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EMBARGO
The contents of this Report must not be
quoted or summarized in the print,
broadcast or electronic media before
24 March 2015, 17:00 hours GMT
INFORMATION
ECONOMY
REPORT 2015
U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
INFORMATION
ECONOMY
REPORT 2015
ii
NOTE
Within the UNCTAD Division on Technology and Logistics, the ICT Analysis Section carries out policy-oriented
analytical work on the development implications of information and communications technologies (ICTs). It is
responsible for the preparation of the Information Economy Report. The ICT Analysis Section promotes international
dialogue on issues related to ICTs for development, and contributes to building developing countries capacities to
measure the information economy and to design and implement relevant policies and legal frameworks.
In this report, the terms country/economy refer, as appropriate, to territories or areas. The designations employed
and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. In addition, the designations of country
groups are intended solely for statistical or analytical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement
about the stage of development reached by a particular country or area in the development process. The major
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Countries with economies in transition:6RXWK(DVW(XURSHDQGWKH&RPPRQZHDOWKRI,QGHSHQGHQW6WDWHV
Developing economies:,QJHQHUDODOOWKHHFRQRPLHVWKDWDUHQRWVSHFLHGDERYH)RUVWDWLVWLFDOSXUSRVHVWKH
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companies or their activities.
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Details and percentages in tables do not necessarily add up to the totals because of rounding.
The material contained in this study may be freely quoted with appropriate acknowledgement.
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PREFACE
iii
PREFACE
7KH HGLWLRQ RI 81&7$'pV Information Economy Report examines electronic commerce, and shows in
detail how information and communications technologies can be harnessed to support economic growth and
sustainable development.
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in the international development agenda, including in the World Summit on the Information Society outcome
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The Information Economy Report 2015 highlights how some of the greatest dynamism in electronic commerce
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and challenges faced by enterprises in developing countries that wish to access and use e-commerce. It
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reviews examples of e-commerce in rural areas and low-income countries, addresses relevant legal issues and
provides policy recommendations.
As the world looks ahead to implementing a new agenda for the next generation of our development work, I
commend this report to all those seeking to help unlock the potential of e-commerce for developing countries.
%$1.LPRRQ
Secretary-General
United Nations
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Information Economy Report 2015ZDVSUHSDUHGE\DWHDPFRPSULVLQJ7RUEMUQ)UHGULNVVRQWHDPOHDGHU
&FLOH%DUD\UH6FDUOHWW)RQGHXU*LO6XZDQ-DQJ0LQ-DH.LP'LDQD.RUND6PLWD/DNKH1JR]L2QRGXJRDQG
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Comments on a draft version of the report were provided by experts attending a peer review meeting in Geneva
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Additional comments were received at various stages of the production of the report from Luca Castellani, Angel
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annual survey questionnaire on ICT usage by enterprises and on the ICT sector. The sharing of data for this report
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UNCTAD is equally grateful for the sharing of data for the global mapping of cyberlaws by Gema Campillos,
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The cover and other graphics were done by Nadge Hadjemian. Desktop publishing was done by Nathalie Loriot
and the Information Economy Report 2015ZDVHGLWHGE\-RKQ5RJHUV
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Note ........................................................................................................................................................
ii
Preface ...................................................................................................................................................
iii
Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................................
iv
ix
Overview.................................................................................................................................................
xi
CHAPTER I
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11
12
15
23
C. Conclusions ......................................................................................................................
30
CHAPTER III
33
34
1. Internet access.......................................................................................................................
'HOLYHU\V\VWHPV.....................................................................................................................
39
C. Concluding remarks.........................................................................................................
43
vi
CHAPTER IV
45
46
49
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51
53
54
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platform..................................................................................................................................
55
CHAPTER V
63
64
66
68
70
73
74
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CHAPTER VI
81
82
88
C. Concluding remarks.........................................................................................................
91
References ............................................................................................................
93
99
Selected Unctad Publications In The Area Of Science, Technology And Ict For
Development ......................................................................................................... 115
Readership Survey ................................................................................................. 119
CONTENTS
vii
Boxes
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Annex
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LIST OF ABREVIATIONS
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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business to business
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business to consumer
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business to government
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consumer to consumer
e-commerce
electronic commerce
e-signature
electronic signature
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OVERVIEW
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OVERVIEW
Global e-commerce is expanding fast with
developing economies gaining prominence
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example, transition economies have a relatively high
degree of home postal delivery, whereas credit card
penetration is low compared with most developing
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improving the coverage of postal home delivery, and in
Africa, performance is hampered by low overall Internet
penetration levels compared with other regions.
OVERVIEW
xiii
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the international guidelines on consumer protection.
Third, the establishment of minimum standards in
regard to data protection and cybercrime could help
ensure cross-border coordination on the design and
implementation of relevant legislation and stronger
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the developing world, further efforts are needed to
strengthen the capacity of lawmakers and the judiciary.
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existing cyber legislation among all stakeholders.
At the international level, special attention is warranted
in the areas of international trade rules, taxation
and support to capacity-building in developing
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development agenda in outcome documents on
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the Information Society, as well as in the outcome
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there remains ample scope for making e-commerce
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Secretary-General of UNCTAD
REVISITING THE
DEVELOPMENT
POTENTIAL OF
E-COMMERCE
A. E-COMMERCE AND
DEVELOPMENT
The promise of ICTs to allow entrepreneurs and
enterprises to buy and sell their products over
digital networks has been among the development
priorities for the international community since the
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major engine for trade and development on a global
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in the outcome documents from the World Summit
on the Information Society (WSIS), which was held
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adopted, the e-commerce promise remains on
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development goals, notably in connection with
womens empowerment, infrastructure and as
enabling technologies.1
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of enhanced participation in international value
chains, increased market access and reach, and
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lower transaction costs. However, the uptake of
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large enterprises in developed countries (UNCTAD,
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inadequate ICT infrastructure and use, unreliable and
costly power supply, limited use of credit cards, lack
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systems. Sociopolitical barriers may involve weak
legal and regulatory frameworks that limit the extent
Box I.1.
E-commerce, the World Summit on the Information Society and the World Trade Organization
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Source: UNCTAD.
B. DEFINITIONS OF
E-COMMERCE
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Box I.2.
Types of e-commerce
B2B: Accounts for the bulk of e-commerce (chapter II). It involves transactions between businesses, such as between
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certain industries or value chains.
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and small businesses to reach new markets, both domestically and internationally. There is a wide range of channels
to reach consumers, including social networks, crowdsourcing platforms, dedicated e-commerce websites, mobile
applications and more.
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platforms offer possibilities for informal enterprises to engage in e-commerce.
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case of public e-procurement.
Source: UNCTAD.
C. IMPLICATIONS OF
E-COMMERCE
1. The e-commerce value chain
The shift towards e-commerce is already
transforming the behaviour of businesses and
consumers. The role of ICT applications and
services is expanding across the entire value chain
of e-commerce. The e-commerce process can
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gathering, agreement, transaction and delivery.
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e-commerce. At each stage, there are potential
implications for consumers, enterprises and other
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various social networking platforms help consumers to
compare prices and features of products rather than
relying on traditional information sources, including
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websites with reviews conducted by other consumers
and make their purchases at times that are convenient
)LJXUH}, 7KHUROHRI,&7VLQWKHHFRPPHUFHWUDQVDFWLRQYDOXHFKDLQ
OFF-LINE
Supplier
Newspaper
Phone
Cash
payment
Radio/TV
Shop
Credit card
RILQH
Information
App
Agreement
E-shop
Web
App
E-mail
ON-LINE
Transaction
On-line
transfert
E-payment
Post
Direct
Delivery
(IXOOPHQW
On-line
delivery
Customer
49.3
36.8
10.7
9.1
8.7
4.1
Other
11.3
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10
20
30
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40
50
60
SRLQWVRYHUWKHSHULRGtRUSHUFHQWDJH
points per year). ([SUHVVHG GLIIHUHQWO\ HVDOHV
DFWLYLWLHVDFFRXQWHGIRU}SHUFHQWRIWKHWRWDOJURZWK
RI ODERXU SURGXFWLYLW\ IRU WKH SHULRG t D
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sector in the countries included. Investigation of the
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LPSDFW LV VWURQJHU RQ VPDOO WKDQ RQ PHGLXPVL]HG
UPV )RU ODUJH HQWHUSULVHV WKH LPSDFW RI HVDOHV
DFWLYLWLHV ZDV QRW VLJQLFDQW SRVVLEO\ EHFDXVH WKH
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model and estimation methods.
7KLV XQLTXH DQDO\VLV RI (XURSHDQ GDWD SURYLGHV
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performance. In summary, a considerable share of
the total labour productivity growth during the period
t FDQ EH DWWULEXWHG WR LQFUHDVHG XVH RI
e-sales. The results furthermore indicate that the
SURGXFWLYLW\HIIHFWVDUHVWURQJHUIRUVHUYLFHVUPVDQG
for small enterprises.14 The analysis refers to a region
RI UHODWLYHO\ KLJK PDWXULW\ RI ,&7 XVH 0RUH GDWD DQG
research are therefore needed to establish to what
extent these results can be extended to countries at
lower levels of ICT readiness. However, in combination
with previous studies this analysis offers empirical
evidence that a higher degree of e-sales helps
enterprises become more productive.
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on the broader impacts of e-commerce, concerning
effects on, for example, employment, income
distribution, competition, structural transformation,
taxation and the balance of trade.
D. ROADMAP TO THE
REPORT
,QYLHZRIWKHSRWHQWLDOEHQHWVDQGFKDOOHQJHVIURP
greater uptake of e-commerce, the following chapters
of the report examine trends and developments in
the evolving e-commerce ecosystem and discuss
possible implications for developing countries. The
report is structured as follows.
Chapter II reviews global and regional e-commerce
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statistics and private-sector data, it investigates the
PDJQLWXGHRIHFRPPHUFHLGHQWLHVWKHPDLQPDUNHWV
and considers the extent of uptake in different parts
of the world. It highlights the leading e-commerce
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RUGHUIXOOPHQW,QWKLVFRQWH[WLWFRQVLGHUVWKHH[WHQW
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make use of certain global e-commerce platforms and
payment solutions. The second part of the chapter is
devoted to rural e-commerce and analyses the diverse
experiences of three Asian economies in this area.
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areas of e-commerce around the world. Special
attention is given to e-transaction laws, consumer
protection, data protection and privacy, and
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compatibility of laws and their enforcement in view
of the development of electronic transactions. The
chapter furthermore highlights selected legal issues
currently facing e-commerce development globally
and proposes a set of recommendations.
7KH QDO FKDSWHU FRQFOXGHV DQG SURYLGHV RYHUDOO
recommendations for the development of national
strategies and policies for the promotion of e-commerce
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the international community in creating an environment
IRU PD[LPL]LQJ SRWHQWLDO EHQHWV IURP HFRPPHUFH
DQGIRUPLQLPL]LQJFRVWVDQGULVNV
NOTES
1
11
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at KWWSZZZUHXWHUVFRPDUWLFOHXVDOLEDEDLSRLG86.%1+++DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
6HHq$IULFDHFRPPHUFHUPH[SDQGVWRQHZPDUNHWVrReuters-XO\DYDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZUHXWHUV
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7KLVGHQLWLRQGHYLDWHVIURPWKDWXVHGLQWKH:72ZRUNSURJUDPPHRQHFRPPHUFH,WXQGHUVWDQGVHFRPPHUFH
WRPHDQWKHqSURGXFWLRQGLVWULEXWLRQPDUNHWLQJVDOHRUGHOLYHU\RIJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVE\HOHFWURQLFPHDQVrVHH
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6HH q7KH ,QWHUQHW HFRQRP\ LQ WKH *r bcg.perspectives } 0DUFK DYDLODEOH DW KWWSVZZZ
EFJSHUVSHFWLYHVFRPFRQWHQWDUWLFOHVPHGLDBHQWHUWDLQPHQWBVWUDWHJLFBSODQQLQJBBBWULOOLRQBRSSRUWXQLW\BLQWHUQHWB
HFRQRP\BJDFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
6HHIRUH[DPSOHq+ 0GHOD\VODXQFKRI86RQOLQHVKRSrFinancial Times, }6HSWHPEHUDYDLODEOHDWKWWS
ZZZIWFRPFPVVHDHEIIHDEGFKWPOD[]]3;D25.* DFFHVVHG } -DQXDU\
)RURWKHUVWXGLHVVKRZLQJSRVLWLYHDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQHFRPPHUFHDQGUPSHUIRUPDQFHVHH&RORPERHWDO
/LXHWDODQG.RQLQJVDQG5RRGKRIW
6WDWLVWLFDO DQG DQDO\WLFDO ZRUN E\ WKH 2(&' (XURVWDW DQG WKH VRFDOOHG (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ ./(06 SURMHFW KDV
EURDGHQHG WKH HOG RI ,&7 VWDWLVWLFV DQG IDFLOLWDWHG LPSDFW DQDO\VHV 7KH (66/DLW SURMHFW KDV WDNHQ WKLV D VWHS
IXUWKHUWKURXJKWKHOLQNLQJRIUPOHYHOGDWDDOORZLQJVWDWLVWLFVRQ,&7XVDJHRIUPVWRDSSHDULQVHYHUDOGLPHQVLRQV
QRWSUHYLRXVO\DYDLODEOH0LFUR0RPHQWV'DWDEDVH
q0LFURDJJUHJDWHGrLQWKLVFDVHPHDQVWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQKDVEHHQVRXUFHGDWWKHOHYHORIWKHUPEXWGXHWRGLVFORVXUH
LVVXHVUPVKDYHWKHQEHHQJURXSHGE\LQGXVWU\RURWKHUUPFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVXFKDVVL]HDQGDJHFODVV
7KHIXOODQDO\VLVDQGPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHPHWKRGRORJ\DQGVWDWLVWLFDODQDO\VLVDUHSURYLGHGLQ)DONDQG+DJVWHQ
7KHVHUHVXOWVDUHLQOLQHZLWKWKRVHRI;LDDQG=KDQJZKRIRXQGWKDWRQOLQHVDOHVFKDQQHOVLQFUHDVHGVDOHV
YROXPHVIRUUHWDLOLQJUPV
This result is based on a regression method in which all variables are measured as change over a two-year period.
%DVHGRQDG\QDPLFSDQHOGDWDPRGHOFRQWUROOLQJIRUHQGRJHQHLW\
14
It should be noted that higher labour productivity growth as a result of e-commerce activities does not necessarily
translate into new jobs. In developed countries, there is empirical evidence that industries with faster growth of ICT
capital had greater increases in relative demand for highly educated workers and larger decline in relative demand
IRUPLGGOHHGXFDWHGZRUNHUV0LFKDHOVHWDO7KLVPD\DOVRKROGWUXHIRUWKHHIIHFWVRIHFRPPHUFHRQWKH
skill structure of the workforce.
GLOBAL
AND REGIONAL
TRENDS
12
A. THE GLOBAL
E-COMMERCE
MARKET IS EVOLVING
1. Market size estimates
0HDVXULQJ HFRPPHUFH LV FKDOOHQJLQJ 7KHUH DUH
QR FRPSUHKHQVLYH RIFLDO VWDWLVWLFV RQ WKH YDOXH RI
GRPHVWLF DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDO HFRPPHUFH 2QO\ D IHZ
countries mainly developed ones compile data on
e-commerce revenue. Available information suggests
that the market for e-commerce has expanded
VLJQLFDQWO\LQWKHSDVWGHFDGHDQGWKDWLWFRQWLQXHV
to grow. Such observations are supported by the
HVWLPDWHV PDGH E\ SULYDWH FRQVXOWDQF\ UPV :KLOH
global e-commerce is still dominated by developed
countries, fast growth is observed in developing
regions, especially in Asia.
