This article was downloaded by: [Aston University]

On: 09 January 2014, At: 03:47

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Drying Technology: An International Journal

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ldrt20

Modeling and Experimental Identification of Cracks in

Porous Materials During Drying
a

Stefan J. Kowalski & Jacek Banaszak

Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Technology and Chemical Engineering ,

Poznan , Poland
Published online: 26 Aug 2013.

To cite this article: Stefan J. Kowalski & Jacek Banaszak (2013) Modeling and Experimental Identification of Cracks in Porous
Materials During Drying, Drying Technology: An International Journal, 31:12, 1388-1399, DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2013.796484
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2013.796484

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Drying Technology, 31: 13881399, 2013

Copyright # 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print=1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2013.796484

Modeling and Experimental Identification

of Cracks in Porous Materials During Drying
Stefan J. Kowalski and Jacek Banaszak

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Technology and Chemical Engineering,

Poznan, Poland

The main aim of this paper is to mathematically describe and

experimentally determine the self-fracturing of uid-saturated
porous materials during drying processes. The thermo-hydromechanical model of drying that is suitable for a mathematical
description of these phenomena as well as the acoustic emission
(AE) technique for their experimental detection are presented.
Numerical solutions based on the thermo-hydro-mechanical drying
model are used to analyze stress development and to formulate
the crack criterion in dried material. The studies concern the convective drying of kaolin-clay material. Bar-shaped samples with
a rectangular cross-section were used for the mechanical tests and
cylindrically shaped samples of kaolin-clay were used for the drying
tests. Good agreement of the theoretical predictions to the
experimental data is shown.
Keywords Acoustic emission; Cracking; Drying; Experimental;
Kaolin-clay; Modeling

INTRODUCTION
Engineering materials subjected to drying processes may
sustain structural changes and reduction of mechanical
strength. Studies on mechanical phenomena which occur
in drying materials and, in particular, the examination of
drying-induced stresses and strains become relevant when
the quality of the dried products is of prime importance.
A detailed description of these phenomena is necessary to
control the process and to prevent permanent deformations
(warping, collapse) or fracture of these products.
The danger of material damage during drying can be
predicted on the basis of a thermo-hydro-mechanical
model of drying based on the mechanics of continua.[1]
The experimental validation of the theoretical predictions
of material damage is possible to carry out by utilizing
the one-, two-, or three-point acoustic emission (AE)
technique. This paper examines the mechanical aspects of
drying capillary-porous materials, such as kaolin-clay, with
special emphasis on the drying-induced stresses that are
Correspondence: Stefan J. Kowalski, Poznan University of
Technology, Institute of Technology and Chemical Engineering,
pl. Marii Skodowskiej Curie 2, 60-965 Poznan, Poland; E-mail:
stefan.j.kowalski@put.poznan.pl

responsible for material damage.[2] During the last two

decades, the basic principles of damage mechanics were
formulated and some special problems were solved. Extensive reviews of papers dealing with the above-mentioned
mechanical aspects of drying were presented in Hasatani
and Itaya[3] and Katekawa and Silva[4]. The problem of
mechanical deformations and drying-induced stresses was
discussed in a broader context in the authors book.[1] Different aspects of mechanical phenomena arising during
drying were also discussed in a number of works.[510]
A series of articles on Damage of Materials by Drying:
Modeling, Numerical Simulations, Experimental Studies
was published in a special edition of Drying Technology.[11]
A method of damage control by drying was discussed in
Kowalski,[12] where the one-point acoustic emission technique was used as an effective tool for monitoring on-line
drying processes. The damage analysis of microwave-dried
materials is presented in Kowalski et al.[13]
The present study concerns mathematical modeling and
numerical simulations of spots where possible damage may
occur. The one-point AE technique, which has been used
by the authors up until now, provided a unique tool for
early detection and monitoring of sub-critical crack growth
and for recognizing the time at which the crack could be
formed. In this paper, on the other hand, the two-point
AE method is employed to localize both the time and the
place of crack occurrence in cylindrical kaolin samples subjected to convective drying. Thus, the AE technique is
becoming important as a diagnostic and measuring tool.
It is very useful for the monitoring of material damage
and can be used to alert the operator on potential material
fracture so that he can change the drying conditions in
advance in order to prevent material destruction.
The mathematical model presented in this paper is used
for determination and calculations of drying-induced stresses. In numerical analysis, the place of possible material
damage during drying is identied by the strength criterion
formulated by using the effective and admissible stresses.
The formulation of the strength criterion, which depends
on the moisture content, constitutes a new element in the
mechanical analysis of drying processes. Examples of

1388

IDENTIFICATION OF CRACKS IN POROUS MATERIALS

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

damage in kaolin-clay samples subjected to convective

drying at different drying conditions are presented. The AE
technique is used to validate the theoretical predictions of
numerically determined spots of possible damage estimated
on the basis of the thermo-hydro-mechanical drying model.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Set-Up
Figure 1 presents the scheme of the experimental equipment used for the tests of convective drying.
The kaolin samples, cylindrical in shape (7), were dried
convectively in the laboratory dryer chamber (Zalmed
SML 42=250=M) (1). The temperature and relative
humidity of the air in the dryer chamber were measured
every 30 seconds with a Pt 100 temperature probe and a
humidity sensor DO 9861T Delta OHM (3), which was
located close to the drying sample (7). The digital indicator
showed the air temperature with an accuracy of 0.1
C,
while the air humidity was measured with an accuracy of
0.01%. The holder with the sample was suspended on an
electronic balance (Radwag WPS2100=C) (8), which
recorded the sample mass with an accuracy of 0.01 g. The
band-width (5 kHz to 1 MHz) of the AE sensors (2), which
were attached both to the bottom and the upper surfaces of
the sample, registered the AE signals and transferred them
into electric ones, and as such they were strengthened by
the preamplier (Vallen AEP3) (4). Next, the acquisition
system (Vallen AMSY5) (5) ltered these signals, amplied
them, converted them from voltage impulses to current
impulses, and nally, sent them to a personal computer
(6). Furthermore, the analysis of the AE signal parameters
was done with the help of Visual AE software delivered by
the Vallen Company.
The yield stress and failure strength of kaolin-clay with
various moisture contents were examined in the tensile tests

