Proposal For Alternative Energy Applications in The Field of Desalination

Session 3662
Proposal for Alternative Energy Applications in the Field of Desalination

Saeed D. Foroudastan, Ph.D., Professor,
Jared Odom, Research Assistant,
Olivia Dees, Research Assistant
Engineering Technology and Industrial Studies Department
Middle Tennessee State University
Abstract
Many parts of the world are currently suffering from such an intense deficiency in ground and
surface water, that this life sustaining treasure often makes the black gold of oil resources look
unimportant by comparison. Whether it is from overuse, neglect, or lack of sufficient resource
development and management, demands for potable water continue to grow. Water is a crucial
factor in the Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations, and its also extensively addressed in Israels
treaty with Jordan. Political problems throughout the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and
even North and South America hinge upon this resource, and in the coming decades it is
conceivable that wars might be fought over water in much the same way they were fought over
oil during the 20th century.
Many countries are currently pursuing a range of desalination procedures in order to cope with
this shortage. Such procedures may utilize evaporative processes that require inputs of heat to aid
in separation of potable water from water sources that have high total dissolved solid
concentrations. This external heat source can be a costly process, and desalination processes are
sometimes coupled with power generation plants to increase efficiency by using waste heat from
electric generation to aid in the process of water separation. Similarly, power generation plants
are sometimes coupled with solid waste incineration, or more recently, solar magnification
processes in order to use the heat of combustion or intensified solar radiation to create steam for
driving the power generation equipment. With this interconnection between generation
processes, the positive results of incorporating waste incineration and/or other renewable
resources with desalination for environmental protection, as well as energy efficiency, is worthy
of investigation. Engineering education is ideal for this facilitation. By educating future
engineers with this important environmental topic, class discussions will provide the initiative
for creating projects outside the classroom with industrial collaboration for alternative solutions
of this increasingly problematic global condition.
Proceedings of the 2005 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition Copyright
2005, American Society for Engineering Education
Introduction
Water is essential to all life. The very biochemistry that sustains life requires the input of it, and
many areas of the earth suffer from deficiency of this resource. The oceans account for
approximately 97.4% of the world's water. Another 2% is locked up in ice caps and glaciers.
Subtracting saline ground water and inland saline seas from the remainder, less than 0.5 % of the
Earth's water is directly suitable for human consumption, agricultural or industrial uses 1. The
earth is a closed biosphere and all the water that we have is all that we are going to get. Overuse,
pollution, and geologic scarcity are the major contributors to the need for it. In the United States,
Ron Linsky of the National Water Research Institute in California realizes this and is quoted as
saying; The country needs to improve the reliability of its supply and suggests that water could
be on the commodities market in the next century. We may ultimately face rationing or
importing. 2. This is the feeling in the western United States and many areas of the world, such
as those in developing countries or those located in arid regions, which have a much more urgent
need of usable water.
Areas located in close proximity to large bodies of salt or brackish water have had to resort to
desalination of this seemingly unusable water. The process of desalination contains many submethods of attaining potable water. These sub-methods vary widely in their technologies, with
many cases being site-specific in application. Even though desalination is used extensively, it is
more expensive than conventional methods of distributing potable or industrially usable water. In
comparison to the costs of most water sources developed and treated in industrialized countries
by more conventional means, desalinated water may be from 2 to 50 times more expensive 3.
This illustrates an all too real fact that if finite supplies continue to dwindle due to a variety of
reasons, water will become very expensive and will have an economic and environmental
influence on a global scale. Insight and research into incorporations of new, energy efficient
technologies is worthy of investigation.
This water resource problem will approach epidemic proportions if it is not addressed in a timely
manner. Water resource education needs to be started immediately in all regions of the world.
This is not a field specific area, for many areas of academia need informing. A multidisciplinary
approach should be taken involving the disciplines of engineering, chemistry, biology,
environmental science, economics, and many, many others. At Middle Tennessee State
University, a Pollution Control Technology class is offered to introduce important new
technologies such as desalination. Its importance makes it a popular topic, now to be
incorporated into future semesters discussion and projects for extracurricular application toward
world-wide alternative solutions. By teaching the problems and offering ideas for improvement
to impressionable minds, there will be continual hope for future generations.
Overview of desalination methods
Several variations exist in desalination practices. These can be broken up into two categories.
The first is phase change processes which include: multiple stage flash, vapor compression, solar
and multiple-effect distillation. The second being non-phase change processes include: reverse
osmosis and electro dialysis.
Multiple stage flash desalination utilizes heat transfer and evaporation for separation
purposes. Each stage has a seawater condenser, a brine flash chamber, a demister,
distillate collecting and a transfer system. The process begins in the stage where brine
feed water enters the first stage in the system. The heat supplied by the stage causes
initial condensation of feed water to a collection apparatus. This salt water is then
transferred into a succession of stages where this continues. After passing through the nth
stage, the feed water reaches the brine heater where it is heated by steam. Entering
through the bottom, it then flows back through the series of stages of lower ambient
pressure where it violently flashes into vapor to be collected with the aid of demisters.
When the process completes its cycle, the distillate is collected and distributed to users.
The worlds distillation capacity is dominated by MSF plants, which continue to be
widely used as part of dual-purpose systems, using waste steam as the primary source of
energy 3.
Multiple effect desalination is a process that begins in the first effect by spraying the feed
water to be treated over steam-heated exchanger material. Distillate vapour is collected
and flows through the second effect, while brackish waste is also pumped to the second
effect to flow over the exiting distillate and create additional vapour for the next effect of
succeeding lower pressure in the continuing process. This is carried out without the
additional input of heat because of the pressure drop in succeeding stages. Most
horizontal tube MED plants operate at low first-effect temperatures (60-65C) to limit
scale formation. The performance ratio of MED can be raised considerably by means of
thermal or mechanical vapour recompression (TVC or MVC). Vapour formed in the
lowest temperature effect is recompressed and introduced to the first effect. MVC plants
have the lowest energy consumption of any distillation process 3.
Vapour compression desalination also utilizes the principal of reducing the boiling point
by reducing the pressure. Vapour heat energy is gained by means of the thermodynamics
of vapour compression. This process is unique to other evaporative processes because no
outside heat input is needed; only mechanical energy is required.
Electrodialysis is a process that utilizes electro chemistry to separate dissolved solids