Year
2002
Value of
shipment
Total
E-commerce
2003
Total
E-commerce
2004
Total
E-commerce
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Manufacturing
Merchant
wholesale
trade
3 921
4 162
752
880
4 015
843
4 309
Share of
e-commerce
LQFOXGLQJ
VHUYLFHV
5HWDLO
trade
Total
NA
3 129
11 211
NA
NA
45
1 677
NA
4 367
NA
3 263
11 646
NA
968
NA
57
1 868
NA
4 840
NA
3 474
12 622
NA
996
1 060
NA
72
2 129
NA
Total
4 742
5 243
NA
3 690
13 675
NA
E-commerce
1 344
1 228
NA
91
2 663
NA
Total
5 016
5 584
NA
3 874
14 473
NA
E-commerce
1 567
1 305
NA
113
2 985
NA
Total
5 338
5 888
NA
3 999
15 226
NA
E-commerce
1 879
1 395
NA
136
3 410
NA
Total
5 468
6 136
NA
3 946
15 550
NA
Share of
e-commerce
H[FOXGLQJ
VHUYLFHV
15%
16%
17%
19%
21%
22%
E-commerce
2 171
1 422
NA
141
3 734
NA
Total
4 420
5 144
NA
3 630
13 193
NA
E-commerce
1 892
1 355
NA
145
3 391
NA
26%
Total
4 905
5 757
11 164
3 841
25 668
E-commerce
2 350
1 547
302
169
4 368
17%
28%
Total
5 481
6 451
11 544
4 133
27 610
18%
29%
19%
30%
E-commerce
2 704
1 696
338
198
4 936
Total
5 756
6 771
12 004
4 344
28 876
E-commerce
2 989
1 789
366
227
5 371
24%
13
)LJXUH},, (FRPPHUFHUHYHQXHVLQWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ
B2C
2% of total turnover
13% of e-commerce turnover
41% of web sales
E-commerce
14% of total turnover
Web sales
4% of total turnover
30% of e-commerce
turnover
B2B/B2G
2% of total turnover
18% of e-commerce turnover
58% of web sales
EDI sales
10% of total turnover
69% of e-commerce
turnover
Source: 81&7$'DGDSWHGIURP(85267$7
Note: 1XPEHUVPD\QRWDGGWR}SHUFHQWGXHWRURXQGLQJ
14
7DEOH},, %&UHYHQXHVLQWKHWRSFRXQWULHVUDQNHGE\QXPEHURIRQOLQHEX\HUVt
B2C market
Online buyers
}ELOOLRQ
As a share
RI%%
Number in
millions**
Annual spend
SHUEX\HU
China
301
18.5
271
1 111
Ministry of Commerce
United States
263
4.7*
133
1 975
Bureau of Census
Japan
119*
5.3*
55
2 171
Germany
52
4.5*
33
1 593
United Kingdom
144
5.2*
30
4 874
Russian Federation
13
14
20
662
Republic of Korea
22
2.2
19
1 195
KORSTAT
France
68
12
18
3 688
Brazil
14
...
14
1 045
Canada
19*
11.9
13
1 446
Statistics Canada
1 016
8.1
605
1 679
1 233
N/A
Country
Source***
Ecommerce Europe
eMarketer
2500
2000
Middle East and Africa
1500
1000
Western Europe
Asia-PaciF
500
North America
0
2013
2018
Source: H0DUNHWHUFRP-XO\
Note: (VWLPDWHVDUHEDVHGRQWKHDQDO\VLVRIGDWDIURPRWKHUUHVHDUFKUPVDQGJRYHUQPHQWDJHQFLHVKLVWRULFDOWUHQGVUHSRUWHG
and estimated revenues from major online retailers, consumer online buying trends, and macro-level economic conditions.
Data include products and services ordered and leisure and unmanaged business travel sales booked using the Internet via
DQ\GHYLFHUHJDUGOHVVRIWKHPHWKRGRISD\PHQWRUIXOOPHQW
2. Cross-border e-commerce
Although the Internet should reduce barriers to
LQWHUQDWLRQDO WUDGH 7HU]L YDULRXV IDFWRUV
FRQVWUDLQ FURVVERUGHU HFRPPHUFH ([DPSOHV
include unreliable and lengthy transit times, complex
and ambiguous return processes, customs delays,
lack of transparency on delivery and pricing, and
limited ability to alter delivery times and locations (see
also box II.1).
,Q WHUPV RI FURVVERUGHU WUDGH LQ JRRGV 838
data on the volume of international postal
traffic of small packets, parcels and packages
offer important insights into recent trends in
HFRPPHUFH %HWZHHQ DQG JOREDO
GHOLYHULHVRIVXFKLWHPVH[SDQGHGE\DERXW}SHU
cent. The data indicate an increasingly important
role for developing countries, especially in Asia
DQG 2FHDQLD WDEOH} ,, 7KDW UHJLRQpV VKDUH RI
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during the same period, while its share of imports
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show that developed countries and Asia and
2FHDQLDUXQVLJQLILFDQWWUDGHVXUSOXVHVLQWKLVDUHD
whereas Latin America and the Caribbean as well
as transition economies import considerably more
than they export.9 $V IXUWKHU VKRZQ LQ WDEOH} ,,
the average time needed to ship parcels is also the
shortest in the cases of developed countries and
GHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVLQ$VLDDQG2FHDQLD
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15
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In a survey of Swedish enterprises engaged in cross-border e-commerce, several barriers to such transactions were
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The most commonly cited barriers were lack of information on laws and regulations, differences in consumer laws,
VSHFLFUHTXLUHPHQWVRQZHEVLWHFRQWHQWDQGFXVWRPVUHODWHGPDWWHUV%DUULHUVLGHQWLHGZHUHJURXSHGLQWRHLJKW
FDWHJRULHV
/DFNRILQIRUPDWLRQDERXWUHOHYDQWODZVUHJXODWLRQVDQGPHWKRGV
%XUGHQVRPHFXVWRPVSURFHGXUHVKLJKFXVWRPVGXWLHVRQUHWXUQVDQGFRUUXSWLRQDWWKHERUGHU
'LIIHUHQFHVLQQDWLRQDOFRQVXPHUDQGVDOHVODZV
5HTXLUHPHQWVIRUVSHFLFSD\PHQWVVROXWLRQVDQGGLIIHUHQFHVLQWD[UHJXODWLRQV
:HDNSURWHFWLRQRILQWHOOHFWXDOSURSHUW\ULJKWV
/LPLWDWLRQVLQWKHULJKWWRVWRUHDQGWUDQVIHULQIRUPDWLRQDQGGDWD
5HTXLUHPHQWVWRKDYHDORFDOSUHVHQFHLQRUGHUWRUHJLVWHUWRSOHYHOGRPDLQV,QWHUQHWFHQVRUVKLSDQGWKHQHHGWRXVH
VSHFLFHQFU\SWLRQWHFKQRORJLHV
2WKHUEDUULHUVLQFOXGLQJKLJKURDPLQJFKDUJHVSUREOHPVLQREWDLQLQJLQVXUDQFHDQGVWDWHVXEVLGLHV
16
Developed
countries
Africa
Asia and
Oceania
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Transition
economies
World
Developed countries
46.3
2.4
12.1
2.8
70.6
Africa
0.7
0.2
0.1
21.6
0.3
2.7
0.5
0.4
25.5
1.7
0.1
0.3
2.1
Transition economies
0.5
0.3
0.8
World
70.8
2.9
15
7.8
3.5
100
Developed
countries
Africa
Asia and
Oceania
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Transition
economies
World
Developed countries
33.3
1.7
20.4
4.6
63
Africa
0.7
0.3
0.1
1.1
23.6
0.4
3.1
3.8
32.9
1.2
0.2
0.3
1.7
Transition economies
0.6
0.1
0.6
1.3
World
59.4
2.4
23.9
6.9
7.4
100
Source: 838
Developed
countries
Developed countries
Africa
Africa
Asia and
Oceania
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Transition
economies
World
9.7
23.2
20.1
27.2
16.8
19.4
14.7
20.2
18.1
36.0
27.7
23.3
17.9
23.9
17.8
28.3
23.5
22.3
16.5
25.9
21.9
23.3
25.5
22.6
Transition economies
12.1
19.1
17.5
26.6
12.6
17.6
World
14.2
22.5
19.1
28.3
21.2
21.0
Source: 838
17
0RVWFRXQWULHVWKDWFRQGXFWKRXVHKROG,&7VXUYH\V
inquire about the activities carried out over the
Internet, such as making online purchases. Some
go further into consumer e-commerce behaviour,
capturing data about the types of products
purchased, the amounts spent, whether purchases
were domestic or international, payment and
delivery methods and reasons for not making online
purchases.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Thailand
Mexico
South Africa
Mauritius
Romania
Oman
Turkey
Bulgaria
United Arab Emirates
Italy
Portugal
Estonia
Greece
Hungary
Brazil
Qatar
Croatia
Lithuania
Cyprus
China
Czech Repuplic
Latvia
Poland
Spain
Hong Kong (China)
Slovenia
Slovakia
Iceland
Belgium
Ireland
Singapore
Malta
Republic of Korea
Switzerland
France
Japan
Austria
Canada
Finland
New Zealand
Netherlands
United States
Norway
Sweden
Luxembourg
Germany
Australia
Denmark
United Kingdom
10
18
)LJXUH},, 6KDUHRI,QWHUQHWXVHUVLQYROYHGLQRQOLQHSXUFKDVHDQGVRFLDOQHWZRUNLQJVHOHFWHGFRXQWULHVt
SHUFHQW
Social networking
Online purchase
100
80
60
40
United Kingdom
United States
Germany
Japan
France
China
Russian Federation
Poland
Spain
Brazil
Greece
Czech Republic
India
Italy
Turkey
Lebanon
Tunisia
Mexico
Egypt
20
Source: 81&7$'DGDSWHGIURPQDWLRQDOVXUYH\V(XURVWDWDQG3HZ
$QHVWLPDWHG}ELOOLRQSHRSOHDURXQGWKHZRUOGPDGH
DW OHDVW RQH RQOLQH SXUFKDVH LQ DFFRXQWLQJ
IRU } SHU FHQW RI DOO ,QWHUQHW XVHUV WDEOH} ,, :LWK
VRPH}PLOOLRQRQOLQHVKRSSHUV$VLDDQG2FHDQLD
DFFRXQWHGIRUWKHODUJHVWVKDUH}SHUFHQWZKLFKLV
H[SHFWHGWRJURZIXUWKHUXQWLO:HVWHUQ(XURSH
DQG1RUWK$PHULFDIROORZDFFRXQWLQJIRU}SHUFHQW
DQG}SHUFHQWUHVSHFWLYHO\RIJOREDOGLJLWDOEX\HUV
7DEOH},, (VWLPDWHGQXPEHURIRQOLQHEX\HUVZRUOGZLGHE\UHJLRQDQG
Online buyers as a share of
*URZWK
t
Total
PLOOLRQV
World total of
online buyers
3RSXODWLRQ
Internet users
460.3
782.4
70
42.6
14.9
42.1
Western Europe
182.3
210.2
15
16.9
49
64
North America
172.3
203.8
18
16
59.7
72
93.6
170.6
82
8.7
7.1
31.3
Latin America
84.7
139.3
64
7.8
18.6
28.2
86.4
117.4
36
24.1
41.6
World
Source: H0DUNHWHU-XO\
Note: $JHV,QWHUQHWXVHUVZKRKDYHPDGHDWOHDVWRQHSXUFKDVHYLDDQ\GLJLWDOFKDQQHOGXULQJWKHFDOHQGDU\HDULQFOXGLQJ
RQOLQHPRELOHDQGWDEOHWSXUFKDVHVQXPEHUVPD\QRWDGGXSWRWRWDOGXHWRURXQGLQJ
19
)LJXUH},, 6KDUHRIHQWHUSULVHVUHFHLYLQJRUGHUVRYHUWKH,QWHUQHWE\HQWHUSULVHVL]HVHOHFWHGHFRQRPLHV
ODWHVWDYDLODEOH\HDUSHUFHQW
20
40
60
80
100
120
Source: UNCTAD.
Note: -DSDQGRHVQRWUHSRUWGDWDRQHQWHUSULVHVEHORZHPSOR\HHV
20
)LJXUH},, %&HFRPPHUFHVDOHVE\VHJPHQWVHOHFWHGFRXQWULHVRUODWHVW\HDU
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
Germany
Russian
Brazil
Canada
United
Federation Kingdom (2012
(2011
Online retail
Digital travel
Source: 81&7$'EDVHGRQGDWDIURPH0DUNHWHU3D\YLVLRQDQGRWKHUVRXUFHV
United
States
India
21
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Republic of Korea
United Kingdom
Denmark
Finland
China
Brazil
Ukraine
Singapore
Russian Federation
Argentina
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Chile
Guatemala
Belarus
Mexico
United Arab Emirates
Costa Rica
Thailand
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Colombia
India
Malaysia
Uruguay
Croatia
Morocco
Serbia
Peru
South Africa
Saudi Arabia
Viet Nam
Plurinational State of Bolivia
Indonesia
Kenya
Philippines
Kazakhstan
Egypt
Nigeria
Tunisia
Algeria
Pakistan
Uzbekistan
Source: (XURPRQLWRU
ZHUH WKH KLJKHVW LQ WKH 5HSXEOLF RI .RUHD ZKHUH LW
VWRRGDWDERXW}SHUFHQWLQIROORZHGE\WKH
8QLWHG .LQJGRP DQG 'HQPDUN 7KH KLJKHVW VKDUH
LQ /DWLQ $PHULFD ZDV LQ %UD]LO } SHU FHQW DQG LQ
$IULFDLWZDVKLJKHVWLQ0RURFFR}SHUFHQWZKLOH
the highest share among transition economies was in
8NUDLQH}SHUFHQW
2QOLQHFRQVXPSWLRQSDWWHUQVGLIIHUDFURVVUHJLRQV
but the top categories are fairly consistent. In
WDEOH} ,, WKH WRS YH LWHPV WKDW FRQVXPHUV
LQWHQGHG WR SXUFKDVH RQOLQH LQ KDYH EHHQ
shaded. Travel-related items (such as tours, hotel
reservations and airline tickets) and event tickets
IHDWXUH DPRQJ WKH WRS YH LQ DOO UHJLRQV &ORWKLQJ
and shoes are included for four regions, hardcopy books and e-books for two, and electronic
equipment for one region. In the survey, almost half
of the respondents intended to purchase clothing
or make airline or hotel reservations using an online
device in the next six months. Whereas computers
are the preferred device for making online purchases
in all regions, recent data suggest that mobile
GHYLFHVDUHDYHU\FORVHVHFRQGLQWKH0LGGOH(DVW
DQG$IULFDJXUH},,
22
Asia and
Oceania
Europe
57
41
53
59
44
50
36
50
33
43
42
33
32
43
43
41
40
20
26
29
21
25
34
25
33
34
22
33
23
30
19
22
19
19
21
21
17
14
16
13
15
12
11
9
Middle-East and
Latin America
Africa
26
26
35
39
28
28
25
22
27
29
20
21
23
19
18
15
18
16
14
16
16
11
North America
28
29
32
36
27
31
20
24
18
23
19
19
21
20
14
11
17
11
11
11
10
8
42
30
43
43
22
35
29
31
27
35
21
30
33
21
16
14
24
15
19
12
21
10
Global average
North America
Latin America
$VLDt3DFLF
Europe
Middle East
and Africa
0
20
40
Tablet
Source: 1LHOVHQ
Note: 6HHQRWHWRWDEOH},,
60
Mobile device
80
Computer
100
23
6WDWHVWKHWRSOHDGLQJZHEUHWDLOHUVDFFRXQWHGIRU
DERXWKDOI}SHUFHQWRIWKHWRWDOVDOHVE\WKHWRS
web merchants. In the more diverse and fragmented
(XURSHDQPDUNHWWKHWRSDFFRXQWHGIRU}SHUFHQW
RIWKHVDOHVE\WKHWRSZHEUHWDLOHUVLQDQG
WKHWRSIRU}SHUFHQW7KHOHYHORIFRQFHQWUDWLRQLV
KLJKHULQ$VLDZKHUHWKHFRPELQHGVDOHVRIWKHWRS
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RIWKHUHJLRQpVWRSZHEUHWDLOHUV%\FRPSDULVRQ
WKHVKDUHZDVDERXW}SHUFHQWLQ/DWLQ$PHULFD
B. REGIONAL TRENDS
1. Africa: Dynamic growth from a low
level
Africa remains the region with the lowest penetration of
HFRPPHUFH $V QRWHG DERYH $IULFD DQG WKH 0LGGOH
(DVWLQDFFRXQWHGIRUDERXW}SHUFHQWRIJOREDO
%& HFRPPHUFH 7KHUH DUH IHZ GDWD DW WKH FRXQWU\
level, but estimates for the six countries included in
WDEOH} ,, VKRZ SRVLWLYH JURZWK EHWZHHQ DQG
7KHWDEOH}DOVRLQGLFDWHVWKDW(J\SWKDGE\IDUWKH
largest e-commerce sales among the six.
7DEOH},, /DUJHVW,QWHUQHWUHWDLOHUFRPSDQLHVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV(XURSH$VLDDQG/DWLQ$PHULFDt
United States
Europe
Asia
Latin America
Otto (Germany)
Rakuten (Japan)
360Buy.com (China)
Netshoes (Brazil)
Jia.com (China)
1HWL[8QLWHG6WDWHV
CDiscount.com (France)
Tengelmann (Germany)
51Buy.com (China)
2IFH'HSRW8QLWHG6WDWHV
HappiGo (China)
10
Vamcl (China)
Share (%) of
top 500 sales
52%
37%
86%
51%
24
Box II.2.