1389

at constant force increments of 1 N=s on a universal

strength-measuring instrument Cometech QC-508A1.[8]
Material
The experimental tests were carried out on cylindrical
samples made of KOC kaolin-clay produced by the
Surmin-Kaolin S.A. Co., Nowogrodziec, Poland. The
chemical composition and physical properties of KOC
kaolin are presented in Fig. 2 and given in Table 1.
The kaolin-clay was delivered in a dry state and before
the experiments it was wetted with a prescribed amount
of water and mixed to achieve a greasy paste of initial
moisture content (MC) approximately equal to X 0.45
[kg water=kg dry kaolin]. (X denotes the ratio of water
mass inside the body to the bodys dry mass, and is
expressed as both dimensionless or in a percentage.) The
greasy paste was stored and homogenized in a closed box
for 48 h to level the moisture distribution in the whole
material. The kaolin-clay plastic mass obtained in this
way was used to manufacture both the bar-shaped samples
with a rectangular cross-section (dimensions 10  14 mm
(b  h) and 80 mm long), which were used for the mechanical tests, and the cylindrical samples (R 0.03 m,
H 0.06 m), which were subjected to the drying tests.
Because of the wide range of MC, ca. 0%  45%, the rectangular samples were tested in three different modes.
Firstly, the samples with an MC above 30% were tested just
after molding to avoid material creeping. In the next mode,
a number of samples were molded at MC ca. 30%, then
partially dried to different MCs between 3% and 30%,
and stored for 24 h to unify the distribution of moisture.
Thus-prepared portions of samples with different MCs
were then used for the mechanical tests. In the third mode,
the samples were molded at 30% MC, then dried in the
open air and, nally, dried in the laboratory oven to obtain
an MC below 3%, and as such stored for 24 h before being
used for mechanical tests.
To determine the actual MC of the tested samples, each
one was weighed just after the tension test and then dried in
the drying scales until its mass did not change.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
The non-destructive acoustic emission (AE) method is
becoming a very popular measurement and diagnostic

FIG. 1. Experimental set-up: 1 dryer; 2 AE sensors; 3 temperature

and humidity probe; 4 AE preampliers; 5 acquisition system; 6 computer; 7 sample; 8 electronic balance (color gure available online).

FIG. 2. Micro- and macrostructure of KOC kaolin (color gure available online).

1390

KOWALSKI AND BANASZAK

TABLE 1
Chemical and mineralogical composition of KOC kaolin
Chemical composition [%]
SiO2
51.5

Al2O3
34.5

Na2O
0.63

TiO2
0.54

Fe2O3
0.54

MgO
0.12

CaO
0.08

K 2O
0.01

roasting loss
12.08

Mineralogical composition [%]

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

Kaolinite
80

Illite
9

Quartz
9

technique in material engineering. The AE arises in stressed

materials when the elastic energy accumulated in these
materials is released. The released energy is then transported throughout the material in the form of elastic waves
propagating in various directions. It can be measured by an
AE sensor installed at the material surface and registered
by a variety of AE descriptors; e.g., AE energy per time
period (e.g., 30 s), total AE energy, total number of AE
signals, etc. Knowing these descriptors, one can assess
the quality of dried samples because they measure the
intensity and number of micro- and macro-cracks. These
descriptors constitute solely the source of information on
the dried material quality.[1417]
In our studies, the one- and two-point acoustic emission
(AE) technique was used to monitor the effect of crack
formation in the kaolin-clay samples during drying. The
advantage of the AE method is that it enables monitoring
on line time and place of material damage.
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR BY DRYING
Cohesion Forces
Kaolin-clay after wetting has the consistency of a dispersed system, which after dehydration to a moisture content (MC) that is approximately equal to 45% becomes a
greasy paste. The particles of the suspension have the tendency to agglomerate due to the liquid bridges between
them. The negative capillary pressures in these bridges
involve compressive forces that favor particle aggregation.
The value of this pressure determine Laplaces formula[18]


Fk c

1
1

R1 R2

Others
2

contacts. Thus, the capillary forces may bring the particles

to atomic contacts at the nal stages of the drying process.
During drying and calcination, the material becomes
porous with a relatively high mechanical strength. A characteristic feature of the dispersed systems is the large value of
the interfacial surfaces. This means that such a system
contains a large amount of surface energy. As a consequence
of this, the particles (crystalline grains) tend to join each
other and create a porous material of a disordered structure.
The solid skeleton is created so that the surface energy
is decreased, but the particle bonds become thermodynamically stable. Two kinds of interactions between
particles exist: electrostatic forces (repulsive) resulting
from the existence of monomial charges on the particle
surfaces, and Londons disperse forces (attractive) caused
by an instantaneous asymmetry of charge distribution as
a result of electron uctuation. The dispersed forces are of
a long range and create the main force that attracts the
particles to each other.
According to London-Heitlers theory, the energy of
attraction of two spherical particles of radius r at a distance
L from each other reads[19]
r
2
U A
12L
where A (1020 J) is the Hamaker constant of interaction
between particles.