from water. Feed water is pumped in and desalinated by means of filtration and
electrostatic potential difference between electrodes. The positive electrode attracts the
anions while the negative electrode attracts the cations of the dissolved salts.
Electrodialysis systems consist of stacks which contain partitions of membranes
between electrodes to separate dilute and concentrated solutions. Though more complex
than reverse osmosis, only standard lower pressure pumps is required and the associated
piping and valves need not be stainless steel. Stacks can be disassembled, hand-cleaned
and reassembled, which though time and labour intensive, may be preferred to purchasing
new units, as often required in reverse osmosis. Reversal also almost eliminates the need
for chemicals. Also when comparing electrodialysis to reverse osmosis the Central Salt
and marine Chemicals Research Institute of India has found that electrodialysis has the
edge over RO, being the lowest energy-consuming technique for waters of salinity
between 1500 and 4000 ppm 3.
Reverse osmosis desalination uses a semi-permeable membrane to filter out dissolved

solids from pure water. Before water enters the membranes it is usually pretreated and
extensively dosed to minimize the amount of problem causing materials. When the water
is sufficiently treated it flows to the high-pressure pump, which supplies water to the
membranes for filtration. Flow rate can be affected by the pressure applied to the feed
side of the membrane by high-pressure pumps as well as increased temperatures. While
this increased flow increases output, careful monitoring of the expensive membranes
show that extreme applications of these conditions compacts membranes and decreases
efficiency. As with other desalination processes, production time is to be monitored as to
ensure proper maintenance is conducted. A major influence on reverse osmosis water
production is the cost of the membranes, and optimum conditions should be utilized to
maximize operating life.
Solar desalination is probably the least used method of desalination. Three methods of
utilizing the suns rays include humidification, distillation, and photovoltaic 3. Solar
humidification is the oldest method used dating back to ancient civilizations. It imitates
the natural hydrologic cycle by using the suns energy to vaporize pure water from a
shallow body to be condensed on a cooler and collected for consumption. The distillation
application is not widely used. It utilizes the sun to heat the feed water to be used in the
high temperature end of a standard thermal desalination process 3. Photovoltaic
applications convert the suns energy into electrical energy for smaller scale standard
desalination processes. This photovoltaic use is quite convenient in remote areas of
application.
Causes for desalination practices