:KHQWKH$OLEDED*URXSZDVOLVWHGRQWKH1HZ<RUN6WRFN([FKDQJHLQLWZDVLQLWLDOO\YDOXHGDWPRUHWKDQ
}ELOOLRQPDNLQJLWRQHRIWKHODUJHVWFRPSDQLHVE\PDUNHWFDSLWDOL]DWLRQLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVa,QLWKDG
}PLOOLRQDFWLYHXVHUVPDNLQJRQDYHUDJHSXUFKDVHVD\HDUWRWDOLQJPRUHWKDQ}ELOOLRQRUGHUVDQQXDOO\b
Since the Alibaba Group was founded in 1999, it has quickly grown to become the largest online and mobile
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EXVLQHVVHVKDVKHOSHGWRFRQQHFWEX\HUVLQ1RUWK$PHULFDDQG(XURSHZLWKVXSSOLHUVDQGPDQXIDFWXUHUVLQ&KLQD
7KHFRPSDQ\KDVODXQFKHGDQXPEHURIRWKHUUHODWHGEXVLQHVVHVVXFKDV%%RQOLQHZHESRUWDOVRQOLQHUHWDLODQG
payment services, a shopping search engine and data-centric cloud computing services which collectively are
UHSRUWHGWRSRZHU}SHUFHQWRIDOORQOLQHFRPPHUFHLQ&KLQD
7KH$OLEDED*URXSLQFOXGHVFRPSDQLHVWKDWSURYLGHDGLYHUVHUDQJHRIHFRPPHUFHVROXWLRQV
$OLEDED &ORXG &RPSXWLQJ ZZZDOL\XQFRP $ SURYLGHU RI FORXG FRPSXWLQJ VHUYLFHV WR EXVLQHVVHV DQG
HQWUHSUHQHXUV
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IXWXUHVDOHVDQGSURGXFWVWKDWDUHOLNHO\WREHLQKLJKGHPDQG
$OLSD\FRP$QRQOLQHSD\PHQWVROXWLRQSURYLGHUWKDWKDVEHFRPHWKHZRUOGOHDGHUZLWKDWUDQVDFWLRQYROXPHRI
}ELOOLRQLQ6RPH}SHUFHQWRI&KLQHVHRQOLQHFXVWRPHUVSUHIHUWRSD\ZLWK$OLSD\3D\YLVLRQ
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7KH$OLEDED*URXSKDVUHFHQWO\HQJDJHGLQYDULRXVLQWHUQDWLRQDOLQYHVWPHQWV)RUH[DPSOHLQ0D\LWDQQRXQFHG
DQDJUHHPHQWXQGHUZKLFK$OLEDED,QYHVWPHQW/WGZLOOWDNHD}SHUFHQWVWDNHLQ6LQJ3RVWXSRQFRPSOHWLRQc
$OLEDEDKDVIXUWKHUPRUHHQWHUHGDQDJUHHPHQWZLWK$XVWUDOLD3RVWWRKHOSPRUH$XVWUDOLDQPHUFKDQWVVHOOWR&KLQHVH
FRQVXPHUV WKURXJK 7PDOO $ GHDO ZDV DOVR DQQRXQFHG ZLWK RQOLQH VKRSSLQJ PDOO /RWWHFRP DQG WKH -DSDQHVH
HFRPPHUFHFRPSDQ\5DNXWHQRSHQLQJWKHFRPSDQ\WRUHWDLOHUVLQWKH5HSXEOLFRI.RUHDDQG-DSDQUHVSHFWLYHO\d
Source: UNCTAD, based on various sources.
a
6HHSUHVVUHOHDVHq6LQJ3RVWDQG$OLEDED*URXSWRIRUPVWUDWHJLFFROODERUDWLRQWRJURZLQWHUQDWLRQDOHFRPPHUFH
ORJLVWLFV EXVLQHVV 0D\ DYDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZVLQJSRVWFRPGRZQORDG$ERXW6LQJ3RVW0HGLD
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6HHq$OLEDEDpVUHFHQWGHDOVDUHSDYLQJWKHZD\IRULWV&KLQHVHPDUNHWSODFHWRJRJOREDOrthenextweb.com}-XQH
7DEOH},, 7RSRQOLQHVLWHVE\JURVVPHUFKDQGLVH
YDOXH}ELOOLRQV
Company
Country of
origin
Gross
merchandise
value
Online
revenues
Alibaba Group
China
170
4.1
Amazon
United States
87.8
61
eBay
United States
67.8
14
Staples
United States
11
11
Rakuten
Japan
15.8
4.7
Wal-Mart
United States
10
10
1HWL[
United States
3.6
3.6
BestBuy
United States
1.7
1.7
Kohl's
United States
1.4
1.4
Target
United States
1.4
1.4
Egypt
2.10
2.50
3.20
3.90
Ethiopia
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
Ghana
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.09
Kenya
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.08
Nigeria
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
South Africa
0.60
0.80
1.10
1.20
Country
25
%DQJODGHVKSLRQHHUHGWKHFUHDWLRQRIDPDUNHWSODFH
accessible to feature phone users. It enabled users
LQ%DQJODGHVKWREX\DQGVHOOYLDDVLPSOHXQVWUXFtured supplementary service data menu, accessible
to virtually all feature phones. Today, it is relatively
common in sub-Saharan Africa to see such services.
(VRNRFRP ZKLFK VWDUWHG DV D SLORW ZLWK )RRG1HW
LQ 8JDQGD LQ KDV OHYHUDJHG WKLV DSSURDFK WR
enable rural farmers to access marketplace informaWLRQYLDVLPSOHVKRUWPHVVDJHVHUYLFH606
6HUYLFHVVXFKDV%LQX2SHUD0LQL6QDSWXZKLFK
ZDV DFTXLUHG E\ )DFHERRN LQ DQG 7XYLWX KDYH
further improved the browsing experience of a feature
phone, making them somewhat mimic the experience
of a smartphone. These applications make it easier
IRU UVWWLPH ,QWHUQHW XVHUV WR JHW RQOLQH ,QWHUQHWRUJ
D FRQVRUWLXP RI FRPSDQLHV WKDW LQFOXGH )DFHERRN
(ULFVVRQDQG6DPVXQJLVDOVROHYHUDJLQJWKLVWHFKQRORJ\
for people that are currently not connected to the Internet.
,Q -XO\ LW ODXQFKHG DQ DSS LQ =DPELD PDNLQJ D
suite of basic websites available at no cost.0HDQZKLOH
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example, the mobile network operator Safaricom now
sells more smartphones than feature phones.%R[},,
illustrates the diversity of the evolving e-commerce
ecosystem in sub-Saharan Africa.
The future of e-commerce in sub-Saharan Africa is
promising. Large e-commerce companies such as
WKRVHPHQWLRQHGLQER[,,DUHEXLOGLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUH
and customer awareness that can be leveraged by
smaller, more nimble startups. As the e-commerce
ecosystem continues to mature, the barriers to entry for
QHZFRPSDQLHVZLOOFRPHGRZQIXUWKHU7KHUVWZDYH
RIqIDVWIROORZHUVrWRWDNHDGYDQWDJHRIWKLVWUHQGLVOLNHO\
to come from African technology hubs like Accra, Cairo,
&DSH 7RZQ +DUDUH .DPSDOD /DJRV DQG 1DLUREL
3OD\HUV WKDW DUH LQYHVWLQJ WRGD\ KDYH WKH SRWHQWLDO WR
build positions in their respective markets. New entrants
will continue to launch competing services, leading to
better quality, further reach and lower cost. At the same
time, as the market matures, major international players
are likely to increase their regional presence.
26
%R[,,
(FRPPHUFHFRPSDQLHVLQVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDtVHOHFWHGH[DPSOHV
A range of e-commerce players have emerged in Africa in recent years, offering different solutions and services. While
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0,+ *URXS1DVSHUV 6RXWK $IULFD LV EHKLQG EUDQGV VXFK DV 2/; 1HZV DQG 3URSHUW\ DQG KDV SUHYLRXVO\
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IURPDWKLUGSDUW\VHOOHUWKURXJKDELGGLQJSURFHVVRUEX\DQLWHPGLUHFWO\IURP%LGRU%X\
9DULRXV HFRPPHUFH SD\PHQW JDWHZD\V KDYH HPHUJHG 7KHVH LQFOXGH EXW DUH QRW OLPLWHG WR L3D\ 3HVD3DO
-DPER3D\ 3DJD .RSR .RSR <R3D\PHQWV 2]LQER * 'LUHFW 3D\ ,QWHUVZLWFK 6LPSOH 3D\ DQG 3D\QRZ 7KH\
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Source: UNCTAD.
27
28
online.,QWKHUHZHUHDERXW}PLOOLRQNQRZQ
cyberattacks in the country. Almost one quarter of all
personal computers in Indonesia have experienced a
malware attack over a three-month period, the highest
SHUFHQWDJH LQ WKH ZRUOG '$.$ $GYLVRU\ ,Q
UHJDUGV WR HFRPPHUFH IUDXG VSHFLFDOO\ ,QGRQHVLD
is number 14 globally. 6SHFLF H[DPSOHV DUH KDUG
WRFLWHDVQDQFLDOIUDXGUHPDLQVXQGHUUHSRUWHG:KLOH
RIFLDOO\ UHSRUWHG QDQFLDO ORVV IURP IUDXG WRWDOHG
LQDFWXDOFRVWVZHUHHVWLPDWHGWREHLQ
WKHKXQGUHGVRI}PLOOLRQV'$.$$GYLVRU\
To improve perceptions of payment vulnerability or
WR VHL]H RQ WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR EHQHW IURP LW WKUHH
telecommunications operators (Indosat, Telkomsel and
;/ LQ 'HFHPEHU ODXQFKHG D SLORW SHHUWRSHHU
electronic transaction service, facilitated by the Central
%DQN$OWKRXJKWKHVHUYLFHKDVEHHQRIIWRDVORZVWDUW
LWPD\EHFRPHSRSXODUVLQFHRQO\DERXWRQHIWKRIWKH
population has access to a bank account.
The Government is working to introduce regulatory
measures to improve e-commerce generally and
F\EHUVHFXULW\ VSHFLFDOO\ 81&7$' D 7KH
(OHFWURQLF6\VWHP3URYLGHUDQG(OHFWURQLF7UDQVDFWLRQ
5HJXODWLRQ UHTXLUHV DQ\RQH ZKR GHDOV
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The aim is to strengthen and empower capacitybuilding of national electronic system providers through
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are also asked to have a data centre within the country
and use the dot id (.id) domain.
%R[,,
29
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$QQXDOVXUYH\VDQGUHSRUWVIURPWKH%UD]LOLDQ,QWHUQHW&RPPLWWHHFRQVWLWXWHDULFKVRXUFHRIQDWLRQDOO\UHSUHVHQWDWLYH
VWDWLVWLFVRQHFRPPHUFH7KHFRXQWU\ERDVWVDVLJQLFDQWHFRPPHUFHFRQVXPHUPDUNHW,Q}PLOOLRQ%UD]LOLDQV
SXUFKDVHGRQOLQHUHSUHVHQWLQJRQHWKLUGRIDOO,QWHUQHWXVHUV0DQ\%UD]LOLDQ,QWHUQHWXVHUVFRQQHFWYLDPRELOHGHYLFHV
and are active on social networks. Generally, e-commerce use is higher among young people and people with high
incomes, good education and living in urban areas.
%UD]LOLDQ HQWHUSULVHV XVH DFFHVV WR WKH ,QWHUQHW DQG ZHE SUHVHQFH IRU LQWHUDFWLQJ ZLWK WKHLU FXVWRPHUV LQ D YDULHW\ RI
ZD\V,Q}SHUFHQWKDGDFFHVVWRWKH,QWHUQHWPRUHWKDQKDOIKDGDZHEVLWHDQG}SHUFHQWKDGRQOLQHVRFLDO
PHGLDSUROHV%UD]LOLDQHQWHUSULVHVKDYHDJUHDWHUSUHVHQFHRQVRFLDOQHWZRUNVWKDQ(XURSHDQEXVLQHVVHVDQGVPDOO
EXVLQHVVHVLQSDUWLFXODUVHHPWRUHO\PRUHRQVRFLDOQHWZRUNSUROHVWKDQRQZHEVLWHV+RZHYHU%UD]LOLDQHQWHUSULVHV
KDYHQRW\HWHPEUDFHGWKHIXOOSRWHQWLDORIHFRPPHUFH:KLOHKDOIRIWKHPERXJKWJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVRQOLQHRQO\}SHU
cent had ventured into selling online.
Source: 6HHKWWSZZZFHWLFEUSHVTXLVDHPSUHVDVLQGLFDGRUHVDFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
WRS ZHE PHUFKDQWV LQ WKH UHJLRQ IRXQG WKDW DV
PDQ\DVRIWKHPZHUHEDVHGLQ%UD]LO%UD]LOLDQ
consumers prefer to use credit cards when purchasing
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WKDW RI %UD]LO DQG $UJHQWLQD GXH WR ORZ FUHGLW FDUG
adoption, unreliable shipping and delivery logistics
and a large gap between upper and lower classes.
0H[LFDQ RQOLQH VKRSSHUV DOVR UHO\ PRUH RQ PRELOH
GHYLFHV,Q}SHUFHQWRIDOO,QWHUQHWXVHUVXVHG
PRELOHGHYLFHVIRURQOLQHVKRSSLQJ0HDQZKLOHFDVK
LVVWLOOSUHIHUUHGRYHUFUHGLWFDUGV3D\YLVLRQ
In the region, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay have
the highest percentage of online shoppers among
,QWHUQHW XVHUV QHDU } SHU FHQW49 3URPLQHQW ORFDO
e-commerce platforms are Garbarino (Argentina),
)DODEHOODDQG&HQFRVXGERWKLQ&KLOH1HYHUWKHOHVV
consumers from the region have a preference to buy
IURPLQWHUQDWLRQDOSODWIRUPV$ERXW}SHUFHQWRIWKH
GLJLWDOEX\HUVLQ%UD]LO&KLOH&RORPELD0H[LFRDQG
3HUX SUHIHU LQWHUQDWLRQDO ZHEVLWHV Argentina is at
the other end of the spectrum with three out of four
consumers opting for local websites.
0HUFDGR/LEUH
0HUFDGR/LEUH KRVWV WKH ODUJHVW RQOLQH HFRPPHUFH SODWIRUP LQ WKH UHJLRQ ZLWK RSHUDWLRQV LQ $UJHQWLQD %UD]LO &KLOH
&RORPELD&RVWD5LFDWKH'RPLQLFDQ5HSXEOLF(FXDGRU0H[LFR3DQDPD3HUX8UXJXD\DQGWKH%ROLYDULDQ5HSXEOLFRI
9HQH]XHODRIIHULQJERWK%&DQG&&VROXWLRQV,QLWPHGLDWHGWUDQVDFWLRQVEHWZHHQ}PLOOLRQXQLTXHVHOOHUVDQG
}PLOOLRQXQLTXHEX\HUVFRQWULEXWLQJWRDJURVVPHUFKDQGLVHYROXPHRI}ELOOLRQ,WRIIHUVVHYHUDOW\SHVRIVHUYLFHV
DQRQOLQHPDUNHWSODFHWKH0HUFDGR3DJRSD\PHQWVVROXWLRQDGYHUWLVLQJFODVVLHGDGYHUWLVHPHQWVDVROXWLRQIRURQOLQH
VWRUHV DQG DQ LQWHJUDWHG VKLSSLQJ VHUYLFH 0HUFDGR/LEUH RULJLQDWHV LQ $UJHQWLQD ZKHUH WKH FRPSDQ\ VWLOO HPSOR\V
approximately half of its staff.
Source: 81&7$'EDVHGRQLQIRUPDWLRQIURPKWWSLQYHVWRUPHUFDGROLEUHFRPVHFOLQJFIP"OLQJ,'
DFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
30
C. CONCLUSIONS
(FRPPHUFH KDV H[SDQGHG VLJQLFDQWO\ LQ WKH SDVW
decade and is expected to continue to grow rapidly
in the coming years. It is estimated by UNCTAD
WKDW JOREDO %% HFRPPHUFH DPRXQWHG WR DERXW
} WULOOLRQ LQ DQG JOREDO %& HFRPPHUFH
WRVRPH}WULOOLRQ:KHUHDV%%DFFRXQWVIRUWKH
overwhelming share of all e-commerce transaction,
%&DSSHDUVWREHJURZLQJIDVWHU
7KH EXON RI WKH ZRUOGpV } ELOOLRQ GLJLWDO EX\HUV
QRZ UHVLGH LQ GHYHORSLQJ FRXQWULHV (FRPPHUFH LQ
GHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVKDVH[SDQGHGVLJQLFDQWO\ZLWK
fast growth documented particularly in Asia. China
has emerged into the global and regional leader in
%& HFRPPHUFH 7KH 0LGGOH (DVW DQG $IULFD DUH
H[SHFWHGWRVHHWKHLUVKDUHRIJOREDO%&HFRPPHUFH
ULVH VOLJKWO\ XQWLO ZKLOH WKDW RI :HVWHUQ (XURSH
and North America is set to decline considerably.
2IFLDODQGFRPSDUDEOHVWDWLVWLFVRQHFRPPHUFHDUH
lacking in most developing and transition economies,
PDNLQJ LW GLIFXOW WR DVVHVV WUHQGV $YDLODEOH GDWD
suggest that cross-border transactions are relatively
more important in developing economies than in
developed countries, where most e-commerce
transactions cater for domestic customers. A number
of factors are constraining e-commerce, such as
unreliable and lengthy transit times and logistics, high
costs of shipment, reluctance to use online payment,
and a lack of transparency on delivery and pricing.