1

where c denotes the liquid surface tension, and R1 and R2

are the main radii of curvature of the concave surface of
the bridge (Fig. 3).
The necessary condition for negative pressure is that
R2 < R1. For water surface tension c 7.2  102 N=m and
particle dimension 106 to 108, the magnitude of capillary
force Fk is of the order 2  107 N to 109 N. These values
are comparable with those for disperse forces at atomic

FIG. 3. Forces acting on the solid particles due to surface tension in the
liquid bridge (color gure available online).

1391

IDENTIFICATION OF CRACKS IN POROUS MATERIALS

The cohesion force between particles is determined by

the derivative of the above-mentioned energy with respect
to distance
@U
r
A
Fk
3
@L
12L2

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

The relations above are valid when the distance between

particles is less than 100 nm. For greater distances, the relations ought to take into account the phase retardation of
the vibrating dipoles.[19]
Material Strength
Let us consider the strength of material in the form of
paste in which particles are in atomic contact. The structure
of such a material has a stable character; i.e., it can be
damaged only due to an action of de-cohesion forces.
The potential energy of particle interactions U results
from attraction and repulsion effects between atoms
U 

A
B

Ln Lm

where A and B are the proportionality constants referring

to attraction and repulsion, respectively, and m and n are
the exponents of the current inter-particle distance.
The alteration of potential energy for the interaction of
particles subjected to tension or compression is illustrated
in Fig. 4.
The minimum potential energy corresponds to the interparticle distance L0 at which the interaction force is equal
to zero (equilibrium state). If the inter-particle distance is
changed (L
6 L0), a force F arises and tends to bring the
system to the equilibrium. It will be a repulsion force if
L < L0, or an attraction force if L > L0. This force is equal
to the alteration of potential energy with respect to distance
F

@U
A
B
n n1  m m1
@L
L
L

The minus sign results from the fact that the potential
energy increases and the force decreases or vice versa, when
the particle goes away from the equilibrium position.

FIG. 4. Interaction between material particles during drying: (a)

compression or tension; (b) stress vs. inter-particle distance.

Let us imagine two particles adjoining each other but

placed on opposite sides of a cross-section in a tensed bar
(Fig. 4a). If the force interacting between two atoms is F,
then the stress r is approximately equal to F =L20 , and the
strain e (L L0)=L0. For stretching the two adjoining
particles by dL, the stress increases as (Fig. 4b)




1 @F
1 @F
dr 2
dL
de EX de 6
L0 @L LL0
L0 @L LL0
where EX @F =@LLL0 =L0 denotes the modulus of
elasticity, which is a function of the moisture content
(MC).
Figure 5 presents Youngs modulus for kaolin-clay
determined experimentally as a function of the moisture
content.
One can state that each drying process is accompanied
by drying-induced stresses that counteract shrinkage.
When a wet material dries, the drier surface attempts to
shrink but is restrained by the wet core. The surface
is stressed in tension and the core in compression. The
tension stresses can cause damage of the surface structure.
The tension of a dried sample until damage takes place can
be performed similarly to the curve presented in Fig. 4b.
This curve has a shape which can be approximated with
a sinus function[19]

r rm sin

2pu
k

where rm denotes the theoretical (maximal) strength of the

material, u L  L0 is the displacement equivalent to the
applied stress, and k denotes the period of sinus function
that is dependent on the moisture content.
One determines the magnitude of rm from the work that
ought to be applied to the material to displace the particles
at a distance k=2, (i.e., at which their separation takes
place). This work is expressed by the following integral

FIG. 5. Youngs modulus as a function of the moisture content (color

gure available online).

1392

KOWALSKI AND BANASZAK

k=2

rdu

k=2

rm sin
0

2pu
krm
du
k
p

By calculating the derivative of the stress function (7)

with respect to displacement u and taking the limit conditions (i.e., the tangent to the tension curve at the equilibrium state), we get
dr 
2p E

u0 rm
du
k
L

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

2LX
rm X 2
EX

r


c
rc r 1 2
r

12

The fracture occurs when stress rc is greater than the

yield strength rm, that is
s
r


EX
c
<r 12
c
LX
r

The limit condition in Eq. (9) was compared with Eq. (6)
substituting de du=L. Calculating k from Eq. (9) and
substituting it into (8), we get
U

concentrated at the aw tip of length c having radius r at

the tip[19,21]

13

The fracture criterion formulated in macroscopic

stresses reads
r > rcr

10

14

where
When the drying proceeds further, the surface of
kaolin-clay becomes more and more rigid and stressed,
and in the critical stress state the particle bonds on the
surface can be broken off. The rupture of the particle
bonds involves an increase in the free surfaces and thus
also in some amount of surface energy. If we can consider
the energy lost for plastic deformations and reconstruction
of a crystal lattice during the fracture as negligible, then the
newly created surface energy is, according to Grifths
theory, equal to the work U.[20] Denoting the surface
energy as c, then U 2c, hence two new surfaces arise by
the fracture. This statement allows us to express the
maximum strength from Eq. (10) as
s
EX
rm X c
LX

s

r1
EX
c
 12
rcr c
LX
r

The above fracture criterion is suitable for drying

material, whose boundary surface is in tension. Then the
fracture takes place on the surface.
Let us consider an elastic layer in the form of a thin plate
having a aw (pore) of dimension 2c in the middle. Let us
imagine rst a similar layer without a aw but being subjected to a tensional state of stress generating elastic energy
U0 const in this sample. A similar layer but with a aw
in the middle and subjected to the same loading as before
contains elastic energy expressed by