Generally speaking, water urgency may arise in several ways but can be summarized in three
sources: overuse, neglect, or lack of sufficient resource development and management. These are
the three summary methods to be discussed in this paper. Where pollution is concerned,
desalination may prove less practical than remediation in certain geologic provinces, but the idea
presented entails the possible use of desalination if wide scale pollution were to emerge. The
principal of desalination could be used to separate potable water from pollutants. The need for
water would still be the same whether it is a result from any of the three sources.
We as humans are very good at neglecting our biosphere by means of poor environmental
practices. Every year pollutants contaminate millions of gallons of surface and ground water.
These can come from a variety of sources including industry small and large, agriculture, and the
common resident. Incidences of water pollution are all too common and many times have
devastating consequences. In Dickson County Tennessee, U.S.A, a recent occurrence involved
ground water pollution involving trichloroethylene (TCE), a common industrial solvent. This
suspected carcinogen and mutagen was found in elevated levels in several wells near the county
landfill. A local manufacturing plant was linked by manifesto to the chemical pollutant and is
currently being sued by several residents because it additionally disposed of TCE on four private
sites in close proximity to the landfill. Ray and Cathy Flake is one couple involved in the
litigation and say that after saving for 15 years and liquidating many of their assets to buy their
expand its water lines to 100 homes 5. This is a similar vehicle to desalination in that it served as
a remedy to potable water deficiency, but what would be the remedy if the municipal supply
were contaminated?
Disposal of solid waste is an ever-present dilemma that needs to be dealt with. There are
currently 53 operating landfills in Wyoming, U.S.A. Groundwater pollution has so far been
detected at 19 of these facilities. This startling statistic aroused the attention of the Wyoming
Department Environmental Quality (WDEQ), landfill operators, managers, consultants and many
in the regulated community. Notably, none of the landfills with groundwater pollution were
constructed with engineered containment systems (liners) 6. These environmental impacts are
only one cause of water shortage. Another is overuse of water resources.
Extreme ground water usage or mining can have devastating effects. Labeled as a lack of
sufficient resource development and management, it can yield land subsidence. This is an
initially unnoticed, slow phenomenon that results in elevation drop of the land due to compaction
of water-depleted geologic materials. The eastern plain in north China's Hebei Province has a
long record of groundwater over-exploitation. Now it finds itself home to the world's largest
acreage of subsidence. Geological experts estimate that the water table has dropped 40 to 60
meters in the eastern plane resulting in elevation drops ranging from 200 mm to over 2 meters
and encompasses 43,915 square km 7. This problem of land subsidence is not site specific in that
worldwide documentation is noted. The Mojave Desert in California U.S.A. has documented
elevation changes by global positioning system, (GPS), indicating that about 600 millimeters (2
feet) [plus or minus 1,500 millimeters (5 feet)] of subsidence occurred at certain test sites in the
desert 8 . Also, just east in Houston Texas U.S.A, ground water overuse has caused subsidence as
well 9. When occurring in heavily developed areas, financial implications can be devastating.
Structural damage to buildings, roadways, and utilities would entail astronomical costs of repair
and re-design.
Overuse of water resources is easier to accomplish in some areas of the world than others. Arid
regions tend to have the most urgent need for humanly usable water because of geologic and
climatic factors. Morocco has a problem of uneven precipitation distribution. While some
northern regions get up to 2,000 mm of rainfall a year, some southern regions do not get more
than 40 mm a year, being fifty times less 10. As a country, initiatives have to be taken to
supplement the southern regions with needed water. Dams have been built to aid in this, but
without additional water sources, the water deficit will keep growing, even if more dams are
built in the future, since they alone will not mobilize more water per capita. Indeed, the volume
of water that can be mobilized per capita under normal climatic conditions has, in recent years,
already reached its maximum 10. In 1975 Morocco instituted its first desalination plant to manage
its water shortage problem and currently has eight in operation 10.
