
water to fertilize the egg.
In internal fertilization, the eggs are fertilized within the reproductive tract of the female, and then are
covered with eggshells and/or remain within the body of the female during their development.
Oviparous organisms: like chickens and turtles, lay eggs that continue to develop after being laid, and
hatch later.

Biology 2

Viviparous organisms like humans and kangaroos, are live-bearing. The developing young spend
proportionately more time within the females reproductive
tract,
Ovoviviparous organisms like guppies, garter snakes, and
Madagascar hissing roaches, have eggs (with shells) that
hatch as they are laid, making it look like live birth.
Male Reproductive System: Sperm are produced in
the testes located in the scrotum. From there, sperm are
transferred to the epididymis, coiled tubules also found
within the scrotum that store sperm and are the site of their
final maturation
The ends of the vasa deferentia, behind and slightly under
the bladder, are called the ejaculatory ducts. The seminal
vesicles are also located behind the bladder.
Their secretions are about 60% of the total volume of
the semen and contain mucus, amino acids, fructose as the
main energy source for the sperm, and prostaglandins to
stimulate female uterine contractions to move the semen
up into the uterus
The prostate is the largest of the accessory glands and puts its secretions directly into the urethra
secretions are alkaline to buffer any residual urine, which tends to be acidic, and the acidity of the womans
vagina.
The bulbourethral glands or Cowpers glands: this fluid may serve as a lubricant for inserting the penis into
the vagina,
Female Reproductive System: Eggs are produced in the ovaries. Within the ovary, a follicle consists of one
precursor egg cell surrounded by special cells to nourish and protect it. Due to the stimulation of folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) one egg per cycle matures and is released from its ovary.
Ovulation is the release of a mature egg due to the stimulation of Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which then
stimulates the remaining follicle cells to turn into a corpus luteum which then secretes progesterone to
prepare the uterus for possible implantation
Each egg is released into the abdominal cavity near
the opening of one of the oviducts or Fallopian tubes.
The vagina is a relatively-thin-walled chamber. It
serves as a repository for sperm (it is where the penis
is inserted), and also serves as the birth canal
The cervix secretes mucus, the consistency of which
varies with the stages in her menstrual cycle
Cervical cancer: It is one of the most common
cancers in women is caused due to Human Pappiloma
Virus (HPV). Pap smear test is a common and quick
method to check cervical cancer.
Problems with Reproduction System: Testicular
cancer: It occurs when cells in the testicle divide abnormally and form a tumor.
Inguinal hernia: When a portion of the intestines pushes through an abnormal opening or weakening of
the abdominal wall and into the groin or scrotum, it is known as an inguinal hernia.
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. Antibiotics,
usually penicillin, are used to treat Syphilis.

Biology 2

FOOD AND NUTRITION

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are the organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen
which constitute sugars (Starch, cellulose, glucose etc).
Simple Carbohydrates are made up of a single basic sugar & provide the sweet taste in our food
Complex carbohydrates are a combination of different types of sugars. Based on the number of sugars they
are classified as disaccharide, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides
Proteins: Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Protein is found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body.
Hormones and enzymes are also formed from amino acids
Protein deficiency causes Kwashiorkor a severe under-nourishment condition.
Fats: Fat molecules are a rich source of energy for the body. Proteins and carbohydrates contain 4 kCal per
gram as opposed to fats which contain 9 kcal per gram.
Saturated fats: Solid at room temperature. Saturated fats directly raise total and LDL (bad) cholesterol
levels hence are advised to avoid
Unsaturated fat: Liquid at room temperature.
They are 2 types. Monounsaturated fats which are
found in olives, olive oil, nuts, peanut oil, canola
oil and avocados.
Trans Fats or Hydrogenated Fats: actually
unsaturated fats, but they can raise total and LDL
(bad) cholesterol levels while also lowering HDL
(good) cholesterol levels
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is one of the five
major groups of lipoproteins, which enable
transport of cholesterol within the waterbased bloodstream.
Vitamins:
A vitamin is
an organic
compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts
by an organism.
The two types of vitamins are: water-soluble
vitamins (all the B vitamins and vitamin C) and fatsoluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K). Fatsoluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissue of the body, whereas water-soluble vitamins are not
easily stored and excess amounts are flushed out in the urine.
Essential Minerals: Calcium: Healthy bones and teeth, muscle contraction, assists in blood clotting, oxygen
transport, cellular secretion of fluids and enzyme activity.
Copper: Acts as a catalyst to store and release iron to help form hemoglobin.
Iodine: Needed by the thyroid hormone and influences nutrient metabolism, nerve and muscle function,
nail, hair, skin and tooth condition, and physical and mental development
Iron: Necessary for red blood cell formation and required for transport of oxygen throughout the body
Phosphorous: Works with calcium to develop and maintain strong bones and teeth.
Balanced Diet: Food is anything solid or liquid that has a chemical composition which enables it, when
swallowed to do one or more of the following:
Provide the body with the material from which it can produce heat, or any form of energy.
Provide material to allow growth, maintenance, repair or reproduction to proceed.
Supply substances, which normally regulate the production of energy or the process of growth, repair or
reproduction.