11

where L(X) L0[1 jX(X X0)] is the inter-particle distance in the drying material at moisture content X, and
jX is the coefcient of linear shrinkage.
Equation (11) expresses the theoretical strength of dried
material. It informs us that the strength of the dried
material increases due to an increase in Youngs modulus
and decreases in the distance between the particles.
Fracture
Any suitable theory of cracking during drying should
account for the common observations that cracking is
more likely if the body is thick or the drying rate is high.[5]
This is because these circumstances involve great heterogeneity in moisture distribution and induce great stresses.
Generally, cracks appear at the tips of aws or pores,
where the stress concentration takes place.
The stress that causes the fracture is not the macroscopic
stress r that acts on the network, but rather the stress rc

15

U U0 

pr2 c2
2c2c
E

16

The second term expresses the released energy of the

material because of the aw, and the third one the
additional surface energy on the aw. The slit will increase
its size spontaneously only when a decrease of energy takes
place during the drying process,[20] that is
@U
0
@c

17

Differentiating (16), one can nd the critical length of

the slit ccr, by which the crack formation may begin to arise
for a given stress
ccr

2cE
pr2

18

The fracture will proceed spontaneously at a given stress

r for all slits with c > ccr.

1393

IDENTIFICATION OF CRACKS IN POROUS MATERIALS

MODELING
Assumptions
The drying model used for the numerical analysis of
drying-induced stresses was developed on the basis of
mechanics of continua, incorporating the following
assumptions[1,12,22]:

Shear modulus M and bulk modulus A can be expressed

by Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio n as follows

The drying material is an unsaturated porous

medium consisting of a solid skeleton, liquid,
and gas in the pores;
The skeleton of the drying material is elastic and
its strains are innitesimal;
The considerations exclude thermal shocks, so the
dynamic terms (accelerations, inertia forces,
kinetic energy, etc.) are neglected in the momentum and energy balance equations;
The stress in the moisture is simply pressure Pa; i.e.,
deviatory (shear) stress is neglected and considered
as much smaller than that in the solid skeleton;
The temperatures of the drying body constituents
are equal to one another in a given place. The
numerical analysis presented in this paper is conned to elastic samples in the form of cylinders.

Poissons ratio is assumed to be constant and equal to

n 0.4.
Numerical calculations were carried out for the cylindrical sample placed on a moisture-impermeable plate at the
bottom (Fig. 6).
Substituting the physical relation (20) into the force
equilibrium condition (19) (with gi 0) and assuming
axial (cylindrical) symmetry leads to two coupled equations
for the radial and longitudinal displacements (ur and uz),
in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, u, z) with no dependence on u

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

E
;
21 n

Mr2 ur

rij;j qgi
0;

En
;
1  2n1 n

3K 2M 3A

i
@ h
ur
M Ae  cT W  cX h M 2 ; 21a
@r
r

Mr2 uz
Drying-Induced Stresses
The mechanical state of a drying body is described by
the coupled system of differential equations composed of
the equilibrium of internal forces and the constitutive equations relating the stresses with thermo-hydro-mechanical
strains.
The equation of the mechanical internal equilibrium is

i
@ h
M Ae  cT W  cX h 0;
@z

21b

where r2 denotes the axially symmetric Laplace operator.

The mechanical boundary conditions assume zero radial
rrr and longitudinal rzz stresses on the external surfaces,
and zero radial ur and longitudinal uz displacements on
the cylinder axis and at the bottom of the cylinder, that
is (see Fig. 6)

19

where rij denotes the stress tensor, q is the mass density of

the dried body, and gi is the gravity acceleration. The
gravity term is insignicant and neglected in further
considerations.
The physical relation for deformable (elastic) material
takes the form[1]
rij 2Meij Ae  cT W  cX hdij

1
eij ui;j uj;i ;
2

with
20

where eij is the innitesimal strain tensor, e eii is the

innitesimal volumetric strain, ui denotes the displacement
in the i-th direction, W T Tr and h X Xr are the
increments of temperature and moisture content,
c(T) (2M 3A)j(T), c(X) (2M 3A)j(X), and j(T) and
j(X) are the respective coefcients of linear thermal expansion and hydro-expansion, M and A denote the elastic
shear and bulk modules.

FIG. 6. Cylindrical sample placed on a moisture-impermeable plate

(color gure available online).

1394

KOWALSKI AND BANASZAK

rrr jrR 0

and

rzz jzH 0;

22a

ur jr0 0

and

uz jz0 0:

22b

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

The state of stress in the cylinder is fully described by

four components of the stress tensor; namely, rrr, ruu,
rzz, and rrz. The relation between radial rrr, longitudinal
rzz, circumferential ruu, shear rrz stresses and the displacements, temperature and moisture content are given by the
constitutive relations
rrr 2M

@ur
Ae  cT W  cX h;
@r

23a

rzz 2M

@uz
Ae  cT W  cX h;
@r

23b

ur
Ae  cT W  cX h;
r



@ur @uz
rrz M

:
@z
@r

ruu 2M

23c
23d

One of the main problems arising through the drying of

saturated porous materials is the cracking initiated by the
drying-induced stresses. Cracks arise when the strength of
the material is exceeded. The energetic strength hypothesis
is based on the mechanical energy accumulated in the
stressed material and is formulated in terms of an overall
effective stress given by an invariant of the stress tensor
components expressed as follows
reff

q
rrr  rzz 2 rrr  ruu 2 ruu  rzz 2 6r2rz :
24

Fracture of the material arises at a given point and time

when this effective stress exceeds the admissible stress
(material strength) in the drying material at a given moisture content h
radm ah2 bh c

25

where a 3.665 [MPa], b 1.445 [MPa], c 0.028 [MPa].