The scope for e-commerce is expanding thanks to
FKDQJHV LQ WHFKQRORJ\ DQG PDUNHWV 5LVLQJ VRFLDO
networking activity, greater reliance on mobile Internet
access (albeit often at reduced speeds) and innovation
in delivery services by the posts and private-sector
entrants are key features of the evolving e-commerce
31
NOTES
1
9
11
14
15
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(accessed
MEASURING
THE E-COMMERCE
READINESS
OF COUNTRIES
34
A. FACTORS
INFLUENCING
THE SCOPE FOR
E-COMMERCE
1. Internet access
Internet access for both buyers and sellers is needed
to conduct online shopping. According to ITU, there
ZHUH } ELOOLRQ ,QWHUQHW XVHUV DFURVV WKH ZRUOG LQ
)LJXUH},,,%&HFRPPHUFHWUDQVDFWLRQSURFHVVHV
Order
Consumer
Business
Payment
Delivery
2QOLQHERRNPXVLFYLGHRHWF
Product
Source: UNCTAD.
35
)LJXUH},,,'LVWULEXWLRQRIVHFXUH,QWHUQHWVHUYHUVSHU}PLOOLRQSHRSOH
High income
827
World
160
42
40
Sub-Saharan Africa
(DVW$VLDDQGWKH3DFLF
1
0
200
400
600
800
1000
36
7DEOH},,, (WUDQVDFWLRQVYDOXHE\SD\PHQWPHWKRGV
E\UHJLRQSHUFHQW
5HJLRQ
Credit
EDirect Cash on Bank
Other
cards wallets debit delivery transfer
United
States and
Canada
71
18
Europe
59
13
11
Latin
America
47
10
13
18
Africa
and Middle
East
34
48
10
Asia
and
Oceania
37
23
11
14
14
World
57
17
12
3. Delivery systems
7KH VFRSH IRU HFRPPHUFH LV LQXHQFHG E\ WKH
TXDOLW\ RI SURGXFW GHOLYHU\ 0DQ\ FRQVXPHUV WXUQ
to e-commerce because of the desirability of
downloading digital products or the convenience
of receiving physical products at their homes.
Weaknesses in the delivery infrastructure can seriously
hamper e-commerce, especially for goods.
)RXUJHQHUDOGHOLYHU\PRGHVFDQEHGLVWLQJXLVKHGIRU
%&
2QOLQHGHOLYHU\RIGLJLWDOSURGXFWVVXFKDVERRNV
YLGHRV PXVLF DQG FRPSXWHU VRIWZDUH )RU WKLV
type, the quality of the Internet connection is a
key factor. AQDQDO\VLVRISDQHOGDWDRYHU\HDUV
IURPFRXQWULHVIRXQGEURDGEDQGSHQHWUDWLRQWR
be among the most important variables explaining
cross-national variability in e-retail spending
.VKHWULHWDO
'HOLYHU\ RI SK\VLFDO SURGXFW :KHQ D JRRG LV
ordered it can be delivered to the buyer through
37
'LJLWDOGHOLYHU\FDQKDSSHQLQVHYHUDOZD\VLQVWDQW
and permanent download to the users computer,
limited download (for example, a rental product
such as a video that expires after a certain time),
streaming or cloud storage. The digital delivery
process is affected by the quality of a buyers
Internet connection. In the case of small digital
products (for example, a song or a book), relatively
VORZ GRZQORDG VSHHGV PD\ VXIFH /DUJHU GLJLWDO
products, such as downloading or streaming videos,
require more bandwidth. The video streaming
Debit
card
Account
at a formal
QDQFLDO
institution
Checks
used to
make
payments
Electronic
payments
used to
make
payments
Mobile
phone
used to
pay bills
Mobile
phone
used to
receive
money
Mobile
phone
used to
send
money
Credit
card
61.4
89.5
33.4
55.2
..
..
..
49.8
34.5
54.9
1.7
6.1
1.3
1.2
6.6
36.4
44.9
3.7
7.8
2.7
2.5
16.2
28.8
39.3
3.9
10.3
1.8
1.9
0.8
18.4
9.1
17.7
4.1
2.2
2.4
1.3
2.4
South Asia
7.2
33
6.6
1.6
1.9
0.8
1.6
5HJLRQVJURXSV
Sub-Saharan Africa
World
15.5
24
3.3
14.6
11.2
2.9
2.2
Source: *OREDO)LQDQFLDO,QFOXVLRQ'DWDEDVH
Note: (OHFWURQLFSD\PHQWVUHIHUVWRWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIUHVSRQGHQWVZKRXVHGHOHFWURQLFSD\PHQWVSD\PHQWVWKDWRQHPDNHVRU
WKDWDUHPDGHDXWRPDWLFDOO\LQFOXGLQJZLUHWUDQVIHUVRUSD\PHQWVPDGHRQOLQHLQWKHSDVWPRQWKVWRPDNHSD\PHQWVRQ
bills or to buy things using money from their accounts.
38
7DEOH},,, 6SHHGVQHHGHGIRUYLGHRVWUHDPLQJ
Speed
0EV
RI
economies
Comment
0.5
Required broadband
connection speed
100
1.5
Recommended broadband
connection speed
96
86
71
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2000
Source: 838
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
39
WKDWPRVWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQLQ$IULFDDQG2FHDQLDUHWULHYHWKHLUPDLOIURPDSRVWRIFH2YHU}SHUFHQW
of the population in those regions does not have access to postal delivery or pickup. Across the world,
RQO\DERXW}SHUFHQWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQODFNDFFHVV
to postal services.
0DQ\SRVWDOV\VWHPVQHHGWREHFRPHPRUHHIFLHQW
and create products to meet the needs of e-commerce.
Nevertheless, the postal network remains the
most important national infrastructure for universal
access for urban dwellers and, more importantly, for
consumers and producers located outside the urban
areas. The reach of the national postal network in
most countries and its ability to connect to the wider
international postal network makes it a cost effective
PHWKRGIRUFRQQHFWLQJDOOFLWL]HQVDQGEXVLQHVVHVWR
the global e-commerce economy.
)LJXUH},,,6KDUHRISRSXODWLRQVHUYLFHGE\GLIIHUHQWPRGHVRIPDLOGHOLYHU\E\UHJLRQ
Africa
America
Asia
14
36
80
14
14
26
Population without
delivery
94
Oceania
51
60
Developed
economies
100
Transition
economies
98
World
4
0%
14
82
50%
Source: $GDSWHGIURP8383RVWDO6WDWLVWLFVGDWDEDVH
Note: Geographical regions refer to developing countries only.
100%
40
Box III.1.
7KHVHOHFWLRQRILQGLFDWRUVIRUWKH,QGH[ZDVPDGHLQVHYHUDOVWHSV)LUVWO\SUR[\LQGLFDWRUVZHUHDVVLJQHGWRWKH
various components needed to carry out an e-commerce transaction, including payment and delivery. This includes
access to the Internet by the consumer, a web presence to receive the order, a payment method and a delivery
method. Secondly, statistical analysis was performed by regressing these indicators on the percentage of individuals
ZKR KDYH PDGH DQ RQOLQH SXUFKDVH IRU FRXQWULHV ZKHUH VXFK GDWD ZHUH DYDLODEOH ,QGLFDWRUV ZLWK WKH KLJKHVW
VWDWLVWLFDOVLJQLFDQFHZHUHWKHQVHOHFWHGWRFUHDWHWKH,QGH[7KHVHLQGLFDWRUVDUHVKRZQLQWDEOH},,,7KHUHVXOWV
RIWKHUHJUHVVLRQVKRZDJRRGWZLWKDFRHIFLHQWRIGHWHUPLQDWLRQRI$OOLQGLFDWRUVH[FHSWVHFXUHVHUYHUV
DUH LQ D QRUPDWLYH IRUP ZKHUH LV WKH PD[LPXP YDOXH 7KH GDWD RQ VHFXUH VHUYHUV ZHUH QRUPDOL]HG WR
by rescaling the values.15 The values of the indicators were then averaged to obtain the Index value. The Index
FRPSULVHV}HFRQRPLHVZLWKDOODYDLODEOHLQGLFDWRUVXVLQJGDWDIRURUODWHVW\HDUDYDLODEOH7KHIXOOOLVWRI
countries is provided in annex 1.
Source: UNCTAD.
7DEOH},,, ,QGLFDWRUVLQFOXGHGLQWKH81&7$'
B2C E-commerce Index
6RXUFHQRWH
Indicator
Percentage of individuals
using Internet
:RUOG%DQN)LQGH[VXUYH\
149 economies
:RUOG%DQNHFRQRPLHV
838HFRQRPLHV
Source: UNCTAD.
7DEOH},,, 7RSFRXQWULHVLQWKH81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[
Share of population
having mail
delivered at home
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Secure servers
per 1 million people
QRUPDOL]HG
Share of
individuals with
credit card
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals
using Internet
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
UNCTAD B2C
E-commerce
Index value
5DQN
/X[HPERXUJ
100
99
72
95
91.7
Norway
100
97
60
96
88.3
Finland
100
97
64
92
88.1
Canada
100
93
72
83
87.1
Sweden
100
96
54
95
86
Australia
100
95
64
83
85.5
Denmark
100
99
45
95
84.7
Republic of Korea
100
99
56
82
84.3
Economy
United Kingdom
100
94
52
91
84.2
Israel
100
82
80
73
83.9
10
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
41
7DEOH},,, 7RSGHYHORSLQJHFRQRPLHVLQWKH81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[
Share of
population having
mail delivered
at home
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals with
credit card
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals using
,QWHUQHW
or latest,
SHUFHQW
Secure
servers per
1 million people
QRUPDOL]HG
UNCTAD B2C
E-commerce
Index value
5DQN
Republic of Korea
100
56.4
82.1
98.6
84.3
Economy
99.99
58.1
74.2
89.2
80.4
18
Singapore
100
37.3
72
89
74.6
26
Bahrain
100
19.3
73
77.2
67.4
34
Turkey
97
45.1
46
68.9
64.2
38
Chile
94
22.8
61.4
73.9
63
39
Uruguay
92.8
27.1
58
72.1
62.5
40
93
15.3
59.5
73.8
60.4
43
Malaysia
93
11.9
63.6
71.1
59.9
45
80.7
29.2
58
69.9
59.5
47
Brazil
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
7DEOH},,, *OREDOYDOXHVIRUWKH81&7$'%&
E-commerce Index
Home
postal
delivery
RI
population
FRYHUHG
Secure
Internet
Credit
servers
use
card
QRUPDOL]HG
RI
DJHG
YDOXH
SRSXODWLRQ
Average
69
18
44
63
Minimum
11
0D[LPXP
100
80
96
100
Median
93
10
45
64
Source: UNCTAD.
42
7DEOH},,, 5HJLRQDODYHUDJHYDOXHVLQWKH81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[
Share of population
Share of individuals
Share of indiSecure servers per
having mail
using Internet
viduals with credit
1 million people
delivered at home
RUODWHVW
FDUG
QRUPDOL]HG
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
SHUFHQW
SHUFHQW
UNCTAD B2C
E-commerce
Index value
Africa
27
13
43
22
60
14
34
57
41
70
12
44
67
48
Transition economies
94
45
59
52
Developed economies
98
42
79
90
77
Source: UNCTAD.
Note: Includes all countries for which data for any indicator is available.
EX\HUVDVRI-XQH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKRVH
not performing as well as expected tend to be located
LQ &HQWUDO (XURSH 1RUWK $IULFD DQG /DWLQ $PHULFD
6FRULQJDPRQJWKHERWWRPHFRQRPLHVLQWDEOH},,,
indicates considerable potential for increasing the
uptake of e-commerce.
)LJXUH},,, &RUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKH81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[DQGWKHVKDUHRILQGLYLGXDOVVKRSSLQJRQOLQH
100
y = 0.0669e 0.0785x
R = 0.7161
90
80
United Kingdom
70
Germany
60
50
Brazil
40
Russian Federation
30
China
20
Qatar
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
43
7DEOH},,, 7RSDQGERWWRPFRXQWULHVE\GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQSUHGLFWHGDQGDFWXDOVKDUHRISRSXODWLRQEX\LQJ
RQOLQH
7RS
%RWWRP
2QOLQHEX\HUVDVDVKDUHRISRSXODWLRQ
Economy
2QOLQHEX\HUVDVDVKDUHRISRSXODWLRQ
3UHGLFWHG
value
Actual
value
Absolute
difference
difference
0.38
1.8
1.42
380
3UHGLFWHG
value
Actual
value
Armenia
6.9
0.5
-6.4
-92
Economy
Absolute
difference difference
Thailand
China
20
15
262
Ecuador
0.2
-1.7
-88
Russian
Federation
21
12
130
Georgia
7.4
-6.4
-87
Belarus
4.5
7.9
3.4
75
Egypt
4.1
0.6
-3.5
-85
United Kingdom
46
71
25
56
Argentina
11.5
2.8
-8.7
-76
Germany
39
60
21
54
0H[LFR
6.2
1.8
-4.4
-71
France
30
44
14
46
Morocco
5.8
2.1
-3.7
-64
South Africa
2.2
3.1
0.9
42
Uruguay
14.2
5.2
-9
-63
Brazil
14
19
39
The former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia
13.5
5.4
-8.1
-60
10
Australia
47
63
16
35
Colombia
6.4
2.6
-3.8
-60
Source: UNCTAD.
Note: 7KHSUHGLFWHGYDOXHLVFDOFXODWHGXVLQJWKHFRHIFLHQWVJHQHUDWHGE\UHJUHVVLQJSRVWDOGHOLYHU\FRYHUDJHFUHGLWFDUGSHQHWUDWLRQ
Internet penetration and secure servers per capita against the percentage of the population that shops online.
C. CONCLUDING
REMARKS
7KH 81&7$' %& (FRPPHUFH ,QGH[ ZKLFK ZLOO
be updated annually, can serve as a useful tool for
countries wishing to assess their readiness to engage
successfully in online commerce. It allows countries
not only to compare their performance against others
but also indicates where they are relatively strong and
where there may be a need for improvement.
The analysis suggests that the highest-ranked
economies are relatively small, rich and often located
DWVRPHGLVWDQFHIURPPDMRUPDUNHWV0HDQZKLOHLQ
terms of actual levels of online shopping, countries
with relatively large populations such as China, the
5XVVLDQ)HGHUDWLRQDQG%UD]LOtDUHDPRQJWKRVHWKDW
are performing better than what would be predicted
by the Index. This may suggest that a certain scale is
helpful for e-commerce success, as is the presence of
ORFDOL]HGHFRPPHUFHSODWIRUPV
Globally, credit card penetration has the lowest
average value among the four indicators in the Index.
0RVW UHWDLO HFRPPHUFH SD\PHQWV DUH VWLOO PDGH YLD
credit card but the role of other methods is forecast to
expand in the future. As a result, credit card use may
44
NOTES
1
9
11
14
15
E-COMMERCE
BY SMALL
AND RURAL
ENTERPRISES
IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
Micro and small enterprises in most countries tend to lag behind their larger
counterparts in online buying and selling (chapter II). Rural enterprises similarly
trail behind their urban competitors, for various reasons. This chapter looks at
different options for micro and small businesses to engage in e-commerce,
making use of emerging platforms and solutions. It then considers the case
of rural e-commerce by comparing the diverse experience of three countries
in Asia.
46
A. OPTIONS FOR
MICRO AND SMALL
ENTERPRISES
TO ENGAGE IN
E-COMMERCE
0LFUR DQG VPDOO HQWHUSULVHV IDFH YDULRXV EDUULHUV WR
the adoption of e-commerce, such as lack of skills
in identifying their e-commerce needs and potential
EHQHWV DQG KRZ WR HQJDJH LQ LW 6DQGEHUJ DQG
+NDQVVRQ $W WKH VDPH WLPH RSWLRQV DUH
expanding for them to gain an online presence that can
be used to market their goods and services to potential
buyers. Traditional obstacles related to the need for
having in-house resources, IT equipment and expertise
to establish and maintain a web presence have been
lowered with the introduction of new platforms and
solutions. In the following sections, different options for
creating an online presence and for handling payments
DQG RUGHU IXOOPHQW DUH GLVFXVVHG DQG HYDOXDWHG $V
will be shown, in many developing countries small
businesses still face barriers when wanting to leverage
some international e-commerce platforms and solutions.
%R[,9 3ODWIRUPFRPSHWLWLRQLQWKH3KLOLSSLQHV
7KH3KLOLSSLQHVERDVWVDUDSLGO\H[SDQGLQJPDUNHWIRUHFRPPHUFHZLWKRQOLQHWUDQVDFWLRQVFXUUHQWO\YDOXHGDWDERXW
}ELOOLRQa This has led both local and international platform providers to offer innovative e-commerce solutions to small
businesses.