Biology 2

The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a tool that helps one to measure the amount of body fat
one has based on height and weight. BMI does not actually measure the percentage of body fat.
Malnutrition: Malnutrition essentially means bad nourishment. malnutrition is characterized by
inadequate or excess intake of protein, energy, and micronutrients such as vitamins, and the frequent
infections and disorders that result Severe forms of malnutrition include marasmus, cretinism and
irreversible brain damage due to iodine deficiency; and blindness and increased risk of infection and death
from vitamin A deficiency

Malnutrition: 20% of world population

Asia : 70%
Africa: 26%
Latin America and Caribbean : 4%
Anaemia occurs primarily due to iron deficiency and is caused by undernutrition and poor dietary intake of
iron
Weekly Iron and Folic Supplementation program (WIFS): Implementation: rural and urban areas
The scheme will cover: 12 crore adolescents
(3.2 crore anemic girls, 2 crore anemic boys).
Funding: National Rural Health Mission.
The cause Individual nutritional status depends on the interaction between food that is eaten, the overall
state of health and the physical environment
HUNGAMA (hunger and malnutrition) report: 2011
I. 112 rural districts of India, covering nearly 20% of Indian children.
II. Of the 112 districts surveyed, 100 were selected from the bottom of a child development district
index developed for UNICEF India in 2009, referred to as the 100 Focus Districts in this report.
III. 40%: underweight, 60%: stunted (their height is much lower than the median height-for-age of
the reference population).
IV. The 100 Focus Districts are located across Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh.
V. Children from Muslim or SC/ST households generally had worse nutrition indicators.
VI. The prevalence of underweight in children born with a weight below 2.5 kg is 50 per cent, while
that among children born with a weight above 2.5 kg is 34 per cent.

Food Additives: Food additives are non-nutritive substances added deliberately to any food product in
small amounts to improve its color, texture, taste, flavor, consistency and shelf life
Bulking agents: Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without
affecting its nutritional value
Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice
cream, and homogenized milk.
Preservatives: Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other
microorganisms
Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate, benzoic acid): beverages, jams, pickled products, salads, cheeses,
meats and margarines.
Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite): Packaged meats. They also impart a pink, fresh hue to cured meat
Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide): dried fruits, wines (particularly red wines) and fruit juices and in many
other food products.
Sorbates (such as sodium sorbate, potassium sorbate): breads, cheeses, bakery products etc.
Sweeteners: Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep
the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth
decay and diarrhea.

Biology 2

The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006: The Indian Parliament has passed the Food Safety and Standards
Act, 2006 that overrides all other food related laws. It will specifically repeal eight laws:
The Act establishes a new national regulatory body, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, to
develop science based standards for food and to regulate and monitor the manufacture, processing,
storage, distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure the availability of safe and wholesome food
for human consumption
Food Security: The concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to
food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences.
PROGRAMME
National development councils -National food
security mission: 11th plan

Food safety and standards act: 2006

OBJECTIVES
Rice: 10 m tons
Wheat: 8 m tons
Pulses: 2 m tons
Implemented by department of agriculture and
cooperation in 17 states
I. To develop science based standards for food
II. To regulate and monitor the manufacture,
processing, storage, distribution, sale and import of
food
III. To ensure the availability of safe and wholesome
food for human consumption

Food access: having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet.
Food use: appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and
sanitation.
Food security is a complex sustainable development issue, linked to health through malnutrition, but also
to sustainable economic development, environment, and trade.
Scope of the Problem: Chronic food deficits affect about 792 million people in the world (FAO 2000),
including 20% of the population in developing countries.
More than 70% of children with protein-energy malnutrition live in Asia, 26% live in Africa, and 4% in Latin
America and the Caribbean
Interventions: Interventions that contribute to preventing malnutrition include :
Improved water supply, sanitation and hygiene, Health education for a healthy diet.
Improved access, by the poor, to adequate amounts of healthy food, Ensuring that industrial and
agricultural development do not result in increased malnutrition
Nutritional Security: WHO considers household food and nutrition security as a basic human right.
Ensuring food and nutrition security is a challenge for India, given its huge population and high levels of
poverty and malnutrition.
Economic access to food by about a fourth of the population living below the poverty line is problematic,
despite impressive economic growth in the recent years.
Occupational lifestyle diseases: Survey by ASSOCHAM (associated chamber of commerce and industry)
I.
68% of working women afflicted with lifestyle disorders like obesity, depression, chronic
backache, diabetes and hypertension.
II.
10% of adults suffer with hypertension.
III.
3/100 suffers with stroke.
IV.
In corporate employees 36% of sample population suffer with obesity, 21% with
depression, 12% with blood pressure and 8% with diabetes