Once cracking occurs, the above system of equations is
no longer valid.
As seen from Eqs. (23a, b, c), the stresses are temperature- and moisture-content-dependent. Thus, in order to
determine the state of stress, the distributions of moisture
content and temperature have to be determined rst.
Drying Kinetics
Drying kinetics expresses the hydro-thermal state, which
is described by the coupled system of differential equations
composed of equations of balance of mass and energy and

rate equations for the heat and mass transfer. The

distribution and time evolution of the moisture content
and temperature in the cylinder can be determined from
the following system of equations[22,23]
qs h_ Kl r2 cT W cX h  vcT W cX h:
qs cv W_ KT r2 W  lvcT W cX h;

25a
25b

where Kl and KT are the coefcients of moisture mass and

heat transfer, cT and cX are the thermo-diffusion and diffusion coefcients, cv
csv clv h is the total specic heat
of the drying body, l is the latent heat of evaporation,
and v is the coefcient that affects the rate of phase transition of liquid into vapor. The inuence of body deformation on the distribution of temperature and moisture
content is neglected in Eqs. (25a, b) since strains are
assumed to be innitesimal.
The boundary and initial conditions for mass and heat
transfer are as follows (Fig. 6):
j j@B Kl gradcT W cX hj@B  n am lj@B  la ; 26a
qj@B KT grad Wj@B  n aT Wa  Wj@B  lam lj@B  la ;
26b
cX grad hjz0 cT grad Wjz0 ;

26c

qjz0 KT grad Wjz0  n aT Wa  Wjz0 ;

26d

hr; u; z; tjt0 h0 ;

26e

Wr; u; z; tjt0 W0 ;

where @B denotes the upper and lateral surfaces of the cylinder, lj@B and la denote the chemical potential of vapor at
the boundary surface and in the ambient air, am and aT are
the coefcients of the convective vapor and heat exchange
between the dried body and the ambient air, and h0 and W0
are the initial moisture content and temperature.
Condition (26a) expresses convective moisture transfer
and (26b) convective heat transfer between the cylindrical
sample and the ambient air. Condition (26c) expresses
hydro-insulation of the cylinder at the bottom due to the
support on the metal plate. Condition (26d) expresses convective heat exchange between the cylinder and the ambient
air at the bottom through the metal plate. Condition (26c)
states the uniform distribution of moisture content and
temperature at the beginning of the process.
The driving force for vapor transfer from the body to
the surroundings is assumed to be dependent on the difference between the chemical potentials of vapor at the
boundary surface lj@B and in the surroundings la. The
chemical potentials expressed by the air temperature and
the vapor mole fraction in the air read[25]

1395

IDENTIFICATION OF CRACKS IN POROUS MATERIALS

to include or exclude the term of phase transition, the

coefcient of phase transitions v(W,h) (Eq. (25a, b))
is postulated to be of the following binary function:
v

v0

0
1

hhA
hcr hA

2

for h  hcr
for hA  h  hcr

28

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

where v0(W) is the temperature-dependent phase transition

efciency, hcr denotes the critical moisture content, and
hA is the moisture content at the nal stage of drying, being
in equilibrium with the ambient air. In the CDRP (h  hcr),
the phase transition inside the body is neglected as a very
small one in comparison to that at the body surface.
The moisture transport inside the body is dependent on
both the liquid physical properties and the body structure,
that is
Kl W; h

FIG. 7. Drying curve and the conditions inside the dryer (color gure
available online).

lj@B  la 0:462Ta lnxj@B =xa

 7:36  0:462 ln xj@B T j@B  Ta ;

27

where Tj@B and Ta are the temperatures and xj@B and xa

the mole fractions of vapor at the cylinder surface and
in the surroundings.
In order to consider moisture transfer mechanisms
suitable for the constant drying rate period (CDRP) and
the falling drying rate period (FDRP), and in particular

rW
f h;
gW

29

where r(W) 75(1  0.002W) and g(W) 183  105 

(1 0.053W)1 denote the surface tension and liquid
viscosity as functions of temperature, and f(h) is the
moisture transport parameter distinguished in the two
stages of drying as follows[23]
(
1
for h  hcr
f h

2
30

hhA
for hA  h  hcr
f0
hcr hA
where f0 is the parameter dependent on the body structure
determined numerically and experimentally from drying
curves.
The coefcient of heat conduction is considered to be an
average of heat conduction through skeleton KsT and
moisture KlT [24]
KT 1  /KsT /hKlT ;

31

where / denotes the porosity.

FIG. 8. Distribution of stresses at the bottom surface of the cylinder

(H 0) along radius r: (a) individual stresses rrr, rzz, ruu; (b) admissible
and effective stresses, radm, reff, (radm reff). The places at which (radm
reff) < 0 denote violation of the admissible strength (color gure available
online).