$PRQJGRPHVWLF&&ZHEVLWHVVXOLWFRPSKLVRQHRIWKHPRVWSRSXODUZLWK}PLOOLRQYLVLWRUVDVRI0DUFKb It was
IRXQGHGDVDJHQHUDOFODVVLHGDGYHUWLVHPHQWVZHEVLWHLQ6HSWHPEHU$IWHUDYHQWXUHLQWRYHUWLFDOPDUNHWVVXFKDV
FDUVVXOLWFRPSKDQGUHDOHVWDWHVXOLWFRPSKLWPHUJHGZLWKWKH2/;QHWZRUNLQ$QRWKHUGRPHVWLFSODWIRUP8QLTO\
XQLTO\QHWRIIHUVDFRPSOHWHHFRPPHUFHVROXWLRQDJDLQVWD}SHUFHQWFRPPLVVLRQRQWUDQVDFWLRQV,WDOORZVFXVWRPHUV
to create an online store across multiple platforms and helps them manage products, orders and payments via credit
FDUG3D\3DORUEDQNGHSRVLW7KHFRPSDQ\DOVRKHOSVZLWKRUGHUIXOOPHQW,WKDVSDUWQHUHGZLWKDGHOLYHU\FRPSDQ\WR
ship products from the merchant to the customer. Uniqly also integrates with various social media websites.
$PRQJWKHIRUHLJQSURYLGHUVH%D\KDVEHHQLQWKH3KLOLSSLQHVVLQFHDQGKDVH[SDQGHGE\ODXQFKLQJWKHJURXS
EX\LQJGLVFRXQWVLWH.XSRQDQ$OL([SUHVVZKLFKLVSDUWRIWKH$OLEDED*URXSLVOHYHUDJLQJLWVJOREDOSODWIRUPWRDOORZ
3KLOLSSLQHVKRSSHUVWRSXUFKDVHSURGXFWVGLUHFWO\IURP&KLQD2QWKHVXSSO\VLGHLWKDVPRUHWKDQVHOOHUVLQWKH
3KLOLSSLQHVLWVHOI/D]DGDFRPSKDQRWKHUPDMRURQOLQHUHWDLOHULVRZQHGE\5RFNHW,QWHUQHW*HUPDQ\$UHFHQWHQWU\LQ
WKH3KLOLSSLQHVLV6LQJDSRUHEDVHGVWDUWXS7DFN7KLVWDFNWKLVFRPSK
&RPSHWLWLRQDPRQJWKHSODWIRUPSURYLGHUVEHQHWVLQGLYLGXDOVDQGVPDOOEXVLQHVVHV%HFDXVHPRVWSURYLGHUVRSHUDWH
on an advertising or commission basis, online merchants can use several simultaneously. Hence, there is an opportunity
to establish a presence on a global platform to reach customers overseas while using a domestic provider to target local
GHPDQG0DQ\FRPSDQLHVDOVRHVWDEOLVKWKHLURZQZHEVLWHVWRVXSSOHPHQWWKHLUVRFLDOPHGLDDQGSODWIRUPSUHVHQFH
Source: UNCTAD.
a
q,VLWWLPHWREHEXOOLVKRQHFRPPHUFHLQWKH3KLOLSSLQHV"r+XIQJWRQ3RVW2FWREHUDYDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZ
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6HHqSRSXODUHFRPPHUFHVLWHVLQWKH3KLOLSSLQHVrTechinAsia}-XO\DYDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZWHFKLQDVLD
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47
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international supply chains
2QOLQH%%PDUNHWSODFHVFDQSURYLGHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUVXSSOLHUVLQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVWRDFFHVVWKHH[SRUWPDUNHW
DQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOVXSSO\FKDLQV([DPSOHVRIGHGLFDWHG%%VLWHVLQFOXGH,QGLDpVODUJHVWRQOLQH%%PDUNHWSODFHIRUVPDOO
DQGPHGLXPVL]HGEXVLQHVVHV,QGLD0DUWFRPa(&FRPtD%%PDUNHWSODFHRIWKH5HSXEOLFRI.RUHDZLWK}PLOOLRQ
PHPEHUVbDQG.HQ\DWUDGHNH\FRPZLWKUHJLVWHUHGPHPEHUVc Alibaba.com (China), provides a range of services
to facilitate sourcing Chinese products from overseas.
Source: UNCTAD.
6HHKWWSZZZLQGLDPDUWFRPFRUSRUDWHDERXWXVKWPODFFHVVHG-XO\
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WR VHOO RQ WKH ,QGLDEDVHG %& RQOLQH PDUNHWSODFHV
)OLSNDUWFRP and Snapdeal.com. %\ FRQWUDVW
RQ H%D\LQ D && RQOLQH PDUNHWSODFH WKHUH LV QR
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involve higher risks, due to the physical separation
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The geographical focus of the marketplace is
important. International online marketplaces may
be open to international sellers only, to international
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ER[ ,, HQDEOHV VHOOHUV RQO\ IURP PDLQODQG &KLQD4
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&KLQD ,QGLD WKH 5XVVLDQ )HGHUDWLRQ DQG WKH 8QLWHG
States.5%\FRQWUDVW(WV\FRP an international online
marketplace for handmade and vintage goods, is
open to both international buyers and sellers. As will
be discussed in the next section, however, merchants
in developing countries are not always able to sell their
products on international e-commerce platforms. Some
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0HUFDGR/LEUH LV WKH ODUJHVW RQOLQH PDUNHWSODFH LQ
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ER[ ,, 0HDQZKLOH RWKHUV FDWHU SULPDULO\ WR WKH
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DQG}SHUFHQWRIYLVLWRUVWR/DPRGDUXDUHIURPWKH
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Governments support national postal operators to
offer e-commerce platforms for local producers.9
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products, such as physical goods, digital products or
,&7HQDEOHGVHUYLFHV)RULQVWDQFH&KHNLLVDqYHUWLFDO
FODVVLHGVr SRUWDO IRU FDU OLVWLQJV ZLWK D SUHVHQFH LQ
48
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ZRUOGLQWHUPVRIJURVVPHUFKDQGLVHYDOXHFKDSWHU},,
and one of the worlds leading online auction sites,
on which individuals and enterprises can buy and sell
YDULRXV QHZ DQG XVHG LWHPV H%D\ FDQ LQ SULQFLSOH
be used by small enterprises to access international
markets. The full service spectrum offered includes
bidding, buying, selling and support services of
shipping, language translation services and data
analytic tools.
7DEOH},9 $FFHVVWRGLIIHUHQW$PD]RQVHUYLFHV
Service
RIIHUHG
limitations
No. of
countries
Seller registration
is supported
23
50
..
Notes
Items buyers
outside of the
United States are
not allowed to buy
via Amazon
Currencies
supported
(ISO currency
code)
Source: 81&7$'DQDO\VLVRILQIRUPDWLRQRQZZZDPD]RQFRP
VHHDQQH[
$VLQWKHFDVHRI$PD]RQFRPWKHIXOOUDQJHRIVHUYLFHV
is only available in the United States. There are three
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sites are maintained as a buy-only version, which means
that users can register to carry out bidding and buying
but not to sell. Among the countries with international
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,QGLD 0DOD\VLD WKH 3KLOLSSLQHV 6LQJDSRUH 7KDLODQG
DQG9LHW1DPDQQH[}
Number of
sites
Buying
Selling
Global
shipping
Language
translation
Data
analytic tools
7DEOH},9 $FFHVVLELOLW\WRGLIIHUHQWH%D\VHUYLFHV
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United States
site
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
International
sites*
23
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Buy-only sites
172
Yes
No
No
No
No
)RUH[DPSOHWKHFRPSDQ\RIIHUVWKH*OREDO6KLSSLQJ
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handles customs, import charges and allows complete
end-to-end tracking of the items. A seller can aim for
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LQWHUQDWLRQDOEX\HUVYLVLWH%D\FRPWKH\FDQRQO\VHH
OLVWLQJVWKDWRIIHUSRVWDJHWRWKHLUFRXQWU\r19
3. Setting up a stand-alone
e-commerce site
Stand-alone e-commerce sites can be established
LQ GLIIHUHQW ZD\V 2QH LV WR DGG DQ HFRPPHUFH
function to an enterprises existing website. Another
DSSURDFKLVWRXVHDqVRIWZDUHDVDVHUYLFHr6DD6
49
50
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Canada-based Shopify is an SaaS e-commerce platform for selling physical goods such as fashion items, electronics,
VSRUWLQJ JRRGV DQG IXUQLWXUH )RU RQOLQH UHWDLOHUV LW RIIHUV IRU H[DPSOH VLWH WHPSODWHV WKDW FDQ EH FXVWRPL]HG ZLWK
LQWHJUDWHG VKRSSLQJ FDUWV HPDLO PDUNHWLQJ DQG LQYHQWRU\ PDQDJHPHQW /RFDOL]HG YHUVLRQV DUH DYDLODEOH LQ D OLPLWHG
QXPEHU RI GHYHORSLQJ FRXQWULHV LQFOXGLQJ ,QGLD ,QGRQHVLD 0DOD\VLD DQG 6LQJDSRUH ,W DOORZV ERWK LQGLYLGXDOV DQG
merchants to run their own stores without the need for technical know-how to develop or maintain a website. The Indian
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PD[LPXPRISURGXFWV7KH\UHFHLYHJLJDE\WHRIOHVWRUDJHDQGDUHFKDUJHGD}SHUFHQWWUDQVDFWLRQIHHULVLQJWR
}SHUPRQWKWKHKLJKHUSULFHEHLQJDQRSWLRQWKDWKDVQRWUDQVDFWLRQIHHVDQGSURYLGHVDGGLWLRQDOIHDWXUHV
,QWKHODVWZHHNRI$XJXVWVRPHQHZVWRUHVZHUHFUHDWHGXVLQJ6KRSLI\LQD
Source: 7HFKLQDVLDFRP q+RZ 6KRSLI\ SODQV WR EH DQ DGYRFDWH IRU $VLDpV VPDOO RQOLQH UHWDLOHUVr DYDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZ
WHFKLQDVLDFRPVKRSLI\ZDQWVWREHDQDFWLYLVWIRUVPDOOHFRPPHUFHVWRUHVLQDVLDDFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
a
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$PRUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGRSWLRQLVWRFUHDWHDFXVWRPL]HG
e-commerce site by using off-the-shelf software
SDFNDJHV VXFK DV 0DJHQWR RU GHYHORSLQJ DQ
entirely new site, which would allow for complete
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VRPH FXVWRPL]DWLRQ RI IXQFWLRQDOLWLHV DQG IHDWXUHV
available in the package. While the main advantage is
WKHVFRSHIRUWDLORULQJWKHRQOLQHVWRUHWRWKHVSHFLF
needs of the enterprise, it is a costly option that
requires considerable in-house IT capabilities.
4. Processing of payments
As highlighted in chapter III, having access to
competitive payment solutions is a critical facilitator of
e-commerce. While credit cards account for the main
share of retail e-commerce settlements in developed
FRXQWULHVWKLVLVQRWWKHFDVHHYHU\ZKHUHWDEOH},,,
While payments can be received in different ways via
credit cards, most of them require sellers to have a
bank account, which can be a challenge for microbusinesses or self-employed merchants in developing
countries. In this section, three options for enabling
RQOLQH SD\PHQWV DUH GLVFXVVHG XVLQJ WKH SD\PHQW
function embedded in a third-party e-commerce
SODWIRUP D WKLUGSDUW\ SD\PHQW JDWHZD\ DQG D
payment gateway linked to a merchant account.
DV3D\3DODFFRXQWV,WSURYLGHVPXOWLSOHVROXWLRQVWKDW
can be integrated into a website as a shopping cart,
DQGFXVWRPL]DEOHSD\PHQWEXWWRQVIRUH[DPSOHWKH
q3D\ 1RZr EXWWRQ 3D\3DO VHUYLFHV DUH DYDLODEOH IRU
JHRJUDSKLFDO ORFDWLRQV LQFOXGLQJ 8QLWHG
1DWLRQV 0HPEHU 6WDWHV WDEOH} ,9 A distinction
FDQ EH PDGH EHWZHHQ WKUHH W\SHV RI VHUYLFHV (a)
VHQGLQJ DQG UHFHLYLQJ PRQH\ E SD\PHQW ZLWK D
3D\3DO DFFRXQW EDQN DFFRXQW RU FUHGLW RU GHELW
FDUGDFFRXQWFVKRSSLQJRQOLQH7KHVHVHUYLFHVDUH
SDFNDJHGLQWRWKUHHDFFRXQWW\SHVWDEOH},9
The business account, which is the most relevant for
online merchants that are registered businesses, is
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SUHPLHU DFFRXQW ZKLFK LV DYDLODEOH LQ 8QLWHG
1DWLRQV0HPEHU6WDWHVPDNHVLWSRVVLEOHWRUHFHLYH
money from online transactions (credit and debit
card) by selling online, but is designed for individuals
ZKRDUHQRWLQIXOOWLPHEXVLQHVVRSHUDWLRQV)LQDOO\
the personal account, which can be used by informal
enterprises, enables the sending of money and
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0HPEHU6WDWHV)RUH[DPSOHDVPDOOEXVLQHVVLQ6UL
/DQNDFDQRSHQD3D\3DODFFRXQWDQGVHQGPRQH\
outside Sri Lanka but not use it to receive money
from abroad.
Currency limitations represent another potential
EDUULHU 3D\3DO LV OLPLWHG WR W\SHV RI FXUUHQFLHV
7DEOH},9 *HRJUDSKLFDOFRYHUDJHRIGLIIHUHQW
3D\3DOVHUYLFHV
Type of account
Number of
countries in
which account
is available
Personal accounts
173
Premier accounts
90
Business accounts
73
5HPDUNV
Send and receive money
at individual capacity
Personal account functions
as well as accepting credit/
debit cards, yet individual
capacity
Full functions including
bank account access,
employee access, etc.,
at the registered
business operations
Source: 81&7$'DQDO\VLVRILQIRUPDWLRQIURP3D\3DOVHH
DQQH[}
a
51
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currency types. Such limitations add transaction
costs and demand more expert knowledge to navigate
through national exchange policies. )XUWKHUPRUH
international payments, especially to developed
countries, have to meet various compliance/antimoney-laundering regulations. This involves, among
other things, completing, signing and providing
YDULRXVFRPSOLDQFHGRFXPHQWV)RUPLFURDQGVPDOO
HQWHUSULVHVWKLVFDQUHSUHVHQWDVLJQLFDQWFKDOOHQJH
but one which may, at least partially, be alleviated
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2UGHUIXOOPHQW
$V HPSKDVL]HG DERYH RUGHU IXOOPHQW LV DQ
essential element of e-commerce. If the seller
is unable to deliver the item, the buyer has no
reason to trust the seller or, more generally, the
PDUNHWSODFH 2UGHU IXOOPHQW LQYROYHV LQYHQWRU\
storage and management, packing the order,
shipping, providing customer services and taking
care of returns and exchanges. Attending to the
full range of related activities can quickly become a
time-consuming task for a small business, making
third-party e-commerce platforms that offer order
IXOOPHQWVHUYLFHVPRUHDWWUDFWLYH
3RRU ORJLVWLFDO LQIUDVWUXFWXUH KDV OHG VRPH
e-commerce companies to establish in-house
GHOLYHU\V\VWHPV,Q1LJHULDIRUH[DPSOHWKH-XPLD
e-commerce portal runs its own system to deliver
52
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6PDOO HQWHUSULVHV LQ ORZLQFRPH FRXQWULHV QHHG WR RYHUFRPH VLJQLFDQW EDUULHUV EHIRUH WKH\ FDQ IXOO\ EHQHW IURP
e-commerce. They need knowledge of and technical capabilities for available solutions, access to online payment
VROXWLRQVFRVWHIIHFWLYHORJLVWLFVDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRILPSRUWUHTXLUHPHQWVDQGVFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQH[SRUWPDUNHWV
awareness and reputation of the sellers and their goods, and improved customer service.