S&T- Biotech

Biotechnology
Biotechnology is defined as any technique that uses living organisms or their products to make or
modify a product to improve plants and animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses.
To put in other words
Species A / Organism A
Scenario 1:

Species B / Organism B
Best of A into Species/Organism B

Scenario 2:

Best of B into A

Scenario 3:

Best of Both A and B

Scenario 4:

Best of A and B and also others

The above scenarios typically show that biotech is basically aimed at bringing in best of something
into best of something else.
Earlier decades, when there was absence of technological superiority, still the desired features and
desired characteristics were got with the use of techniques like Selective Breeding.
This give rise to different types of BT. Based on how BT is achieved, we have
a. Non-gene BT
b. Gene BT
Selective breeding is an example of Non-gene BT.
Transgenic and Cisgenic Organisms
If genetic material is taken from different species, then the resultant product is called Transgenic
organisms.
On the other hand, if the genetic material is taken from the same species but from a different
organism, then the resultant product is a Cisgenic organism.
Tools to achieve Biotechnology
1. Genetic Engineering
It is an area of molecular biology that involves manipulating the structure of genetic material
known as DNA.
2. Recombinant DNA
It is a strand of DNA that has been manipulated by scientists. In this the DNA strand is got by
recombining fragments of DNA that has been obtained from others.

S&T- Biotech

Types of Biotechnology
1.
2.
3.
4.

Green Biotechnology
Red Biotechnology
White Biotechnology
Blue Biotechnology

Green Biotechnology
It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in agricultural purposes.
BT Cotton
Gene CRY1ac has been taken from soil bacterium Bacillus Thuringiensis, which has been inserted
into cotton. This gene has been identified to produce a toxin that is potent to many pests. Once this
gene is inserted into cotton plants, then we get a cotton plant that fights pests on its own. This
reduces the use of Pesticides.
In India, BT Cotton was used on a wide scale from 2002. Over a decade now, the positives and
negatives are properly documented.
Negatives

Bollworm pests that the BT toxin is designed to fight, is becoming BT resistant. This is a
major issue, since this scenario was not anticipated and there is virtually no solution as of
now to this issue.
BT toxin is destroying microflora.
BT plants are not able to produce BT toxin throughout their lifespan.

BT Brinjal
Brinjal or Eggplant is a plant species native to India. It was started to be cultivated in India 4000
years ago. In India, it is majorly grown in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Uttar Pradesh.
Any altering of this species at the genetic level might result in losing the native species once and for
all.
Is organic food coming under threat from GM crops? Recently, there was a curious case in
Australia, where GM crop grown in a farm Contaminated (Genetic Pollution) its
neighbouring farm and this resulted in this farm losing the Organic Farm status.
This is not the only way GM food is threatening organic food. GM food companies like
Monsato, Dupont are aggressively undervaluing their bids in order to sell GM seeds to a vast
population, which is seen as a major threat to organic foods.
Genetic Pollution
It is a term used by scientists where there is an uncontrolled gene flow into the Native species,
which results either in altering the native species at the genetic level or in the worst case that native
species is lost forever.

S&T- Biotech
Uses of Green BT
1. Agricultural yield is more in less time.
2. Reducing vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses including drought and excessive
salinity. For ex: Cotton had vulnerability with bollworm pests.
3. Reduces fertilizer use.
Concerns about GM Food
Going against Nature: GM foods research is considered by many to go against
Nature. And the fear of unknown combined has become a major aversive force for
people to go for GM Foods.
Food Contamination: There is always a fear of native seeds being contaminated by
GM seeds and that the threat of losing the native seed species completely, is real.
Pesticide resistant crops could be toxic to non-target organisms and also the threat
of promotion of development of BT resistant insect populations
Genetic Pollution
Red Biotechnology
It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in medical purposes.
Eg: Gene Therapy, DNA Finger printing, Biogenerics
Biogenerics
Therapeutic products based on genetically engineered or RDNA technology.
For ex: Recombinant Insulin
Gene Therapy
It is one of the revolutionary form of treatment of genetic disorder which is caused by some
of the key gene becoming defective or misplaced. Therefore, gene therapy aims at either
modifying or replacing the defective genes by right sequence of genes.
White Biotechnology
It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in industrial purposes.
Industrial biotech is also used for the preparation of vitamins, antibiotics and alcohols by the
manipulation of microorganism.
For ex: Vaccines are nothing but, disease causing organisms in its weak state.
Blue Biotechnology
It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in marine or fresh water areas.
This field concerns with use of marine or fresh water organisms and their derivatives to increase sea
food supply or to harness medicinal products.