Just to the north in Israel water poses a serious problem. Israel's water policy takes into
consideration the need to share limited existing water resources with its neighbors. Currently, it
is supplying water to the Jordanians and the Palestinians. Unfortunately, since the 1960's their
fresh water has been exploited to its utmost. The region's water supply depends on fluctuations in
rainfall, which is in short supply. The countries in the region also suffer from lack of storage
capacity, to regulate the water supply and to bridge over drought and dry cycles 11.
Barriers associated with desalination
It is a fact of humanity that there is no man made operation that is completely without flaw. The
art of desalination is no exception. There are many barriers and challenges associated with this
practice, in a scope of great variety.
Whether it is sea or brackish water, total dissolved solid counts are high, with influent to plants
being around 35,000 ppm and mainly consisting of inorganic salts. Seawater is a solution of salts
of nearly constant composition, dissolved in variable amounts of water. There are >70 elements
dissolved in seawater but only 6 make up >99% of all the dissolved salts; all occur as ions electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms:
Chloride (Cl):
55.04 wt%
Sodium (Na):
30.61 wt%
Sulphate (SO4):
7.68 wt%
Magnesium (Mg):
3.69 wt%
Calcium (Ca):
1.16 wt.%
Potassium (K):
1.10 wt.%
Source 12
Oceanographers use salinity -- the amount (in grams) of total dissolved salts present in 1
kilogram of water -- to express the salt content of seawater. Normal seawater has a salinity of 35
grams/kilogram (or liter) of water -- also expressed as 35%. Seawater from Wormly in southern
England is used as the international standard for seawater composition.
As well as major elements, there are many trace elements in seawater - e.g., manganese (Mn),
lead (Pb), gold (Au), iron (Fe), and iodine (I). Most occur in parts per million (ppm) or parts per
billion (ppb) concentrations. They are important to some biochemical reactions, both from
positive and negative (toxicity) viewpoints 12.
Apart from toxicity, these dissolved salts can have negative aspects pertaining to desalination
plants in the form of salt scale formation within equipment. Many of the dissolved minerals will
contribute to scale formation, but one worthy of mention is gypsum (CaSO4), which begins to
leave solution when water approaches about 95 degrees C (203 degrees F). This material forms a
hard scale that coats any tubes or containers present. The scale creates thermal and mechanical
problems and, once formed, is difficult to remove. One way to avoid the formation of this scale
is to keep the temperature and boiling point of the water below that of a 95 degrees C
temperature 13. Unfortunately, heat intensive desalination methods are not the only processes to
suffer from scale formation, for processes that utilize membranes are subject to invasion as well.
Even though these simple salts can cause complex, expensive problems, influent inorganic salts
arent the only culprits in water chemistry for desalination. The effluent can have very high TDS
concentrations, which are denser than normal seawater, making them able to sink to the bottom.
Those solids can be toxic to marine organisms. In the 1990s Florida, U.S.A., had a problem with
major ion toxicity killing small shrimp. Major ion toxicity pertains to unnatural concentrations of
salts in the effluent water. This phenomenon was caused by failure in the Environmental
Protection Agency guidelines for toxicity of effluent. The plant was allowed to continue
production, however, on the basis that the phenomenon was discovered after the EPA guidelines
were written 2.
Thermal pollution and turbidity at discharge can also be problems. Effluent waters can run about
10 to 15 F (i.e., 5 to8 C) above feed water temperatures may or may not be a potential
concern depending on the organisms near the point of concentrate discharge 14. However,
temperature can be detrimental to sensitive organisms near the discharge point, for the increased
temperature of a liquid decreases the solubility of dissolved gases. Oxygen, which is vital to
most marine life, is not exempt from this chemical mechanism.
Other challenges involved are aqueous metal ions from plant structure contact, and the sheer
corrosiveness of saline water. Effluent-dissolved metal ions can accumulate in sediment near
discharge areas and be taken in by benthic organisms, resulting in transfer to higher trophic
levels within the vast food web of marine environments. Corrosiveness, which is the main source
of these metal ions, is a very costly and labor-intensive factor in the desalination process, and
could cause plant downtime if serious enough.
Proposals for alternative energy incorporations