7KH,7&VXSSRUWVVPDOOHQWHUSULVHVLQGLIIHUHQWZD\VLQWKLVFRQWH[W)RUH[DPSOHDSURWRW\SHSODWIRUPZDVEXLOWZLWKLQ
WKH3$&,5SURMHFWHQDEOLQJIDVKLRQDQGDFFHVVRU\SURGXFHUVIURP&WHGp,YRLUHWRPDUNHWWKHLUSURGXFWVRQOLQH6LQFH
,7& KDV FRDFKHG VHOHFWHG ORFDO FRPSDQLHV RQ WKHLU PDUNHWLQJ DQG EUDQGLQJ VWUDWHJLHV DQG KHOSHG WKHP WR
RYHUFRPHNH\EDUULHUVWRVHOOLQJSURGXFWVRQOLQH:LWKWKHODXQFKRIWKHq,YRU\0DOOrORFDOSURGXFHUVLQWKLVVHFWRUKDYH
IRXQGDQHZFKDQQHOIRUH[SRUWLQJWKHLUJRRGVWR(XURSH
2QH RI WKH FKDOOHQJHV FRQFHUQV WKH LVVXH RI FRPSOLDQFH 7KLV ZDV DGGUHVVHG E\ UVW KDYLQJ HQWUHSUHQHXUV XQLWHG
EHKLQGRQHVLQJOHGLVWULEXWRUa,7&WKHQKHOSHGWKHGLVWULEXWRUWRFRPSO\ZLWKWKHWHUPVDQGFRQGLWLRQVRI&KHFN2XW
com for merchants and to prepare the needed documents. ITC also helped prepare the e-commerce website and
PDNHLWFRPSOLDQWZLWKWKHWHUPVRIFRQGLWLRQV)LQDOO\DSSURYDOZDVREWDLQHGIRUWKHVLWHLYRU\PDOOFRPWRPDUNHW
PRUH WKDQ SURGXFWV IURP EUDQGV PDGH LQ $IULFD DQG DFFHSW RQOLQH SD\PHQW ZLWK 9LVD 0DVWHU&DUG DQG
3D\3DO
Source: UNCTAD, based on information provided by ITC.
a
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GXFDGUHGHVDIIDLUHVDFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
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Ukraine to receive money.447KHq3D\3DOIRU6UL/DQNDr
FDPSDLJQ ZKLFK VWDUWHG LWV DFWLYLWLHV LQ KDV
DWWUDFWHG VRPH VXSSRUWHUV DSSHDOLQJ WR WKH
*RYHUQPHQWRI6UL/DQNDDQG3D\3DOWRZRUNWRJHWKHU
WRQGDVROXWLRQ45
0RUHRYHU HYHQ ZKHQ WKH\ DUH DFFHVVLEOH JOREDO
e-commerce platforms do not always provide solutions
to overcome domestic barriers experienced in the
GHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHV)RULQVWDQFHH%D\RU$PD]RQ
do not provide support for border administration
when importers face problems of customs clearance
RU GRPHVWLF WUDQVSRUW $FFHVV WR 3D\3DO GRHV
not guarantee that payments can be seamlessly
transferred through each local bank where banking
LQIUDVWUXFWXUH LV QRW HIFLHQW )RU H[DPSOH LQ .HQ\D
(TXLW\ %DQN UHDFKHG DQ H[FOXVLYH DUUDQJHPHQW ZLWK
3D\3DOIRUFDVKZLWKGUDZDOV
The absence of global platform providers creates
VFRSHIRUORFDOSOD\HUVWROOWKHYRLG,QVXE6DKDUDQ
Africa, for example, a number of e-commerce
payment gateways have been created. These include
,QWHUVZLWFK -DPER3D\ 2]LQER 3DJD 3D\QRZ
3HVD3DO6LPSOH3D\*'LUHFW3D\DQG<R3D\PHQWV
which all facilitate payment via mobile phones.
,Q%DQJODGHVKVHYHUDOHFRPPHUFHVLWHVDUHWDUJHWLQJ
WKHGRPHVWLFPDUNHW&OLFN%' is one of the largest of
WKHVH )ROORZLQJ EURDGO\ WKH H%D\ IRUPDW LW RSHUDWHV
with a huge community of buyers and sellers, trading
DZLGHUDQJHRILWHPV%XLOWE\DORFDO,7HQJLQHHUFXP
HQWUHSUHQHXU LW RIIHUV ERWK ELGGLQJ DQG [HGSULFH
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a prepaid card. Another popular site is Akhoni.com,
53
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WR SRSXODU PRELOH SD\PHQWV VXFK DV E.DVK49 The
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homegrown e-commerce company has emerged as an
alternative e-commerce platform for small enterprises to
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examples cited above from Africa and Asia illustrate
the importance of local solutions complementing those
offered by global e-commerce companies.
B. OPPORTUNITIES FOR
RURAL ENTERPRISES
TO SELL ONLINE
The lingering ruralurban divide in terms of access to
affordable ICT services represents a barrier for rural
enterprises wishing to leverage ICTs in their activities.
:KHUHDVDVPXFKDV}SHUFHQWRIUXUDOSRSXODWLRQV
are now covered by a mobile signal, there has been
less progress in terms of Internet access, and less still
ZLWKUHJDUGWREURDGEDQG3DUWQHUVKLSRQ0HDVXULQJ
,&7IRU'HYHORSPHQW
In considering the potential of rural e-commerce, it is
important to understand the variety of products typically
produced by micro and small enterprises. Not every
product is necessarily a good candidate for online sales.
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)UHVK IRRG VXFK DV YHJHWDEOHV PHDW DQG
VK 7KHVH SURGXFWV DUH GLIFXOW WR VHOO GXH WR
SHULVKDELOLW\ 8QOHVV WKHUH LV DQ HIFLHQW GHOLYHU\
network and necessary packaging (for example, ice
packs) it may not be possible to get the product to
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is generic and requires some kind of distinction to
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:LWKRYHUSURGXFWVLQFDWHJRULHVDQGDQDQQXDOWXUQRYHURIRYHU}PLOOLRQ.DSUXNDLVWKHODUJHVWHFRPPHUFH
company in Sri Lanka. An important part of its business strategy is to help local entrepreneurs overcome barriers to e-commerce.
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7KDQNV WR DJUHHPHQWV ZLWK WKH &HQWUDO %DQN DQG WKH LQWHUQDWLRQDO RQOLQH FDUG DXWKHQWLFDWLRQ RUJDQL]DWLRQ 9HUL6LJQ
.DSUXNDFDQDFFHSWORFDOFXUUHQF\WUDQVDFWLRQV,WKHOSVEX\HUVFKRRVHLWHPVLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOPDUNHWVDQGRSWLPL]HWKH
prices and offerings of various international sites before placing an order.
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FKDUJHVDQGWD[HV,QUHVSRQVH.DSUXNDKDVGHYHORSHGDQqLPSRUWVLPXODWRUrWKDWDOORZVORFDOEX\HUVWRFXWDQGSDVWH
items from global websites that generate accurate estimates about shipping cost, taxes and also potential landing dates.
This solution operates in concert with warehouses in the United States and Sri Lanka, and handles overall shipping
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agreements with various global brands to ensure smooth operations.
Source: UNCTAD.
54
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are home to abundant agricultural resources, such
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DQG PXVKURRPV ,Q YLOODJHUV VWDUWHG VHOOLQJ
agricultural products through popular Chinese
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had set up a store with annual sales exceeding
}PLOOLRQ}PLOOLRQ9LOODJHUVOHYHUDJHGJURZLQJ
demand for bamboo products such as charcoal,
shoots and furniture, as well as organically grown
vegetables and herbs. Surging sales helped to drive the
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WKHVL]HRIEDPERRIRUHVWVPRUHWKDQGRXEOHGIURP
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store has become a new employment channel for
college graduates, and laid-off or migrant workers.
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HVWLPDWHGWRH[FHHGDQGWKHQXPEHURIRQOLQH
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marketing agricultural products but also tourism to
attract visitors.
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concluded between Suichang County and Taobao.
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e-commerce merchants have set up online stores on
this marketplace.
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on how to operate an online store are available to
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services by professional photographers and by using
image processing techniques. The Association also
encourages experienced members to share their
skills in online store design and with regard to fraud
prevention. In the area of shipping and delivery, the
Association negotiates prices with express delivery
companies on behalf of members. Its distribution
centre aggregates products to achieve economies of
scale for shipping, which helps to reduce the costs of
logistics.
The local government has contributed in different
ways. It has upgraded transport conditions through
the construction of roads to remote areas and a major
highway linking the province to Chinas superhighway
network. The infrastructure of ICTs is being improved
55
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of each of the information villages.
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have relatively low visibility, and maintenance and
upgrading are done in-house with limited resources.
Another challenge is convincing merchants about
the importance of quality control and that the
products they sell should be relevant for potential
EX\HUV 2QOLQH RUGHULQJ DQG SD\PHQW DUH SRVVLEOH
but orders are routed to a central location. Sellers
are contacted to dispatch the product with payment
eventually wired to the merchants bank account. As
a result, the platform is used more as a marketing
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sometimes caused problems with merchants being
slow to dispatch products or imposters posing as
buyers tricking the sellers to provide details about
their bank accounts.
Apart from the telecentre initiatives, the Government
has developed another website for the sale of
UXUDO SURGXFWV KWWSWKDLODQGPDOOQHW DFFHVVHG
}-DQXDU\+RZHYHUWKLVVLWHDOVRVXIIHUVIURP
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countrys popular commercial online shopping sites,
only one visits thailandmall.net.5XUDOHQWUHSUHQHXUV
have instead turned to social media to advertise their
SURGXFWVZLWKVDOHVW\SLFDOO\WDNLQJSODFHRILQH
58
HFRPPHUFH)LUVWDNH\UROHLVWRFUHDWHDQHQDEOLQJ
environment, with roads, broadband access, logistics
and appropriate legislation for carrying out e-commerce
DQG IDFLOLWDWLQJ RQOLQH SD\PHQWV 5XUDO HFRPPHUFH
will not be successful unless villagers have access to
the Internet and can deliver their products as well as
safely receive payments. Additional policy measures
used in China include tax breaks, preferential loans and
construction of distribution warehouses.
Second, rather than developing governmentowned websites, a more effective approach may
be to work in partnership with popular existing
e-commerce platforms and create a link to rural
products. This saves Governments from having to
devote resources to developing an e-commerce site
IURPVFUDWFK0RUHRYHUH[LVWLQJSRUWDOVDUHW\SLFDOO\
more visible with a large client base. In Thailand,
government-developed platforms have suffered from
low visibility and limited maintenance. In China, by
contrast, villagers linked up with existing sites with
VXFFHVVIXOUHVXOWV,QWKH5HSXEOLFRI.RUHDDVZHOO
an agreement was made to market rural products to
the wider reach of a privately owned online shopping
site.
Third, Governments can endorse rural e-commerce
portals to enhance trust among potential buyers and
create economies of scale by uniting rural products
under a well-marketed government campaign. In the
5HSXEOLF RI .RUHD WKH *RYHUQPHQW FUHDWHG D OLWWOH
JUHHQPDQORJRDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLWV,19,/HFRPPHUFH
programme. In addition, Governments can raise
the visibility of e-commerce through advertising
(billboards, radio and television advertisements,
Internet ads, and the like) to encourage consumers
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processes and fair trade can also help to make
products more attractive. Here merchants may
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villagers in how to leverage e-commerce tools. This
may include alerting them about popular e-commerce
sites, teaching them how to create compelling
advertisements and stressing the importance of good
quality and rapid delivery. Some farmers may be too
busy or lack the inclination for Internet tasks. In this
case it may be necessary to involve intermediaries to
provide assistance.
59
NOTES
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MAPPING
THE LEGAL
LANDSCAPE
FOR E-COMMERCE
64
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relevant laws in four legal areas that are essential
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e-transaction, consumer protection, privacy and
data protection, and cybercrime is generally high in
developed countries, but inadequate in many other
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Among the four areas, adoption is generally the
highest for e-transaction laws and the lowest for laws
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the unavailability of data for some countries. As the
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regularly updated, member States are encouraged to
provide any missing information on their e-commerce
legislation to the UNCTAD secretariat.
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America, seven out of eight countries have consumer
protection legislation in place, but most lack laws
related to data protection and cybercrime. The
subregion with the weakest coverage of e-commerce
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nine countries have laws related to e-transactions,
consumer protection online and data protection, and
only one has cybercrime legislation in place.
Governments of developing countries face various
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Laws are often adopted too late by Governments
attempting to keep up with dynamic and
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time the laws are passed they are often obsolete,
and the activities that they seek to regulate may have
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principles are often even more delayed, resulting in
variations of legal frameworks among nation States
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8QLRQ &RQYHQWLRQ RQ &\EHU 6HFXULW\ DQG 3HUVRQDO
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institutions that lack capacity are often given a
new e-commerce mandate without the provision
of additional resources. This frequently results in
the new mandate being relegated to the non-core
functions of the institution.
Surveys by UNCTAD of government representatives
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the Caribbean1 point to the need to build awareness
and knowledge among lawmakers and the judiciary
in order to formulate informed policies and laws in the
area of e-commerce and to enforce them effectively.
65
E-transaction
ODZV
Consumer protection
ODZV
3ULYDF\DQGGDWD
SURWHFWLRQODZV
Cybercrime laws
Africa
Eastern Africa
18
38.9
16.7
27.8
50.0
Middle Africa
22.2
22.2
22.2
11.1
Northern Africa
83.3
33.3
50.0
66.7
Southern Africa
60.0
40.0
20.0
40.0
Western Africa
16
50.0
56.3
62.5
37.5
75.0
50.0
25.0
50.0
Developed economies
Developing economies
Eastern Asia
11
81.8
81.8
54.5
72.7
Southern Asia
77.8
22.2
44.4
66.7
Western Asia
12
91.7
33.3
25.0
58.3
Oceania
12
41.7
8.3
0.0
33.3
Central America
75.0
87.5
37.5
37.5
South America
12
83.3
75.0
66.7
75.0
Caribbean
13
84.6
15.4
38.5
69.2
Transition economies
South-Eastern Asia
All economies
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
)LJXUH}9 &KDOOHQJHVWRWKHHQDFWPHQWRIHFRPPHUFHOHJLVODWLRQLQVHOHFWHGGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVt
3HUFHQWDJHRIUHVSRQGHQWV
Funding issues
Privacy
Cybercrime
20
40
60
80
100
66
)LJXUH}9 &KDOOHQJHVWRWKHHQIRUFHPHQWRIHFRPPHUFHOHJLVODWLRQLQVHOHFWHGGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVt
3HUFHQWDJHRIUHVSRQGHQWV
Funding issues
E-transactions
Consumer protection
Privacy
Inadequate ICT
infrastructure
Cybercrime
10
20
30
40
50
60
Source: UNCTAD.
B. COMPATIBILITY OF
E-TRANSACTION
LAWS NEEDED FOR
CROSS-BORDER
E-COMMERCE
A prerequisite for conducting commercial transactions
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paper-based and electronic forms of exchange, which
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have already been adopted by 145 countries, of which
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laws and 19 for which data are lacking. While four out
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by the legislative standards prepared by the United
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Light blue countries with draft legislation
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
67
9LROHWtFRXQWULHVZLWKQROHJLVODWLRQ
Grey countries with no data
68
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RQ 81&,75$/ RU RWKHU XQLIRUP WH[WV YDULDWLRQV H[LVW
posing challenges for both domestic and crossborder e-commerce. Different e-transaction laws
provide different standards for what constitutes
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is illustrative. Its member States were required to
LPSOHPHQW WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ 'LUHFWLYH (&
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which established the legal framework for e-signatures
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as the national regimes adopted to implement the
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DQG WKH &RXQFLO RI WKH (XURSHDQ 8QLRQ LQ -XO\
C. COVERAGE OF
CONSUMER
PROTECTION ONLINE
IS PATCHY
Consumer policy seeks to address imbalances
between businesses and consumers in all forms
of commerce by ensuring that consumers are
7DEOH}9 7\SHVRIHVLJQDWXUHVUHFRJQL]HGE\ODZLQ$6($1PHPEHU6WDWHV
All legal
signatures
Brunei Darussalam
$OOOHJDOVLJQDWXUHVEXWDGYDQFHGTXDOLHG
signatures are associated with legal
presumptions, while simple
signatures are not
qWZRWLHUDSSURDFKr
Only
DGYDQFHG
TXDOLHG
signatures
Only signatures
associated
ZLWKDVSHFLF
technology
HJ3.,
Cambodia
Indonesia
Malaysia
Myanmar
X
X
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Viet Nam
Source: 81&7$'D
X
X
X
69
70
)LJXUH}9 :RUOGPDSRIODZVDGGUHVVLQJFRQVXPHUSURWHFWLRQRQOLQH
Legend
'DUNEOXHtFRXQWULHVZLWKOHJLVODWLRQ
Light blue countries with draft legislation
9LROHWtFRXQWULHVZLWKQROHJLVODWLRQ
Grey countries with no data
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
D. DATA PROTECTION
LAWS ARE
SPREADING RAPIDLY
In the digital economy, personal data have become the
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vast amounts of information are transmitted, stored and
collected online, enabled by improvements in computing
and communication power. In this environment, security
of information is of growing concern to Governments,
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the collection, use and sharing of personal information
7DEOH}9 7RSORFDWLRQVRIFRQVXPHUVDQG
companies involved in online complaints,
Top consumer
locations
United States
Number of
complaints
13 445
Top company
locations
Number of
complaints
United States
4 731
Australia
1 914
China
3 996
France
1 100
United Kingdom
1 213
United Kingdom
767
India
469
Canada
694
Canada
285
Brazil
555
Australia
264
Israel
448
France
246
Argentina
341
Germany
220
India
311
0H[LFR
158
Spain
295
Spain
144
Source: HFRQVXPHUJRY)HGHUDO7UDGH&RPPLVVLRQ
71
3HUFHQWDJHRI
LQFLGHQWV
United States
1054
48.7
United Kingdom
120
5.5
Canada
58
2.7
India
50
2.3
Brazil
44
Germany
35
1.6
Country
Australia
30
1.4
Italy
29
1.3
France
29
1.3
New Zealand
23
1.1
72
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Legend
'DUNEOXHtFRXQWULHVZLWKOHJLVODWLRQ
Light blue countries with draft legislation
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
9LROHWtFRXQWULHVZLWKQROHJLVODWLRQ
Grey countries with no data
Box V.2.