S&T- Biotech

S&T- InfoTech

Information Technology
The use of computers for the processing and distribution of information in digital, audio/video and
other forms.
Information science is primarily concerned with acquisition, storage, processing and organisation of
data.
Basic terms used in IT
1. Network
Group of computers interconnected in order to share resources or exchange information.
2. Node
Different terminals which are attached to the network can share files and other resources. In
a computer network, the node is a computer.
3. Server
A system or a program that provides a specific kind of service to clients software running on
other computers.
This is a dedicated system which helps clients (other computers).
4. Internet
It is a network of networks where in a large number of computers are interconnected and
this interconnection today exists at a global level.
5. Internet Protocol
It is a set of rules to send and receive messages at the internet address level. It is a protocol
by which data is sent from one computer to other on the internet.
6. Transmission Control Protocol
It is a connection oriented protocol used along with IP to send data in the form of message
units after reassembling them into the right order as a complete message at the other end.
7. WWW
It is a World-wide system of interconnected computer files linked to one another on the
internet. It was developed by Tim Berners Lee (present director of WWW consortium).
8. HTTP
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is a set of rules for computers to retrieve textual data from
remote server.
9. HTTPS
It is a software program designed to scan and analyse the HTML. It is based on secure socket
layer (SSL) which is a cryptographic security measure that protects sensitive data on the
internet.
10. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
It is a universal naming convention used for locating and accessing resources via the
internet.
11. Malware
These are malicious software in the form of viruses, worms and Trojanhorse.
These softwares have the capability to alter, effect or in extreme cases shutdown the
programs that are running on a computer or on a specific network. The reason that they are
known as virus is that they spread to computers with which they communicate.

S&T- InfoTech
12. Trojan or Trojan horses
These are malicious software that comes disguised as a useful application program and
when opened the Trojan starts executing and destroys the files on the computer.

Cyber Warfare
Cyber espionage has been believed to have started widely from 2007, when a campaign known as
ROCRA began.
STUXNET Virus
It is believed to have been developed by Israel and US and was aimed at crippling Irans
infrastructure, especially Irans Nuclear Development Infrastructure. The result is that, Irans nuclear
development program has been delayed by more than 2 years.
Flame Virus
It is also known as Flamer or Skywiper. It attacks computers that run windows. It was discovered in
2012, by MAHER centre of Iranian national CERT and Kaspersky lab.
Red October Victims
A recent report by Kaspersky lab which initiated a new threat research revealed a large scale cyber
espionage network which it called the Red October victims.
The lab mentions that there were a series of attacks against diplomatic, governmental and scientific
research organisations.
The report places India on the 5th position on the most affected list.
Russia was the most affected by these attacks.
It is being seen that the Command and Control infrastructure is being used by various hackers all
over the world.
Command and Control infrastructure is a chain of servers working as proxies and hiding the location
of Mothership control server.
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS): is a situation where in multiple systems submit as many
requests as possible to a single computer or service there by overloading it and preventing it from
servicing legitimate requests.

Modulation
It is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a signal carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the modulation (information) signal.
For example, if Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied w.r.t to information signal it is termed as
Amplitude Modulation. And if Frequency is altered it is known as Frequency Modulation.
Need for Modulation

Practicality of length of antenna. L=/4. Since a carrier of high frequency is being used, it
eliminates the requirement to have very high antenna.
Where is the wavelength of the wave used.
Remove interference (noise). The modulation process is carried out by using a very high
frequency carrier wave. This ensures the noise is removed to a very large extent.
Transmitting process will become easy, since the information signal is converted to a format
that is easy to transmit.

Types of Modulation
Modulation

Continuous
Modulation
* Amplitude Modulation (AM)
* Frequency Modulation (FM)

Pulse Modulation

* Pulse Amplitude Modulation

* Pulse Position Modulation

Electromagnetic Spectrum
It is defined as the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. Electro-Magnetic
waves are waves in which both electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously.
EM waves usually is used in applications like Spectroscopy. But it also finds application in
communication technologies.
EM waves are Transverse waves. Waves can be classified as Transverse or Longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves are those where in the particles in the medium vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of waves. On the other hand, Longitudinal waves
are those where particles in the medium vibrate in the same direction as that of the direction of
propagation of waves.
EM waves are Non-mechanical waves. Waves which does not require medium for propagation of
are known as Non-mechanical waves.