Whether they are membrane, mechanical, or distillation processes, desalination practices require
massive amounts of energy. The power needed to produce 1,000 gallons of desalinated water is
22kWh for RO, 38 kWh for MVC, 8 kWh for thermo compression and MED, and 16 kWh for
MSF 15. Most of the utilized energy currently comes from a vast array of conventional sources,
but there exists many alternatives worthy of investigation.
Innovations are currently being taken to optimize energy requirements for desalination practices.
One example is the coupling of desalination processes to electrical power generation plants in
order to use waste steam as heat. Similarly, power generation plants are sometimes coupled with
solid waste incineration processes in order to use the heat of combustion to create steam for
driving the generation equipment. With this mutual correlation between the mentioned processes,
it is permissible to investigate the positive aspects of incorporating waste incineration or other
heat generating renewable resources with desalination processes for environmental and
efficiency purposes.
Solid waste
Solid waste is a virtually unavoidable problem in all societies. The way in which this renewable
resource is dealt is key to sustainable development. Table-1 indicates that in the year 2001 the
United States generated 229.2 million tons of solid waste with 33.6 million tons being
incinerated and 127.6 million tons being sent to the landfill 16.
This land-filled waste is kinetic energy that municipalities could squander away if its untapped.
The majority of landfills are located in rural areas with close proximity to urban areas. These
landfills are site-specific also, for they must satisfy certain requirements such as soil and
geologic specificity. Trafficking of this solid form of potential energy creates excess traffic,
noise pollution, air pollution, and various other related environmental and economical costs. In
addition to these aspects of land-filling waste, there is the idea of the not in my back yard
principal. The vast majority of people strongly oppose waste disposal sites within reasonable
distances of their homes.
Table-1. Municipal Solid Waste Management, 1960 to 2001 (million tons)
Management 1960
1970
1980
1990
1995
1999
2000
2001
Method
Generation
88.1
121.1 151.6 205.2 213.7 231.4 232.0 229.2
Recycling
5.6
8.0
14.5
29.0
46.2
50.8
51.2
51.4
Composting
---
---
---
4.2
9.6
14.7
16.5
16.6
Incineration
27.0
25.1
13.7
31.9
35.5
34.0
33.7
33.6
Landfilling
55.5
87.9
123.4 140.1 122.4 131.8 130.6 127.6
Source 16
Having a higher population density, the urban areas are responsible for a greater contribution to
the amount of waste generated. The urban incineration of solid waste may short cut some of
these disturbances and keep most of the solid waste nearer to its point of origin.
Many concerns cloud the issue of solid waste incineration. Emissions of particulate ash, dioxins,
and furans are causes of apprehension to many citizens in proximity to incinerators. The truth is
that emissions from landfills are far worse and more significant to the environment and to
mankind than are the emissions from modern incinerators (even prior to the CAAA of 1992).
The emissions from the trucking required to get the solid waste to distant landfills are far worse
than the emissions from modern incinerators. One old truth about incinerators is that the trucks
waiting to unload are putting out more and worse pollution than the incinerator does in burning
the trash all day long 17. New technologies also exist to drastically limit incinerator emissions.
In an effort to meet US EPA maximum achievable control technology regulations, a major
chemical plant upgraded its incineration process with state-of-the-art technology that increased
burning efficiency to 99.9% 18. Incorporation and education of this clean incinerator technology
could alleviate citizen concerns about local waste incinerators. With the introduction of this
efficient incineration method, it seems only logical to utilize this renewable form of energy in the
process of desalination.
This in fact has been theoretically modeled in a limited number of situations. One example
involves two separate resort hotels in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt that hypothetically used the
incineration of their solid waste to desalinate water from the surrounding Red Sea. In each case
thermo vapor compression distillation was the technology of choice because of the advantage of
direct thermal coupling with the waste thermal treatment unit 19. The conclusions drawn from the
study suggest that more than enough fresh water could be supplied by means of using only their
solid waste for input energy.
If a single resort hotel is capable of producing enough solid waste to fuel a desalination process,
it can be assumed that large municipalities would be more than capable of meeting this