73
,QHPHUJLQJHFRPPHUFHLQVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDGDWDEUHDFKHVKDYHWKXVIDUEHHQODUJHO\RILQHOLQNHGWRDXWRPDWLF
teller-machine and point-of-sale terminal fraud. There have been various incidents of skimming devices that record a
SD\PHQWFDUGpVGHWDLOV2QOLQHIUDXGDOVRRFFXUVDQGLWVSUHYDOHQFHZLOOLQFUHDVHDVPRUHDQGPRUHFRQVXPHUVFRPH
online. Several e-commerce marketplaces have put in place mechanisms to handle the risk of fraud.
2/; t DQ RQOLQH FODVVLHGV VLWH SUHVHQW LQ .HQ\D DQG PDQ\ RWKHU FRXQWULHV t DGKHUHV WR WKH q6DIH +DUERXU 3ULYDF\
3ULQFLSOHVRIQRWLFHFKRLFHRQZDUGWUDQVIHUVHFXULW\GDWDLQWHJULW\DFFHVVDQGHQIRUFHPHQWr,QLWVWHUPVRIVHUYLFHLW
outlines how data are collected, used and shared, as well as what measures are taken to protect an individuals data. If
XVHUVVXVSHFWWKDWWKHLUSULYDF\KDVEHHQYLRODWHGRURWKHUZLVHFRPSURPLVHG2/;HQFRXUDJHVWKHPWRUHSRUWWKHLVVXH
ZLWKWKHVXEMHFWOLQHqSULYDF\SROLF\rXVLQJ2/;pVqOHJDOLVVXHVUHSRUWIRUPr
*'LUHFW3D\LVDQHFRPPHUFHSD\PHQWJDWHZD\WKDWVHUYHVPRUHWKDQWUDYHODQGWRXURSHUDWRUVWKURXJKRXW(DVW
Africa. It approaches data security in much the same way as a bank. As a card processor, it handles sensitive payment
FDUGGDWDWKDWLIVWROHQFDQEHXVHGWRLQLWLDWHFDUGSD\PHQWVZLWKRXWWKHFDUGRZQHUpVFRQVHQW7RPLWLJDWHWKLV*
'LUHFW3D\KDVLPSOHPHQWHGDVXLWHRIVHFXULW\IHDWXUHVWRHQFU\SWDQGSURWHFWGDWDIURPHQGWRHQGFRPSO\LQJZLWKOHYHO
RIWKH3D\PHQW&DUG,QGXVWU\'DWD6HFXULW\6WDQGDUGVHHKWWSVZZZSFLVHFXULW\VWDQGDUGVRUJDFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
7KHFRPSDQ\DOVRSURDFWLYHO\PRQLWRUVFDUGXVDJHWUHQGVWRGHWHFWDQGPLWLJDWHIUDXGDWWHPSWV
$FFRUGLQJ WR LWV SULYDF\ SROLF\ =RRP 7DQ]DQLD t D KRUL]RQWDO FODVVLHGV VHUYLFH t FRPPLWV WR QHYHU VKDULQJ SHUVRQDO
GHWDLOV qH[FHSW ZKHQ UHTXLUHG E\ ODZ RU ZLWK WKH XVHUpV H[SUHVV SHUPLVVLRQr 7KH FRPSDQ\pV EXVLQHVV PRGHO LV WR
encourage user-generated content and then sell advertising space through an internal advertising network, which enables
it to advertise to users without compromising or sharing their personal information.
Source: UNCTAD.
E. CYBERCRIME A
GLOBAL PRIORITY
Cybercrime is of growing concern to countries at all
levels of development and affects both buyers and
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supplier revenue due to online fraud (CyberSource,
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E\ WKH (XURSHDQ &RQVXPHU &HQWUHV 1HWZRUN (&&
Net) were related to fraudulent websites, used cars
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denominator among them is that consumers are lured
by the advertisement of cheap or free products and
the preferred method of payment for the fraudsters is
money transfer.
Such incidents highlight the challenges facing
consumers online. While some crimes committed on
the Internet have been around for many years, their
use has rapidly expanded, in terms of the number of
incidents and geographic reach. Cybercrimes can be
74
F. CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
:KLOHOHJDOKDUPRQL]DWLRQKDVEHHQDPXFKWRXWHGJRDO
RISROLF\PDNHUVLQWKHSDVWLWLVLQFUHDVLQJO\UHFRJQL]HG
that compatibility and interoperability between different
legal systems is a more achievable target and one which
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ZLWK D FHUWDLQ GHJUHH RI OHJDO KDUPRQL]DWLRQ GLIIHUHQW
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2QOLQHIUDXGLQ,QGLD
75
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Legend
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Light blue countries with draft legislation
9LROHWtFRXQWULHVZLWKQROHJLVODWLRQ
Grey countries with no data
Source: 81&7$'VHHDQQH[
76
,QWHJUDWLQJGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVLQWKHUHJLRQDODQGJOREDOF\EHUHFRQRP\
7KH (&& DLPV WR SURPRWH WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI XQLIRUP OHJLVODWLRQ DQG WR HQKDQFH OHJDO FHUWDLQW\ DQG FRPPHUFLDO
SUHGLFWDELOLW\ZKHUHHOHFWURQLFFRPPXQLFDWLRQVDUHXVHGLQUHODWLRQWRLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQWUDFWV7KH&RQYHQWLRQIXOOVIRXU
PDLQJRDOV
It facilitates the use of electronic communications contained in treaties drafted before the widespread use of those
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,WXSGDWHVFHUWDLQSURYLVLRQVRIWKH81&,75$/0RGHO/DZVVXFKDVWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHSDUWLHVWKHWLPHDQGSODFH
RI GLVSDWFK DQG UHFHLSW DQG WKH IXQFWLRQDO HTXLYDOHQFH IRU qVLJQDWXUHr ZKLFK LQ SUDFWLFH HQDEOHV FURVVERUGHU
recognition of all types of e-signatures. It also introduces new provisions such as the use of automated message
V\VWHPVLQYLWDWLRQWRPDNHRIIHUVDQGWKHOLNH
,WSURYLGHVFRUHSURYLVLRQVRQHWUDQVDFWLRQVWRHQVXUHUHJLRQDODQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOKDUPRQL]DWLRQ
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77
81&7$'DVVLVWDQFHZLWKSDUWQHUV
In support of developing countries efforts in this area, UNCTAD assists in the preparation and revision of e-commerce
ODZVDOLJQHGZLWKLQWHUQDWLRQDODQGUHJLRQDOLQVWUXPHQWV7KHDVVLVWDQFHSURYLGHGLQWKHKDUPRQL]DWLRQRIHFRPPHUFH
OHJLVODWLRQDFURVVUHJLRQVLQWKH$6($1WKH(DVW$IULFDQ&RPPXQLW\($&(&2:$6/DWLQ$PHULFDDQG&HQWUDO$PHULFD
has created an impetus for countries to push for the adoption of national laws in this area. The work has involved close
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WKH(&2:$6&RPPLVVLRQWKH$VRFLDFLQ/DWLQRDPHULFDQDGH,QWHJUDFLQDQGWKH6HFUHWDULDWRIWKH6LVWHPD(FRQPLFR
Latinoamericano y del Caribe.
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and Spain. Capacity-building activities have strengthened the knowledge of policy and lawmakers on legal issues of
e-commerce and international best practice, allowing them to formulate laws in line with their regional frameworks.
Several agencies are assisting developing countries within the scope of their mandates, and inter-agency collaboration
LVJURZLQJ7ZRH[DPSOHVRIVXFKFRRSHUDWLRQDUHWKHEULHQJRI&RPPRQZHDOWKSDUOLDPHQWDULDQVVHUYLFHGE\81&7$'
DQG RUJDQL]HG MRLQWO\ ZLWK WKH &RPPRQZHDOWK 7HOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ 2UJDQL]DWLRQ DQG WKH &RPPRQZHDOWK 3DUOLDPHQWDU\
$VVRFLDWLRQDWWKHRFFDVLRQRIWKH&RPPRQZHDOWK&\EHUVHFXULW\)RUXP$QRWKHUH[DPSOHLVWKHMRLQWZRUNVKRSRQ
WKHKDUPRQL]DWLRQRIF\EHUOHJLVODWLRQLQ(&2:$6*KDQD0DUFKRUJDQL]HGE\81&7$'ZLWK81&,75$/WKH$IULFDQ
&HQWUHIRU&\EHUODZDQG&\EHUFULPH3UHYHQWLRQWKH&RXQFLORI(XURSHDQGWKH&RPPRQZHDOWK&\EHUFULPH,QLWLDWLYH
UNCTAD has built a network of institutions with which consolidated partnerships are concluded within the different project
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mapping is available online and countries are invited and encouraged to contribute to keeping this database up-to-date.
Source: UNCTAD.
78
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laws in Uganda
79
NOTES
1
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11
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14
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15
19
Hacking here refers to the gaining of access (wanted or unwanted) to a computer and viewing, copying, or creating
data (leaving a trace) without the intention of destroying data or maliciously harming the computer.
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WKHZRUOGVF\EHUFULPHKRWVSRWVDFFHVVHG}-DQXDU\
6HH2(&'DQG'LUHFWLYH(8RIWKH(XURSHDQ3DUOLDPHQWDQGWKH&RXQFLORI(XURSHRI$XJXVW
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q8QGHUVWDQGLQJ F\EHUFULPLQDOVr 6WUDLW 7LPHV )HEUXDU\ $QG LQ ,QGLD WKH 'HOKL 3ROLFH F\EHUFULPH FHOO
KDGRQO\WZRLQVSHFWRUVDVRI1RYHPEHUVHHKWWSZZZKLQGXVWDQWLPHVFRP,QGLDQHZV1HZ'HOKL&\EHU
FULPHXSE\LQ&DSLWDO$UWLFOHDVS[DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\VHHDOVR.VKHWUL
6RPHFRXQWULHVKDYHDOUHDG\PRGLHGWKHLUGRPHVWLFOHJLVODWLRQLQOLQHZLWKWKHVXEVWDQWLYHSURYLVLRQVRIWKH(&&
IRUH[DPSOH6LQJDSRUHDQG$XVWUDOLDtWKHODWWHUQRWEHLQJ\HWD6WDWHSDUW\WRWKH(&&
5HFRPPHQGDWLRQRIWKH&RXQFLOFRQFHUQLQJ*XLGHOLQHVIRU3URWHFWLQJ&RQVXPHUVIURP)UDXGXOHQWDQG'HFHSWLYH
&RPPHUFLDO 3UDFWLFHV $FURVV %RUGHUV 5HFRPPHQGDWLRQ RI WKH &RXQFLO RQ &URVVERUGHU &RRSHUDWLRQ RQ WKH
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5HGUHVVDQG5HFRPPHQGDWLRQRIWKH&RXQFLORQ&RQVXPHU3ROLF\'HFLVLRQ0DNLQJ
6HHKWWSXQFWDGRUJ6HFWLRQVGLWFBFFSEGRFV81*&3B'UDIW5HSRUWBHQSGIDFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\
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STRATEGY
AND POLICY
IMPLICATIONS
As the digital economy expands and more and more business activities are
affected, strategies which enable companies across different sectors and
sizes to engage in e-commerce are becoming increasingly relevant. In this
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of e-commerce. Such a strategy needs to facilitate the ability of producers to
sell online and of consumers and other buyers to purchase online. Effective
national policies in areas such as ICT infrastructure development, logistics
and trade facilitation, the legal and regulatory environment, e-procurement,
e-payments, platforms, awareness-raising and skills development in
combination with an enabling international environment are essential to
enable domestic and cross-border e-commerce.
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stakeholders, can help create an environment that is more conducive to
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and risks. Special attention is devoted to measures to facilitate the effective
involvement of micro and small enterprises. In the second part of the chapter,
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82
A. NATIONAL POLICIES
AND STRATEGIES
TO ENABLE
E-COMMERCE
1. Strategic approaches to the
development of e-commerce
(a) Developing a national e-commerce
strategy
Governments have a crucial role to play in creating
an economic environment conducive to e-commerce
and for making e-commerce an integral part of policies
toward a more inclusive information society. In this
context, they need to identify how e-commerce may
support various objectives in the countrys national
development agenda and ensure that the e-commerce
dimension is integrated into national ICT master plans.
&OHDUO\ GHQHG REMHFWLYHV DQG UHFRJQLWLRQ RI SRVVLEOH
FRQFHUQVDUHDUVWVWHSWRIRUPXODWLQJUHOHYDQWSROLFLHV
Developing a national e-commerce strategy which is
effective and actionable is challenging. Though it is
essential for countries to learn from the best practices
RI RWKHU FRXQWULHV WKHUH LV QR RQHVL]HWVDOO
formula to apply. Subsequently, it is incumbent upon
Governments to adapt any approach to their countrys
capacities, priorities and needs.
)LUVW*RYHUQPHQWVPD\ZDQWWRJLYHVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQ
to micro and small enterprises as they tend to lag
behind in e-commerce and are also among those likely
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retail) or certain parts of the country (for example, rural
areas). Third, a strategy may distinguish between efforts
to promote domestic and cross-border e-commerce
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evolving, including with regard to mobile devices,
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there may be a need to encourage the development of
e-commerce platforms, delivery systems and payment
solutions that are tailored to local needs, languages
and cultures, involving both public and private-sector
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the broader implications of an increased reliance on
e-commerce. Implications may relate to the distribution
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Box VI.1.
83
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FROOHFWHGE\DOOFRXQWULHVEDVHGRQDJUHHGGHQLWLRQVDQGVXJJHVWHGEUHDNGRZQVa They are kept to a minimum to limit
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3URSRUWLRQRILQGLYLGXDOVXVLQJWKH,QWHUQHWE\W\SHRIDFWLYLW\LQFOXGLQJq3XUFKDVLQJRURUGHULQJJRRGVRUVHUYLFHVr
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WKHUHVRXUFHVWRXQGHUWDNHVXUYH\VLWPD\EHXVHIXOWRFRQVLGHUHIIRUWVXQGHUWDNHQE\%UD]LOWKH5HSXEOLFRI.RUHDDQG
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Internet, on the method of payment, on the problems experienced when purchasing, and on reasons not to shop through
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The way orders for goods and services were received (email, fax, direct contact, other).
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6DOHVYLDDZHEVLWHDQGYLD(',W\SHPHVVDJHVSHUFHQWDJHRIWRWDOVDOHV
Source: UNCTAD.
a
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81&7$'
84
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Assessment
(or reassessment)
Monitoring
Source: UNCTAD.
Strategy
formulation
Implementation
%\-XO\SRVWVSODQWRVWDUWRIIHULQJDQHZRSWLRQDO
parcel service responding to the expanding need among
online retailers to move their wares across borders. In
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DSSURYHGVSHFLFDWLRQVIRUDVHUYLFHFRYHULQJLWHPVXS
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an item arrives in the destination country. Items delivered
under the new service will not require a signature on
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qSUHDGYLFH GDWDr RI SDFNDJH FRQWHQWV WR FXVWRPV
authorities, a measure expected to improve customs
clearance. The new service is part of a global integrated
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WKH QHHGV RI HFRPPHUFH VWDNHKROGHUV 7KH 3RVWDO
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return service, which will make it easier for customers to
return unwanted goods to online retailers abroad.
Source: q838JLYHVJOREDOHFRPPHUFHDERRVWr838
SUHVVUHOHDVH1RYHPEHU
85
86
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by micro and small enterprises
International trade is out of reach for many micro and
small enterprises. The postal sector can help to make
international trade more inclusive in this context. The
([SRUWD )FLO SURJUDPPH ZDV UVW SLRQHHUHG E\ %UD]LO
3RVW %HWZHHQ DQG ([SRUWD )FLO HQDEOHG
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never previously exported, to access international
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LQ RWKHU FRXQWULHV $V SDUW RI WKH ,QWHJUDWLRQ RI 5HJLRQDO
Infrastructure in South America initiative, the Governments
RI6RXWK$PHULFDQFRXQWULHVVHOHFWHGSURMHFWVZLWK
DKLJKLPSDFWRQSK\VLFDOLQWHJUDWLRQLQWKHUHJLRQ2QHRI
WKHPq([SRUWLQJWKURXJKWKH3RVWIRU060(VrVHHNVWR
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,Q (FXDGRU IRU H[DPSOH LW LV LPSOHPHQWHG E\ SXEOLF
and private postal operators offering logistics services
IRUH[SRUWV&RUUHRVGHO(FXDGRUpV([SRUWD)FLOVXLWHRI
VROXWLRQVLVJHDUHGWRVPDOODQGPHGLXPVL]HGHQWHUSULVHV
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may provide funding, expertise and know-how that
can help the e-commerce sector to expand. At the
same time, in some countries there are concerns that
opening up to global investors may crowd out local
EXVLQHVVHV ER[ 9, 7KXV ERWK WKH SURV DQG WKH
FRQV RI )', LQ GHYHORSLQJ WKH HFRPPHUFH LQGXVWU\
should be examined.