RESULTS
Numerical calculations were carried out for a cylindrical
sample placed on a moisture-impermeable plate (Fig. 6).
Calculations of the time evolution of temperature and
moisture content as well as the distribution of temperature,
moisture content, and stresses in the cylindrical sample
were performed for the data given in Table 2.
The thermal coefcients for water, water vapor, and
moist air are tabled in a range from 0 to 100
C with a step
of one degree in the textbooks.[2628] The coefcients of
convective vapor transfer am and convective heat transfer
aT were estimated experimentally on the basis of drying
processes carried out in air temperature Wa 41.5
C.[22]

1396

KOWALSKI AND BANASZAK

TABLE 2
Data for numerical calculations
KsT 1.78 W=m  K
cT 0.52 J=kg  K
am 8.64  105 kg  s=m4
Wa 70
C
qs 2640 kg=m
2

M 6.25  10 MPa

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

Cr 29.653

KlT 2.32 W=m  K

csv 728.5 J=kg  K

clv 4186 J=kg  K

cX 3.06 J=kg

j(X) 2.4  103

j(T) 3  108 1=K

aT 40 W= m2  K

v0 2.5  106 kg  s=m5

f0 6  107 kg  s2=m4

Wn 50
C

xa 0.075

l 2300 kJ=kg

/ 0.35

H 0.06 m

R 0.03 m

A 10 MPa

r0 142 858 Pa

rX 1 688 320 Pa

h0 40%

hcr 15%

hA 5%

Some data for vapor pressure were taken from Molnar,[29]

and those referring to the moisture diffusivity from
Marinos-Kouris and Maroulis.[30]
Figure 7 presents the drying curve for given drying conditions; i.e., humidity and temperature of the drying
medium. The sample was dried at 120
C and the equivalent
humidity of hot air was registered for this temperature.
One can notice that the humidity slightly rises between
15130 min of drying, which is caused by the evaporated
water from the sample. After 100120 min, one can observe
the beginning of the falling drying rate period (FDRP).
Distributions of radial rrr, longitudinal rzz, and circumferential ruu stresses along radius r at the bottom surface
of the cylinder (H 0) are presented in Fig. 8a (see
also [23]). Figure 8b presents the distribution of admissible
radm and effective reff stresses and their difference at the
surface mentioned above.
Figure 9a illustrates the evolution of the moisture
content at the bottom of the cylinder. A crack in the
convectively dried sample is predicted to occur at spots
of the cylinder where the stress (radm reff) reaches
a maximum. Figure 9b presents the time evolution of the
difference between admissible and effective stresses.
As follows from Fig. 9b, the crack is most probable to
occur at the cylinder surface where (radm reff) < 0.
Figure 10 presents the time evolution of the effective
stresses in different points of the cylinder.

FIG. 9. Time evolution of the drying effects: (a) distribution of moisture

content along radius r; (b) distribution of stress difference (radm reff)
along radius r (color gure available online).

The effective stress is zero at the beginning, then starts

to increase, attaining a maximum at some time, and nally
tends to zero. The maximum of the effective stresses is
reached at the top of the cylinder in the point (r 0,
z H). Figure 10 allows us to estimate the time at which
the crack formation may occur. This numerically predicted
moment of possible material damage was monitored
experimentally with the acoustic emission (AE) method.
In our experiments, a two-point AE technique was used
to monitor the development of fractures and, indirectly,
drying-induced stresses. Two AE sensors were xed to
the sample, one at the upper and the other at the lower
sample surfaces, so that the AE signals were registered on
both surfaces (Fig. 6). The sample with the xed AE sensors was suspended to the balance to measure the reduction
of moisture mass in time and, simultaneously, the development of cracks in the sample. The drying experiment was
performed in extremely harsh, dried conditions (high temperature and low air humidity) to excite easier fracture
appearances in the sample and to obtain better AE activity.
Figure 11 presents the number of registered AE signals
per unit time during drying.
As is seen in Fig. 11, most of these signals were evidenced in the CDRP, which can be explained by the tensional stresses that arise at the external layers of the
cylinder due to shrinkage. The surface of the body becomes
drier, while its core is still kept wet. The AE hits rate
descriptor is strictly connected with the development of

FIG. 10. Time evolution of the effective stresses reff in different points of
the cylinder (color gure available online).

IDENTIFICATION OF CRACKS IN POROUS MATERIALS

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

FIG. 11. The number of AE signals per time period of 60 s for drying
temperature of 120
C (color gure available online).

the drying-induced stresses, so this descriptor offers a good

tool for on-line prediction of approaching material destruction. So, one can state that the intensity of AE signals and
the time of their occurrence are both related to the
development of the drying-induced stresses.
Figure 12 illustrates the rise of mean acoustic energy
referred to as a single hit during the drying process.
Although most of the AE signals were evidenced in the
CDRP, they turned out to be of low energy in general.
These signals are referred to as stresses involving rather
inelastic shape deformations of still strongly wet material,
which caused dissipation of the accumulated energy inside
the material. In the FDRP fewer signals were observed, but
their mean energy per hit was much higher than those arising in the CDRP. This is because in the FDRP the surface
became dry, so the formed cracks released stronger elastic
energy propagating through the material.
Figure 13 presents the total energy of the AE signals.
Monitoring of the total AE energy of all AE signals makes
it possible to foresee the nal quality of the dried samples.

FIG. 12. The mean acoustic energy of a single hit during drying.

1397

FIG. 13. Total energy of AE signals (color gure available online).

A highly fractured material is qualied as a bad-quality

one. The description of total energy released may serve as
an indicator as to whether the dried product is of good
or bad quality at the end-state. Strong cracks in the body
structure release high energetic EA signals. The high and
medium energetic signals are evidenced in Fig. 13 as the
straight, upright lines. In some cases the high energetic signals denote macro cracks or material splits that are visible
on the sample surface. Thus, from the analysis of the total
AE energy description one can deduce whether the dried
product is of good or bad quality.
The fractures of materials subjected to drying are more
likely to take place in fair-sized dried products and when the
drying conditions are severe (e.g., too high temperature or
too low drying medium humidity). An optimal drying process
should be able to eliminate or minimize the high or medium
energetic AE impulses by the drying. The majority of notied
AE signals ought to be low energetic (horizontal or almost
horizontal lines in Fig. 13). Such an AE energy descriptor
would mean a lack of destruction of the dried products.
The AE method can be applied not only to register the
time of the crack commences in the drying sample on-line,
but also to localize the cracks in the sample. Localization
of fractures by the AE method can be possible when

FIG. 14. Localization of fractures during drying: (a) AE source locations

(the energy of AE hits is represented by the circle sizes); (b) visible
fractures on a kaolin sample after drying (color gure available online).