requirement as well. Four tonnes of municipal solid waste contains as much energy as one tonne
of coal 20. This fact illustrates that municipal solid waste could alleviate emissions associated
with fossil fuel burning.
Geothermal and natural heat transfer
Geothermal energy can be described as heat energy taken directly from the natural earth. This
process of withdrawing natural heat from the earth is currently being used in many areas of the
earth with applications ranging from heating residencies to producing electricity. Several
different temperature ranges are available in this earthen setting so only certain locations have
the capability to expel enough heat to be used to produce electricity or be used for water
separation. The most promising areas for geothermal/desalination purposes are areas located at
or near to subterranean plate boundaries. Evidence of potential plate activity could be geysers,
hot springs, or volcanoes in close range. These geologic phenomena are indicators of the
nearness of molten magma to the surface and thus mark an excellent source of heat energy to be
used by either heat exchanger or direct flash into steam. The one area of the earth with the
highest density of seismic activity is the ring of fire that ridges the Pacific Ocean. Southeast
Asia, western North America, and Central and South America are all captured by this ring and
thus have the potential for geothermal energy production. Presently, the main utilization of this
process is by electricity production. However, future inquiry may prove to be environmentally
and economically beneficial, especially in the situation of binary cycle systems.
Binary cycle systems is a term used to loosely describe the process when water is not hot enough
to flash into steam but is hot enough to heat a more volatile fluid into pressurized vapor. This has
been done naturally in the case of using the ocean, natures largest heat sink, as a heat source.
The vastness of the ocean allows for extensive stratification and permits it to have a natural heat
exchanger medium. In the tropics, the warm surface water around 80F and cooler, deeper ocean
water is near 40F. This is an excellent set up for a natural heat exchanger. One example which
incorporates these principals utilizes a refrigerant called propylene. This refrigerant boils at low
temperatures (67 degrees F) under pressure of 150 psi 21. The warmer water is pumped near the
volatile propylene, which causes it to flash into high-pressure vapor where it is then used to drive
turbines for electrical generation. The cooler water is then used to condense the propylene back
into liquid where the cycle begins once more. An additional application of this process could be
to use the mechanical energy to drive pumps in the desalination process or even use the
generated electricity for the water plant.
An additional advantage to this process is that fresh water is produced as a by-product or, if
desirable, the cycle can be designed to produce only fresh water 21. This could be in addition to
the fresh water produced from desalination.
Solar applications
Our nearest star and sustainer of most all biological life is the sun. This is the sole supplier of
energy to earth and it gives freely, at no charge. Many mechanisms exist to employ these
quantum packets of energy in work for humans, and once the harnessing device is installed, the
energy source is free. The field of active solar design has met many of the same hurdles as its
predecessors in the area of emerging technology. Investors and users alike do not want to be the
first to try a new function of technology without proven numbers and results.
Fortunately there have been advancements in the field of active solar design incorporated into
large-scale operations such as power generation and also over the past ten years decreases in
capital cost have been 50% and further decrease is expected to reach 25% over the next ten years
22
. Also, according to an analysis of the World Bank, generation costs compare favorably with
those for a number of hydro power schemes in developing countries 22. This green power could
propose a new vision in the field of desalination.
Solar energy is at optimum capability for harvest in the 40 latitude areas Africa, Australia,
China, India, the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, the southwestern United States, and
Central and South America 22. These areas of the earth also have a common thread in that they, at
one place or another, utilize methods of desalination.
With new designs of instruments capable of harnessing massive amounts of solar energy, such as
those employed in solar electricity generation, a possible connection of technology is feasible in
the field of desalination.
Parabolic trough collectors: This design incorporates the principal of a reflective