EM Spectrum
The waves can be arranged in terms of highest frequency or highest wavelength. From highest
frequency to lowest frequency, the EM waves are

Gamma rays also known as Gamma Radiation. It is the EM radiation with the highest
frequency. Gamma radiation is ionizing radiation. They are produced by the decay from high
energy states of atomic nuclei (gamma decay). Gamma radiation can be produced artificially
similar to the process of X-ray generation. Gamma rays have frequencies higher than 10
exahertz (>1019). Gamma rays are known to kill cells. They are increasingly used to kill
cancerous cells.
o Ionizing Radiation: It is radiation composed of particles that individually carry
enough energy to liberate an electron from an atom or molecule without raising the
bulk material to ionization temperature.
X Rays X-rays were discovered by William Roentgen. He produced these rays by
bombarding electron to an element having high atomic number say Tungsten or Copper.
X-rays can carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds.
Radiography is the use of X-rays to view a non-uniformly composed material such as the
human body. By using the physical properties of the ray an image can be developed which
displays areas of different density and composition.
Ultraviolet Rays It is part of EM spectrum where the wavelength is greater than X-rays.
This portion of the spectrum is so named to represent that portion of the spectrum that has
frequencies higher than those the Humans identify as the colour violet.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere is known to block the UV rays from reaching the earth.
There are three types of UV rays
o UV A- Recent evidences link this radiation exposure to changes in structure of DNA.
This is unaffected by ozone and most of it reaches earth surface.
o UV B- Is blocked by ozone.
o UV C- Almost all of it is blocked by either ordinary air or ozone.
Visible Light This is the portion of the EM spectrum that is visible to the human eye.
Electro Magnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light. The wavelength
range is 400nm-700nm. Newton divided the spectrum into seven colours VIBGYOR (from
highest frequency to lowest frequency).
Nobel Physics Prize 2011 was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Adam Riess and Brian Schmidt.
This team had proved that the universe is simply not expanding but expanding at a much
faster rate.
They had taken the help of the Redshift phenomena to prove this theory. Redshift happens
when light seen coming from an object that is moving away proportionally increased in
wavelength, or shifted to the red end of the spectrum.
Infrared This includes most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room
temperature. These are known as heat waves. Much of the energy from the sun arrives on
Earth in the form of Infrared radiation. Infrared waves help in maintaining earths warmth or
average temperature through the greenhouse effect.
Microwave Radiation These are EM waves that are produced by Oscillating circuit or a
magnetron. This is used in RADAR applications.
Radiowaves This is the region having longest wavelength. The frequency extends from
3kHz to 300 GHz. These waves are used in communication.

Types of EM Spectrum

Paid Spectrum This portion of the EM Spectrum corresponds to spectrum that needs to be
purchased or rented/leased. Like the frequency band of 800MHz, 900MHz (used for CDMA
and 2G) in India has to be leased.
Unpaid Spectrum This portion of the EM Spectrum corresponds to spectrum that need not
be purchased or rented/leased. This corresponds to frequencies like 2.4GHz in which Wifi
works (in India). Other frequency ranges includes 902-928MHz, 1880-1900MHz, 24832500MHz, 5150-5350MHz and 5725-5775MHz.

Different generations in wireless telephony

1G-Refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology. These are analog
telecommunication standards. This differentiates it from 2G which uses digital radio signals.
2G This was wireless telephony using digital radio waves. It was this generation that
introduced data services starting with SMS text messages.
2.5G It is used to describe 2G systems that have implemented the packet switched domain
in addition to the circuit switched domain. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is usually
termed as 2.5G which usually provides data rates of 114Kbps (max).
2.75G With the introduction of EGPRS, the data rates got increased to 384Kbps (max). This
technology was also known as EDGE (enhanced data rates for GSM evolution).
3G This is a set of standards used for mobile devices and networks that comply with the
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 specifications provided by the International
Telecommunication Union.
To meet the IMT-2000 specifications, a system is required to provide peak data rates of
atleast 2Mbps. The access technology used is Wideband CDMA whereas the switching used
is either circuit/packet. In India the frequency being used is 2.1GHz.
4G - This is a set of standards used for mobile devices and networks that comply with the
International Mobile Telecommunications-advanced specifications provided by the
International Telecommunication Union.
To meet the IMT-Advanced specifications, a system is required to provide peak data rates of
100Mbps. Two systems are commercially available that implements 4G. These are the
WiMax and the Long Term Evolution (LTE).

Difference between 3G and 4G

Frequency Band
Data Rates
Access Technology
Switching

3G
2.1GHz
Upto 2Mbps
Wideband CDMA
Circuit Switching

4G
2.3GHz
20Mbps and more
Multicarrier CDMA
Packet Switching

Policies in India
When India opened its market in 1991, investments started flowing in to various sectors. The
Government of India in 1994 released its first policy on National Telecom.
Salient features of National Telecom Policy -1994

Private sector was identified as one of the actors in this policy. And accordingly, FDI was
invited to help private companies.
It was envisaged to make available Phone on demand.
It was envisaged that all the villages will be connected (by landline) by 1997.
In urban areas it was planned for 1 PCO for every 500 persons.