1398

KOWALSKI AND BANASZAK

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

FIG. 15. Fractures in the dried cylinders (left) and their position (right)
as observed under a microscope (color gure available online).

using two or more acoustic sensors distributed around the

sample. Figure 14 presents the results of AE source locations
on the sample height as a function of the drying time for the
dried kaolin cylinder. Energetic enhancements of the AE hits
are represented by the circle sizes in Fig. 14. As was already
shown on the total energy descriptor (Fig. 13), the AE
hits were generated during the whole drying process. Some
of them were generated at the initial stage of drying near
the upper and bottom surfaces of the cylinder where the
AE sensors were attached. Unfortunately, at the very beginning of drying some AE signals come from the heating of
the AE sensors. It was difcult to decide which AE signals
at this stage of drying originated from the deformed sample
and which came from other sources.
We observed a greater concentration of AE hits near the
bottom of the sample in the rst 60 min of drying, but
these hits were of low AE energy. The reason for the generation of these hits is partly the free shrinkage of wet and
still deformable kaolin material at the bottom that causes
rubbing of its grains against the aluminum plate. Energetically higher AE hits were generated later and were mostly
located at the top of the sample. In the FDRP (i.e., between
100 and 120 min of drying), the appearance of fractures was
observed near and along the upper cylinder surface (Fig. 14).
The fractures were propagated along the circumference
of the cylinder (A, B, C). The system of cracks was nally
expanded in the direction of the bottom of the cylinder (D,
E, F) during the last hour of the drying process. This is
conrmed by the AE signals in the middle of the cylinder
at 240 min of drying (Figs. 14a and 15).
Figure 15 illustrates the nal damage of the kaolin
sample after convective drying in hot air at a temperature of 120
C. This photograph conrms both the
theoretical prediction based on the mechanistic drying
model and the experimental monitoring done with
the AE method.
CONCLUSIONS
There is no generally accepted explanation for the cracking phenomenon of solid materials during drying. Some
statements resulting from experimental observations render

responsible for this phenomenon the drying-induced

stresses, which result from a non-uniform distribution of
the moisture content and thus a non-uniform shrinkage
of the body during drying. The gradient in the moisture
content distribution increases with the drying rate and
the size of the body, and is inversely related to the permeability of the porous structure. The cohesion force, on
the other hand, is proportional to the body particle size
and inversely proportional to the square of inter-particle
distance. The latter evidently depends on the moisture content, which causes the porous body to swell.
Based on the considerations presented in this paper, one
can conclude that a rigorous mechanistic drying model
enables a realistic simulation of the stresses induced in drying materials and determines where and when the spatial
and temporal maxima of the effective stress responsible
for crack formation occur.
The difference between the effective stress and the
admissible stress expressed as a function of the moisture
content enables identication of the spots at the time of
crack initiation in a dried body.
The acoustic emission (AE) technique enables early
detection of crack initiation in a drying body, and thus
the operator can be alerted early enough to change the drying conditions to prevent the development of the fracture
phenomenon.
Among the several AE descriptors, the most informative
are the total number and the total energy of AE signals.
The rapid increase of the total AE energy indicates the
occurrence of a macro-crack in the body.
The multichannel AE system can provide on-line information about acoustic source locations. These locations
can indicate areas where the material suffers destruction
(deformations, fractures). It is very useful, especially in
situations where there is no possibility of external observation of the sample.
NOMENCLATURE
A
cv
cT
cX
eij
f(h)
gi
H
j
l
K
M
m
p

elastic bulk modulus

specic heat
coefcient of thermodiffusion
coefcient of diffusion
strain deviator
moisture transport parameter
gravity acceleration
cylinder height
moisture ux
latent heat of evaporation
elastic volumetric modulus
elastic shear modulus
total mass of dried sample
pressure

MPa
J=kg  K
J=kg  K
J=kg
1
kg  s2=m4
m=s2
m
kg=m2  s
J=kg
MPa
MPa
g
Pa

Downloaded by [Aston University] at 03:47 09 January 2014

IDENTIFICATION OF CRACKS IN POROUS MATERIALS

R
r
<
sij
t
tR
T
ur, uz
xa, xn
X
Xcr
XA
z
Greek letters
am
aT
jv
j(T)
j(X)
eij
e
/
rij
radm
rred
r0, rX
r
q
l
g
v
W T Tr
h X Xr
Kl
KT

cylinder radius
radial coordinate
individual gas constant
stress deviator
time
relaxation time
temperature
displacements
mole fractions of vapor in air
moisture content (dry basis)
critical moisture content
nal moisture content
longitudinal coordinate

m
m
J=kg  K
Pa
s
s
K
m
1
1
1
1
m

vapor transfer coefcient

heat transfer coefcient
viscous bulk modulus
coefcient of thermal expansion
coefcient of humid expansion
strain tensor
volumetric strain
porosity
stress tensor
admissible stress
reduced stress
components of admissible stress
spherical stress, surface tension
mass density
chemical potential
viscosity
rate of phase transition
increment of temperature
increment of moisture content
moisture transport coefcient
thermal conductivity