parabola that concentrates the suns rays onto a central receiver tube located in the focal
line of the system, heating the fluid flowing in the tube which is then transported through
pipes to a steam turbine / generator. The troughs are normally designed to track the sun
along one axis, predominantly north-south. This technology may be used to provide
process heat or to drive chemical reactions, but is currently best known for its
applications in providing electrical power. These parabolic troughs are assembled in
collector fields and are currently responsible for all commercially produced solar thermal
power, with a total installed capacity of more than 350 MWe in California representing
over 90% of the world's installed solar capacity 23.
Solar dishes: A dish concentrates solar energy onto a receiver at its focal point. The
receiver absorbs the energy and converts it into thermal energy. This can be used directly
as heat or can support chemical processes, but its most common application is in power
generation. The thermal energy can either be transported to a central generator for
conversion, or it can be converted directly into electricity at a local generator coupled to
the receiver. Dishes track the sun on two axes, and thus are the most efficient collector
systems because they are always pointing at the sun. Concentration ratios usually range
from 600 to 2000, and they can achieve temperatures in excess of 1,500C 24.
Power tower systems: In power tower systems, heliostats reflect and concentrate sunlight
onto a central tower-mounted receiver where the energy is transferred to a heat transfer
fluid. This is then passed optionally to storage, and finally to power-conversion systems
which convert the thermal energy into electricity and supply it to the grid. Power tower
plants are defined by the options chosen for a heat transfer fluid, the thermal storage
medium, and the power-conversion cycle. The heat transfer fluid may be water/steam,
molten nitrate salt, liquid metals, or air. Thermal storage may be provided by phasechanging materials or ceramic bricks. Steam-Rankine power conversion systems are used
with the possible alternative of open-cycle Brayton power-conversion systems. Power
tower systems usually achieve concentration ratios of 300 to 1,500, can operate at
temperatures from 550C up to 1,500C, and are quite large - generally 10 MWe or more
25
.
Thermal hydraulic engines: These thermal engines work on the principal of