Salient features of New Telecom Policy -1999

Since, now enough connectivity was reached through NTP 1994, it was again emphasized to
provide telephones on demand by 2002.
Rural teledensity was planned to be increased from 0.4% to 4%.
Teledensity it is the number of mobile/landline connections for every 100 individuals living
in an area.
Provide internet to District HQ by 2000.
Most notably, the revenue generation from Telephony was changed. A new concept of One
time Entry fee was charged and a license fee based on Revenue was initiated.
Resources for meeting Universal Service Obligation would be through Universal Access
Levy. This was mentioned in the policy itself.
Universal Service Obligation - As per the Indian Telegraph Act 1885 (as amended in 2003
and 2006) Universal Service Obligation is defined as access to telegraph service to people in
rural and remote areas at affordable and reasonable prices.
Apart from the higher capital cost of providing telecom services in rural and remote areas,
these areas also generate lower revenue due to lower population density, low income and
lack of commercial activity. Thus normal market forces alone would not direct the telecom
sector to adequately serve backward and rural areas. Keeping in mind the inadequacy of the
market mechanism to serve rural and inaccessible areas on one hand and the importance of
providing vital telecom connectivity on the other, most countries of the world have put in
place policies to provide Universal Access and Universal Service to ICT.

Addendum to NTP 1999

Government, in the public interest in general and consumer interest in particular and for the
proper conduct of telegraphs and telecommunications services, and also based on
recommendations of TRAI in this regard has decided there shall also be the following categories of
licences for telecommunication services:
i.

Unified Licence for Telecommunication Services permitting Licensee to provide all

telecommunication/ telegraph services covering various geographical areas using any
technology;

ii.

Licence for Unified Access (Basic and Cellular) Services permitting Licensee to provide Basic
and /or Cellular Services using any technology in a defined service area.

Universal Service Obligation Fund

NTP99 envisaged that the implementation of USO Obligation for rural/remote areas would be
undertaken by all fixed service providers who shall be reimbursed from the USO Fund. Other
service providers would also be encouraged to participate in USO provision subject to technical
feasibility and would be reimbursed from the funds.
The Universal Service Support Policy came into effect from 01.04.2002. The guidelines for
universal service support policy were issued by DoT and were placed on the DoT
website www.dot.gov.in on 27th March 2002. Subsequently, the Indian Telegraph
(Amendment) Act, 2003 giving statutory status to the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF)
was passed by both Houses of Parliament in December 2003. Hence the USOF received the
statutory status in 2003.
The Rules for administration of the Fund known as Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules,
2004 were notified on 26.03.2004.
National Telecom Policy 2012
After the devastating effect brought to Indian Telecom industry in the form of 2G scam and the
subsequent quashing of licenses by the SC, the government felt that there has to be an
organised effort to close all open ends.
Also the number of telephone connections, at the end of February 2012, was 943 million, as
compared to 41 million at the end of December 2001. This growth has been fuelled by the
cellular segment (mobile phones) which alone accounted for 911 million connections at the
end of February 2012. The National Telecom Policy 2012 (NTP 2012) is conceived against this
backdrop.
Salient features of the policy
License Reform The policy envisages a One Nation / One License across service /
service area. As per the addendum to NTP99 there are two types of licenses
1. Unified Licence for Telecommunication Services
2. Licence for Unified Access (Basic and Cellular) Services
NTP 12 plans to remove this distinction.
NTP 12 plans to unbundle Spectrum and License.
Spectrum license (where the telecom company is expected to bid for the required
spectrum). On the other hand, the license for the telecom company regards to the
operating license for the company.
Spectrum Liberalisation: it is planned to use any frequency to provide any technology.
Currently, 2G works in the 900 and 1800 MHz. Whereas 2.1GHZ is used for 3G.
Broadband on Demand: It is envisaged to achieve BoD by 2015.
Rural Teledensity is planned to be increased to 70% from current 39% by 2017 and
increase to 100% by 2020.

S&T- NanoTech

Nanotechnology
The term Nano comes from Latin word meaning Dwarf. And in scientific community it refers to
1nanometer.
1nm = one millionth of a mm
1nm = one billionth of a mm
The term Nanotechnology was used for the first time by Richard Feynman in 1959 in his article
There is plenty of room left at the bottom.
The term Nano science was first defined by Japan scientist Norio Taniguchi.

Nano Science is a field of science which is concerned with study of atoms, molecules and objects
whose size is on Nano meter scale.
Note: Materials behave differently at nano meter scale than when compared to when they behave
at the normal scale.
For ex: Gold at macro scale is chemically inert but at nanoscale, it behaves as a catalyst.
The reason for this is the change in the fundamental property of matter due to the increased ratio
of surface area to volume which leads to altering the physical, thermal and catalytic properties of
matter.