kg  s=m4
W=m2  K
Pa  s
1=K
1
1
1
1
Pa
Pa
Pa
Pa
Pa, N=m
kg=m3
J=kg
Pa  s
kg  s=m5


C
1
kg  s=m3
W=m  K

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was carried out as part of the research project
N N209 104337 sponsored by the Ministry of Science and
Higher Education.
REFERENCES
1. Kowalski, S.J. Thermomechanics of Drying Processes; Springer Verlag:
Heidelberg, 2003.
2. Kachanov, L.M. Introduction to Continuum Damage Mechanics; M.
Nijhoff: Boston, 1986.
3. Hasatani, M.; Itaya, Y. Drying induced strain and stress: A review.
Drying Technology 1996, 14(5), 10111040.
4. Katekawa, M.E.; Silva, M.A. A review of drying models including
shrinkage effects. Drying Technology 2006, 26(1), 521.
5. Scherer, G.W. Theory of drying. Journal of American Ceramic Society
1990, 73(1), 114.
6. Chemkhi, S.; Zagrouba, F.; Bellagi, A. Mathematical model for drying
of highly shrinkable media. Drying Technology 2004, 22(5), 10231039.

1399

7. Couture, F.; Bernada, P.; Roques, M.A. Continuous thermomechanical models using volume-averaging theory. In Modern Drying
Technology, Vol. 1; Tsotsas, E., Mujumdar, A., Eds.; Wiley-VCH
Verlag GmbH & Co. KgaH: Weinheim, Germany, 2007; 103154.
8. Kowalski, S.J.; Banaszak, J.; Rybicki, A. Plasticity of materials
exposed to drying. Chemical Engineering Science 2010, 65,
51055116.
9. Perre, P.; Remond, R.; Turner, I.W. Comprehensive drying models
based on volume averaging: Background, application and perspective.
In Modern Drying Technology, Vol. 1; Tsotsas, E., Mujumdar, A.,
Eds.; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KgaH: Weinheim, Germany,
2007; 155.
10. Mihoubi, D.; Bellagi, A. Two-dimensional heat and mass transfer during drying of deformable media. Applied Mathematical Modelling
2008, 32, 303314.
11. Kowalski, S.J.; Perre, P., Guest Eds. Special issue: Damage of
materials by drying: Modeling, numerical simulations, experimental
studies. Drying Technology: An International Journal 2009, 27(78).
12. Kowalski, S.J. Control of mechanical processes in drying: Theory and
experiment. Chemical Engineering Science 2010, 65, 890899.
13. Kowalski, S.J.; Banaszak, J.; Rybicki, A. Damage analysis of microwavedried materials. AIChE Journal 2012, 58(7), 20972104.
14. Rajewska, K.; Kowalski, S.J. Acoustic emission as a method of
monitoring of fracture phenomena in dried materials. Diagnostics
2002, 27, 95101 (in Polish).
15. Kowalski, S.J.; Banaszak, J.; Rajewska, K. Acoustic emission in dried
materials. Chemical Engineering and Apparatus 2003, 4, 38 (in Polish).
16. Ranachowski, J., Ed. Problems and Methods of Modern Acoustics;
National Scientic Publisher (PWN): Warsaw, 1989 (in Polish).
17. Banaszak, J.; Kowalski, S.J. Theoretical and experimental analysis of
stresses and fractures in clay like materials during drying. Chemical
Engineering and Processing 2005, 44(4), 497503.
18. Cho, G.C.; Santamarina, J.C. Unsaturated particulate materials:
Particle-level studies. Studies of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering 2001, 1, 8496.
19. Pampuch, R. Ceramic Materials; National Scientic Publisher
(PWN): Warsaw, 1989 (in Polish).
20. Grifth, A.A. The phenomena of rupture and ow in solids.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1920, Series
A (221), 163198.
21. Siedov, L.I. Macroscopic Theories of Matter and Fields: A Thermodynamic
Approach; Mir Publisher: Moscow, 1983.
22. Kowalski, S.J.; Rybicki, A. The vapour-liquid interface and stresses in dried bodies. Transport in Porous Media 2007, 66(12),
4358.
23. Kowalski, S.J.; Rybicki, A. Cohesive strength of materials during
drying processes. Drying Technology 2009, 27(7), 863869.
24. Musielak, G. Modelling of the heat and mass transport phenomena in
kaolin during the rst and the second periods of drying. Chemical and
Process Engineering 2004, 25, 393409.
25. Szarawara, J. Chemical Thermodynamics; Scientic-Technical
Publisher (WNT): Warsaw, 1985 (in Polish).
26. Pikon, J.; Hehlmann, J.; Sasiadek, B.; Janowicz, R. Chemical Apparatus;
Silesian Technical University Publisher: Gliwice, 1974 (in Polish).
27. Strumio, C. Foundations of Theory and Technology of Drying;
Scientic-Technical Publisher (WNT): Warszawa, 1983 (in Polish).
28. Wisniewski, S.; Wisniewski, T.S. Heat Exchange; Scientic-Technical
Publisher (WNT): Warsaw, 1997 (in Polish).
29. Molnar, K. Experimental techniques in drying. In Handbook of Industrial
Drying; Mujumdar, A.S., Ed.; Taylor & Francis: New York, 2007.
30. Marinos-Kouris, D.; Maroulis, Z.B. 2007. Transport properties in the
drying of solids. In Handbook of Industrial Drying; Mujumdar, A.S.,
Ed.; Taylor & Francis: New York, 2007.