thermodynamics. Working fluid is heated with hot water (190F) in the heat exchanger,
causing it to expand and push a piston out of a cylinder. At the same time this piston is
expanding, a common rod is compressing hydraulic fluid in an adjacent piston and
cylinder. As it compresses the hydraulic fluid it passes through a hydraulic motor, which
in turn rotates a shaft that operates a pump, electric generator, or other device. Cold water
placed in the heat exchanger causes the working fluid to contract, readying the piston for
another stroke 26. This technology could prove useful in the fields of solar or geothermal
energy because the process is not heat source specific and any form of heat is capable of
heating the working fluid. These systems are also capable of being retrofitted onto
existing systems, giving them an added advantage. A schematic of the overall system is
given below.
Source 26
Rapid spray evaporation: This category of technology is not an energy source for
desalination, but it is equally important because it deals with the effluent water pollution
problem. In RSE, contaminated water is ejected at high velocities through specialized
injector-nozzles, which creates water droplets. The salt water changes from liquid to
vapor within milliseconds of ejection. As the solution evaporates, the solids contained in
the solution are flashed out or separated, leaving pure water vapour that subsequently
condenses and is collected, without the solids previously dissolved and suspended in the
solution. The formerly-dissolved solids precipitate out as a dry product that can
subsequently be mined for valuable minerals and chemicals, or reused, depending on the
application 27. This method of desalination is very important in that it virtually eliminates
waste brine into usable salts for applications ranging from agriculture to industry if so
chosen. A five-million gpd facility generates 700 tons of salt, which at US$ 44 per ton is
worth US$ 30,000 per day 27. If existing desalination processes were retrofitted with this
process in the effluent side of operation, great steps could be made in a more
environmentally-friendly direction. Economics is a driving force in industry; investors
and users alike want to see efficiency. The possible recovery and recycling of a toxic
waste product not only has environmentally-positive implications, but also has financial
gain.
Engineering applications
The skills taught throughout the field of engineering cover an expansive ground. It is in this
arena that new technologies like desalination can be adopted and applied toward solutions of
environmental degradation. The balance of dwindling water resources and our ever-growing
population can be maintained through a collaboration of efforts exhibited by individuals of today
and tomorrow. Students of engineering can find prospects with this technology due to its
multidisciplinary approach, whereby interests in other subjects such as chemistry and geology
can attain new measures of accomplishment. Besides the classroom, an understanding global
community to share ideas on this increasingly problematic issue can solve more than if only
discussed in one region. For this reason among others, the ASEE conference is extremely
powerful as a tool for future development.
By being first introduced into the classroom through individual research and then by becoming
part of recurring semesters topics, desalination is just one example of many which will spur the
progress of alternative solutions. Projects outside of class pertaining to these will help
engineering students become aware of growing problems. Engineering and engineering
technology fundamentals may become suited for constantly changing global conditions by
focusing on the trends that may be noted more readily through this applied research.
Environmentally-friendly alternatives can then also be incorporated for industry use with the
collaboration of industrial help for the tasks. This is a beneficial situation for the industries as
well to learn of ongoing research to improve their products so its international use can help solve
a world-wide problem. Students represent the bulk of progressive potential, so it is up to the
teachers and all those involved in the educational process to ensure that the very best
opportunities are shown to them.
Conclusion
With less than 0.5% of the earth's water being directly suitable for human consumption,
agricultural or industrial uses 1, alternative methods of obtaining functional water have been
sought using desalination. Although this process of desalination is becoming increasingly
efficient and is necessary in some parts of the globe, there is still room for improvement. The
broad technology in the field of desalination results in site-specific procedures depending on a
variety of factors. Some areas may benefit more by using membrane processes while others may
benefit better from evaporative methods. Alternative methods of obtaining energy such as waste
incineration or active solar design should be surveyed and will more than likely soon become
necessary in our world of dwindling resources. In addition to saving resources, alternative energy
will also reduce the emissions of pollutants. An eclectic approach must be taken to resolve our
environmental problems, and insight from many fields of academia is needed in order to have
viable research and reasoning of problems associated with desalination.
Water is a precious resource that is in limited amount, and we are to be good stewards of what
we have been given. Abuse and overpopulation can attribute to water problems having biotic
and economic percussions that could limit the applications of sustainable development. If future
generations are to exist, education of existing environmental problems needs to be addressed to
impressionable minds as early as possible so that research and development from a professional
standpoint can be continually encouraged. By remaining on the cutting edge of technology,
curriculum taught to international engineering and engineering technology students will inspire
new venues of progress while sharpening skills learned in the classroom. Only when we realize a
problem and act on it will there be solutions, and education is key. Future engineers, and
subsequently the world in which we live, will benefit from educations greatly enriched by
innovative applied research projects with alternative solutions such as desalination.
Bibliography
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(2.) Bates, Lincoln. Water issues prompt new look at desalination. The American City & County. Pittsfield. Oct
1995. Vol. 110(11): 32-41.
(3.) http://www.commonwealthknowledge.net/Desalntn/binfdsal.htm
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(19.) M. Abdel-Rahman, A. Connolly, P. Costen, D. Dajnak, F.C. Lockwood. Application of the waste to water
concept to Sharm El Sheikh through a CFD simulation. 2002. Desalination 152: 125-132.
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(21.) http://www.seasolarpower.com/otec.html
(22.) http://www.solarpaces.org/economics/overview.html
(23.) http://www.solarpaces.org/technology/trough.html
(24.) http://www.solarpaces.org/technology/dish.html
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Biography
DR. SAEED FOROUDASTAN
Saeed Foroudastan is a Professor in the Engineering Technology and Industrial Studies Department. He received his
B.S. in Civil Engineering (1980), his M.S. in Civil Engineering (1982), and his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering
(1987) from Tennessee Technological University. Professor Foroudastan's employment vitae includes: Instructor of
Mechanical Engineering for Tennessee Technological University , Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
for Tennessee Technological University, Senior Engineer, Advanced Development Department, Textron
Aerostructures , and Middle Tennessee State University. Professor Foroudastan is involved with several professional
organizations and honor societies, and has many publications to his name. He also holds U.S. and European patents.

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Proposal for Alternative Energy Applications in the Field of Desalination

Electrodialysis is a process that utilizes electro chemistry to separate dissolved solids

Reverse osmosis desalination uses a semi-permeable membrane to filter out dissolved

Causes for desalination practices

121.1 151.6 205.2 213.7 231.4 232.0 229.2

123.4 140.1 122.4 131.8 130.6 127.6

Parabolic trough collectors: This design incorporates the principal of a reflective

Thermal hydraulic engines: These thermal engines work on the principal of

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