Approaches to Nano Technology

Bottom-up
Materials and devices are built from the molecular components which assemble themselves
chemically by principles of molecular recognition.
Eg: Carbon nanotubes built using Graphene.

GRAPHENE: it is a substance composed of pure carbon where the length of carbon bonds is
0.142nm. The atoms in Graphene are arranged in a hexagonal pattern similar to honey comb
structure.
The term Graphene was coined as a combination of graphite and the
suffix ene by hans-peter Boehm.
Note: The Nobel prize in Physics for 2010 was given to Andre Geim
and Konstantin Novoselov for groundbreaking experiments
regarding 2D material Graphene.
Graphene conducts electricity faster than silicon. It can also resist temperature
Upto 150 degc. Hence it has become favoritly used in ICs and PC boards.
Fig: Atomic Structure of Graphene

Top-down
As the name suggests, nano objects are constructed from larger entities.
Ex: Gold at macro scale is chemically inert. But at nano scale it acts as a catalyst.

S&T- NanoTech

Applications of Nanotechnology
1. Nanoparticles
These are tiny particles that have special properties that are used in some areas which has
very high significance.
For eg: Nanoparticles of Titanium dioxide is used in some suntan lotions and cosmetics.
These tiny particles are transparent on skin and can absorb and reflect UV rays.
2. Nano medicine
It is the field of technology where Nano materials and devices are designed for medical
purposes of
Diagnosis
Prevention of disease
Treatment of injury
Drug delivery
Bioavailability of drug
It is the science of ensuring the presence of drug molecules in the perfect place of the body
with perfect amount of medicine where it will do most good.
Nano Pharmacology
It is the science which involves linking up of fabricated nanomaterials to biologically active
compounds or molecules to be used as probes and drugs to identify and target abnormal
cells.
Nanorobots
Medical nanorobots would circulate freely throughout the body when injected into the
blood stream. These would carry drugs which will be selectively released on coming in
contact with the abnormal cell.
3. Military applications
Bio-medical engineers are trying to develop nano-mechanical olfactory sensors (NOSE) to
detect characteristic substances.
Smart dust may be deployed for stealthy monitoring of a hostile environment.
Potential hazards due to Nanotechnology
Critics of Nanotechnology point the potential toxicity to new class of nano substances that
might alter balance both ecologically and for a person individually.
Scientists term this as Nano Pollution.
NanoPollution
It is the generic term given for all waste generated by nanodevices or during the nanomaterial manufacturing process.
Ex: Nanoparticles of Titanium dioxide that is used in sunscreen lotions and cosmetics can get
into food chain and cause ageing of colon cells.
Cadmium selenide nanoparticles can cause cadmium poisoning.

S&T- NanoTech

Nanotechnology in India
Department of IT has started the Nanotech development program. A vision group under the
leadership of CNR Rao was setup and entrusted with the task of formulating a National
Nanotechnology Policy.
Government of India also has launched the Nanoscience and Technology initiative. A
program that focuses on overall R&D in Nanotech field so that India can be a major Player in
nanotech in years to come.

S&T- Optics

Optics
Optics is the stream that deals with the behaviour and properties of light.
Reflection
It is a phenomenon of change in the path of light without any change in medium.
Laws of Reflection
1. The angle the incident ray makes with normal is equal to the angle that the reflected ray
makes with normal.
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie in the same plane.
Types of mirrors
1. Concave mirror
The reflecting surface is towards centre of sphere while outer surface is polished.
Applications:
a. These mirrors are used in opthalmoscope, which reflects light from retina of the eye of
the patient.
b. These are used in search lights
c. These are used in mirrors that are used in saloons.
2. Convex mirror
The reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere.
Applications
a. Drivers mirror uses this type of mirror. But the exact distance of the vehicles are not
known.
b. Used in safety viewers at dangerous corners.
Refraction
It is the phenomenon of bending of light when it moves from one medium to another. There are two
scenarios possible here.
a. When the light passes from optically rarer medium to optically denser medium, the light
bends towards the normal.
b. When the light passes from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, it bends
away from the normal.
Laws of Refraction
1. Incident ray, Refracted ray and the normal all are in the same plane.
2. Sin(i)/Sin(r) is constant for 2 given media and this constant is called Refractive Index of
second medium w.r.t the first medium.

S&T- Optics
Effect of Refraction
1.
2.
3.
4.

Ponds appear shallower

Bending of stick in water
Apparent shortening of height of person standing in water.
Twinkling of stars in sky.

Critical Angle
It is the angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is
90deg.
Total Internal Reflection
This is a special case of refraction, where light from denser medium travelling to rarer medium is
incident at an angle greater than critical angle such that the angle of refraction in rarer medium is
90deg.
Conditions for TIR to occur
1. Denser to Rarer medium.
2. Angle of incidence greater than critical angle.

S&T- Space Technology

Space Research
Space research is scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in outer space. It includes
the use of space technology for a broad spectrum of research disciplines, including Earth
science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics. The term includes scientific payloads
everywhere from deep space to low earth orbit. Space science and space exploration involve the
study of outer space itself, which is only part of the broader field of space research.
Orbits can be classified on

Altitude
Inclination

Based on Altitude

Low Earth Orbit (till 2000kms)

Medium Earth Orbit (2000-36000kms)
Geo-Synchronous Orbit (36000)
High Earth Orbit (>36000kms)

Note: All manned missions have taken place in the Low Earth Orbit except the Apollo Program of the
NASA.
Karman Line: It is an imaginary line that separates Earths atmosphere from outer space. This line is
at an altitude of 100kms from the Earths surface.
Based on Inclination

Inclined orbit
Not Inclined orbit

Inclined orbits

Polar Orbit
An orbit, where the satellites either pass close to or pass over the poles. It is at an inclination
of 90 to the equator.
Polar SunSynchronous Orbit (SSO)
This orbit is at an inclination of 98 to the equator. This orbit is at an altitude of 800kms
from Earths surface. Remote sensing satellites, Weather satellites, Spy satellites will use this
orbit.

Not inclined orbits

Ecliptical Orbit
Ecliptic plane is the apparent path of sun on the celestial sphere as viewed from centre of
the Earth.
Equatorial Orbit
This orbit is parallel to the equator.

S&T- Space Technology

What do you mean by Synchronous orbits?
These are orbits where the satellites have the same orbital period as that of the object being
orbited. For example, Geo-synchronous orbits are orbits where the satellites orbital period is the
same as the Earths Rotational period.

Geostationary
It is in Geosynchronous orbit
Altitude is at 36,000km
It is a circular orbit
It is an Equatorial orbit

SunSynchronous
It is in Sun Synchronous orbit
Altitude is at 800km
It is an Elliptical orbit
It is a polar orbit

Satellite systems
The satellite systems can be divided into

Remote Sensing
Communication satellites
Remote sensing satellites are those satellites that are used as weather satellites. These are
placed at an altitude of 800km. They measure EM radiation that is reflected, scattered from
the Earths surface. Indias remote sensing satellites are worlds largest constellation of
satellites now consisting of 12 satellites.

Applications of Remote Sensing satellites include,

In Agriculture, it is used for Crop forecasting, movement of locusts, flood warning.
In Resources management, it is used to map forest cover, identify forest fires, mineral mapping,
National wastelands maps are prepared using this data.
In disaster management, it is used to warn about cyclones, floods and tsunami.
In defence, it is used to identify troop movements.
-

Communication satellites in India are termed INSAT (Indian National Satellites) series of
satellites.

Latest launch of a communication satellite was the GSAT-10. It carried 12 normal C- band
transponders, 12 extended C-band transponders and 12 Ku-band transponders.
Applications of INSAT
Telecommunication, Television and also Metereology applications.
Transponders: These are devices that receive signals from the ground station, amplify them and
send it back to ground stations.
There are three types of transponders
-

S band (2.5Ghz 2.7Ghz)

C band (3.9Ghz 6.24Ghz)

S&T- Space Technology

- Ku band (11Ghz 14Ghz)
Why equatorial site is preferred for satellite launches?
-

For a communication satellite, the satellite is required to be placed in Equatorial belt.

At the equator, there is considerably less amount of gravity experienced than at any other
places

Challenges in building a Cryogenic engine

Since very low temperatures are involved, the metals at that temperature becomes brittle
and new welding techniques and new alloys have to be used.
Liquid Hydrogen and Liquid Oxygen are to be pumped at the right proportion.
Storing Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen, is difficult.
The fuels as are factory loaded for PSLV launch cant be done in the case of GSLV launch and
the fuel has to loaded only a couple of hours before the launch.

What do you mean by Specific impulse?

It is defined as the amount of thrust provided (1kg) in 1sec. Liquid Propellants has a higher specific
impulse than most of the solid propellants.
Future launches
SARAL Satellite for ARgos and ALtikameter
This is a cooperative altimetry technology mission of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
and CNES (Space Agency of France). The ISRO built satellite with payloads modules (AltiKa
altimeter, DORIS, Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) and ARGOS-3 (Advanced Research and Global
Observation Satellite) data collection system provided CNES will be launched by Indian Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle rocket into the Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO). PSLV-CA version will be used for this
launch. This satellite was scheduled to be launched in Dec-2012, but now postponed to Feb-2013.
There are 5 other satellites that are scheduled to be launched along with SARAL. These include
Sapphire and Neossat from Canada
Brite and Unibrite from Austria
Aausat from Denmark.