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:LWK VRPH } PLOOLRQ ,QWHUQHW XVHUV LQ ,QGLD
offers a potentially attractive market for foreign
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LQ%%HFRPPHUFH,Q:DO0DUW,QGLDODXQFKHG
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certain wholesale stores are eligible to transact online.a
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foreign companies that are manufacturing in India would
be allowed to sell their products over e-commerce
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are prohibited from selling to Indian consumers. As a
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to compete with local e-commerce companies such
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Shopping. However, foreign companies are allowed to
establish e-marketplace platforms that can offer to sell
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Source: UNCTAD.
a
87
88
B. E-COMMERCE
POLICIES AT THE
INTERNATIONAL
LEVEL
Considering the global nature of the Internet, crossborder e-commerce brings about greater need for
policy coordination at the regional and multilateral level.
A favourable international environment for e-commerce
involves trade rules that are simple, consistent,
transparent, non-discriminatory and enforceable. In view
of national differences and the diversity among countries,
ensuring compatibility among various national regulatory
frameworks for e-commerce is essential but also a major
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With the expansion of e-commerce, new barriers to
international trade are emerging. National legal barriers
VXFK DV VWULQJHQW QDQFLDO OLFHQVLQJ DJUHHPHQWV
and restrictions on the ability of foreign e-commerce
companies to enter and engage in local e-commerce
markets have been noted 6ZHGHQ 1DWLRQDO %RDUG RI
7UDGH . Some measures may aim at protecting
local businesses from foreign competitors. )RUH[DPSOH
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equivalent e-payment features to those provided
through Alipay on the Taobao platform. This reportedly
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In India, foreign e-commerce companies are prohibited
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some Governments and other cloud service customers
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about data being kept on servers in other jurisdictions
.VKHWUL81&7$'E.
International dialogue and cooperation is crucial to
promote the smooth exchange of e-commerce while at
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widely. In the following sections, special attention is given
to international trade rules, taxation challenges, and the
role of development partners in support of capacityEXLOGLQJ 5DWKHU WKDQ DQ H[KDXVWLYH WUHDWPHQW RI WKH
relevant issues, the discussion mainly serves to highlight
some important areas in need of more attention.
89
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a market jurisdiction and conduct substantial sales of
goods and services into that market from a remote
location, combined with increasing ability to conduct
substantial activity with minimal use of personnel,
generates potential opportunities to achieve [base
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operations to avoid taxation.
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RI RQO\ } PLOOLRQ } PLOOLRQ 0RUHRYHU WKH
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90
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7KH81&7$',&7DQGODZUHIRUPSURJUDPPHDVVLVWVFRXQWULHVLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIHFRPPHUFHOHJLVODWLRQ5HOHYDQW
laws should ensure trust in online transactions, ease the conduct of domestic and international trade online, and offer
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LQFOXGHV UHYLHZV RI GUDIW RU H[LVWLQJ OHJLVODWLRQ GUDIWLQJ RI OHJLVODWLRQ KDUPRQL]HG ZLWK UHJLRQDO DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDO OHJDO
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parliamentarians.
A second area in which UNCTAD assists countries concerns the production of statistics on the information economy
to support evidence-based policymaking. Assistance is offered through regional training courses, national workshops
and other advisory services. Core indicators on ICT use by enterprises, including e-commerce, on the value added
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development of methodological reference materials, and of new or improved indicators, is achieved in collaboration with
WKH3DUWQHUVKLSRQ0HDVXULQJ,&7IRU'HYHORSPHQWWRHQVXUHLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRPSDUDELOLW\DQGHIIHFWLYHXVHRIDYDLODEOH
expertise and resources.
UNCTAD can undertake national ICT policy reviews upon request. Such reviews seek to assist countries in building and
maintaining a dynamic and responsive ICT policy environment. They aim to ensure that national ICT programmes become an
instrument for supporting national development, helping local industry compete in a knowledge-based, global economy, and
promoting economic growth and exports. The focus of the reviews is determined in a dialogue with the requesting country.
)RUH[DPSOHWKH*RYHUQPHQWRI(J\SWLQUHTXHVWHG81&7$'WRDVVLVWLQLWVGHYHORSPHQWRIDQDWLRQDOHFRPPHUFH
strategy, establishing short-, medium- and long-term targets and policy recommendations for implementation.
81&7$'DOVRRIIHUVDWUDLQLQJFRXUVHHQWLWOHG(FRPPHUFHIRU3UDFWLWLRQHUV7KLVLVGHVLJQHGWRKHOSLGHQWLI\FKDOOHQJHV
RI HFRPPHUFH PD[LPL]H LWV SRVLWLYH LPSDFW RQ EXVLQHVVHV DQG IRVWHU G\QDPLF DQG UHOLDEOH HFRPPHUFH VROXWLRQV LQ
developing countries. The course equips participants to engage in structural reforms, promoting e-commerce or setting up
new businesses.
Source: UNCTAD.
C. CONCLUDING
REMARKS
The global landscape for e-commerce is evolving
rapidly. With the changing ICT landscape, the past
decade has seen e-commerce transform how
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and across industries in developing countries are
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e-commerce in order to stay competitive. As in other
areas of the world economy, developing countries are
assuming a greater role. Thanks to new technology,
improved connectivity and innovative business
models, e-commerce is becoming relevant also in lowincome countries. Indeed, some of the most dynamic
developments are witnessed in parts of sub-Saharan
Africa and Asia.
Nonetheless, there is scope for making the
e-commerce phenomenon more inclusive and
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which enterprises are using ICTs to buy and sell
goods and services varies greatly, indicating that the
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to be done to bridge the remaining gaps in access
to the Internet and to make such access more
affordable. Similarly, the availability of e-commerce
platforms and payment solutions leveraging
technology can be further improved in many
developing countries in ways that correspond to
WKHLUVSHFLFQHHGVDQGFDSDELOLWLHV(IIRUWVLQWKRVH
areas should be complemented with improvements
in the legal framework at national and international
levels to foster trust in online commerce.
It is well worth pursuing such efforts. There are
VLJQLFDQW EHQHWV WR EH DFKLHYHG IRU FRQVXPHUV
enterprises and Governments from a higher reliance
on e-commerce. New evidence presented in this
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gains from selling on the Internet and that such effects
are particularly important for smaller enterprises and in
VHUYLFHVLQGXVWULHV(QKDQFLQJWKHDELOLW\RIPLFURDQG
small enterprises to explore e-commerce options, to
tap the emerging opportunities in online retail and to
integrate better in global supply chains would help to
unleash their potential and spur economic growth in
developing countries.
91
92
NOTES
1
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93
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&\EHU6RXUFHOnline Fraud Report: Online Payment Fraud Trends, Merchant Practices, and Benchmarks. 14th annual edition. CyberSource Corporation.
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'$.$$GYLVRU\-DNDUWD
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)DON0DQG+DJVWHQ((FRPPHUFHWUHQGVDQGLPSDFWVDFURVV(XURSH%DFNJURXQGSDSHUSUHSDUHGIRU
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the way forward. ITU. Geneva.
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Journal of Production Economicst
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study. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development.t
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5HSXEOLFRI.RUHD0LQLVWU\RI6HFXULW\DQG3XEOLF$GPLQLVWUDWLRQYearbook of Information Society Statistics 2012. Seoul.
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6DQGEHUJ.:DQG+NDQVVRQ)%DUULHUVWRDGDSWHFRPPHUFHE\UXUDOPLFURHQWHUSULVHVLQ6ZHGHQ
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6WDWLVWLFV.RUHD(FRPPHUFHDQGF\EHUVKRSSLQJVXUYH\LQDQGLQWKHIRXUWKTXDUWHU$YDLODEOHDWKWWSNRVWDWJRNUSRUWDOHQJOLVKQHZVLQGH[ERDUGDFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\
6WLURK.-DQG-RUJHQVRQ':,QIRUPDWLRQWHFKQRORJ\DQGJURZWKAmerican Economic Review.t
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Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Developmentt
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7HU]L17KHLPSDFWRIHFRPPHUFHRQLQWHUQDWLRQDOWUDGHDQGHPSOR\PHQWProcedia Social and Behavioral Sciences. Proceedings of the 7th International Strategic Management Conference.t
7KDLODQG1DWLRQDO6WDWLVWLFDO2IFHDThe Survey of e-Commerce Status in Thailand.([HFXWLYHVXPPDU\
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integration of developing countries and countries with economies in transition in international trade. Note by
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STATISTICAL
ANNEX
100
$QQH[ 81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[
Share of
population having
mail delivered
at home
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals with
credit card
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals
using Internet
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Secure
servers per
1 million people
QRUPDOL]HG
UNCTAD
E-commerce
Index value
5DQN
/X[HPERXUJ
100
72.4
95.0
99.3
91.7
Norway
100
60.0
96.0
97.4
88.3
Finland
100
63.9
92.0
96.5
88.1
Canada
100
72.3
83.0
93.3
87.1
Sweden
100
53.5
95.0
95.9
86.0
Australia
100
64.2
83.0
94.8
85.5
Denmark
100
44.9
95.0
99.0
84.7
Republic of Korea
100
56.4
82.1
98.6
84.3
Economy
United Kingdom
100
51.6
91.0
94.4
84.2
Israel
100
79.7
73.4
82.4
83.9
10
Netherlands
100
41.4
94.0
100.0
83.8
11
Japan
100
64.4
79.5
90.5
83.6
12
New Zealand
97
59.2
83.0
93.8
83.3
13
Switzerland
99
56.0
78.0
99.4
83.1
14
United States
93
61.9
78.0
95.1
82.0
15
Belgium
100
54.3
83.0
90.5
82.0
16
Ireland
100
55.6
80.0
90.3
81.5
17
100
58.1
74.2
89.2
80.4
18
Malta
100
52.9
70.0
96.1
79.8
19
Germany
100
35.7
86.0
93.5
78.8
20
Austria
99
38.9
82.0
93.6
78.4
21
France
100
37.5
84.0
87.2
77.2
22
Slovenia
100
38.6
74.0
88.1
75.2
23
Estonia
97
30.2
82.0
90.7
75.0
24
Cyprus
98
45.9
66.0
89.1
74.8
25
Singapore
100
37.3
72.0
89.0
74.6
26
Spain
99
41.9
74.0
82.4
74.3
27
Czech Republic
100
26.5
76.0
88.4
72.7
28
Slovakia
99
20.3
81.0
82.2
70.6
29
Latvia
100
19.9
76.0
82.5
69.6
30
Portugal
100
29.6
65.0
80.7
68.8
31
Italy
100
30.5
61.0
80.1
67.9
32
Hungary
100
15.0
74.0
81.8
67.7
33
Bahrain
100
19.3
73.0
77.2
67.4
34
Poland
100
17.7
65.0
83.5
66.5
35
Lithuania
100
13.4
69.0
82.0
66.1
36
STATISTICAL ANNEX
101
$QQH[ 81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[(continued)
Share of
population having
mail delivered
at home
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals with
credit card
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals
using Internet
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Secure
servers per
1 million people
QRUPDOL]HG
UNCTAD
E-commerce
Index value
5DQN
Croatia
79
34.8
68.0
79.7
65.4
37
Turkey
97
45.1
46.0
68.9
64.2
38
Chile
94
22.8
61.4
73.9
63.0
39
Uruguay
93
27.1
58.0
72.1
62.5
40
100
16.5
63.2
69.1
62.2
41
Greece
93
17.5
61.0
76.9
62.1
42
93
15.3
59.5
73.8
60.4
43
Serbia
99
22.6
53.5
65.9
60.1
44
Malaysia
93
11.9
63.6
71.1
59.9
45
Romania
100
11.7
55.0
71.4
59.5
46
Brazil
81
29.2
58.0
69.9
59.5
47
Argentina
93
21.9
54.1
67.6
59.1
48
Bulgaria
90
10.4
56.0
77.4
58.5
49
Russian Federation
100
9.7
53.3
69.0
58.0
50
Lebanon
100
11.4
52.0
67.6
57.7
51
Costa Rica
98
12.2
47.5
72.5
57.6
52
90
11.7
65.4
62.9
57.5
53
Mauritius
100
14.1
37.6
76.3
57.0
54
Albania
100
10.6
54.7
60.7
56.4
55
Georgia
98
8.8
49.0
64.3
55.0
56
Dominican Republic
99
12.2
45.0
61.5
54.5
57
Ukraine
98
19.3
33.7
63.7
53.7
58
Armenia
90
2.3
53.0
67.1
53.1
59
0H[LFR
91
13.0
43.5
63.7
52.8
60
Belarus
100
7.8
39.6
63.5
52.7
61
Moldova
98
2.4
43.4
63.1
51.7
62
Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela
93
10.4
44.1
56.6
51.0
63
Kazakhstan
86
8.6
53.3
55.3
50.8
64
China
100
8.2
44.1
48.1
50.1
65
30.0
85.0
79.8
48.7
66
South Africa
81
7.8
32.0
73.2
48.5
67
Egypt
99
1.4
44.1
47.2
47.9
68
Islamic Republic of
Iran
100
23.9
26.0
39.1
47.3
69
Thailand
95
4.5
28.9
60.6
47.2
70
Economy
102
$QQH[ 81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[(continued)
Share of
population having
mail delivered
at home
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals with
credit card
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals
using Internet
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Secure
servers per
1 million people
QRUPDOL]HG
UNCTAD
E-commerce
Index value
5DQN
Colombia
60
10.2
51.7
65.6
46.9
71
El Salvador
95
5.3
25.5
60.9
46.7
72
Qatar
32.3
69.3
78.3
45.0
73
Tunisia
93
4.3
21.0
60.1
44.6
74
Morocco
72
4.5
53.0
47.6
44.3
75
Ecuador
68
10.2
35.1
63.0
44.1
76
Guatemala
95
6.9
16.0
58.1
44.0
77
Uzbekistan
100
3.4
36.5
35.3
43.8
78
Economy
Sri Lanka
98
3.5
18.3
54.9
43.7
79
Jamaica
50
6.9
46.5
67.9
42.8
80
Oman
26.6
67.0
70.6
42.3
81
Peru
56
10.0
38.2
61.9
41.5
82
India
100
1.8
12.6
48.2
40.6
83
Panama
25
10.7
45.2
73.5
38.6
84
Honduras
75
5.3
18.1
55.1
38.4
85
Pakistan
95
0.7
10.0
39.2
36.2
86
85
2.8
24.3
30.6
35.7
87
Indonesia
75
0.5
15.4
48.6
34.9
88
Sierra Leone
95
2.2
1.3
35.6
33.5
89
Viet Nam
30
1.2
39.5
54.2
31.2
90
Tajikistan
70
1.2
14.5
38.8
31.1
91
Cambodia
75
0.1
4.9
43.0
30.8
92
Zambia
60
3.7
13.5
45.4
30.6
93
Nepal
65
0.6
11.2
44.2
30.2
94
Jordan
10
3.5
41.0
63.8
29.6
95
Madagascar
80
0.0
2.1
33.7
28.9
96
Zimbabwe
45
6.5
17.1
46.5
28.8
97
Nicaragua
44
2.5
13.5
54.4
28.6
98
Plurinational State of
Bolivia
19
4.1
34.2
54.9
28.1
99
Mali
70
0.6
2.2
37.6
27.6
100
Nigeria
35
0.8
32.9
41.4
27.5
101
Afghanistan
65
0.8
5.5
37.0
27.1
102
Mongolia
20
1.9
16.4
62.2
25.1
103
Iraq
65
1.7
7.1
26.6
25.1
104
Angola
15
15.5
16.9
48.1
23.9
105
STATISTICAL ANNEX
103
$QQH[ 81&7$'%&(FRPPHUFH,QGH[(continued)
Share of
population having
mail delivered
at home
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals with
credit card
SHUFHQW
Share of
individuals
using Internet
RUODWHVW
SHUFHQW
Secure
servers per
1 million people
QRUPDOL]HG
UNCTAD
E-commerce
Index value
5DQN
Lao Peoples
Democratic Republic
39
3.1
10.8
37.4
22.6
106
Haiti
40
1.8
9.8
37.7
22.3
107
Swaziland
13.3
20.8
54.8
22.2
108
Ghana
20
2.2
17.1
45.0
21.1
109
Mozambique
35
3.5
4.9
40.9
21.1
110
Botswana
10.7
11.5
56.1
19.6
111
Senegal
0.8
19.2
43.5
17.1
112
Gabon
2.7
8.6
55.4
16.7
113
Kenya
6.1
6.3
49.8
15.6
114
Rwanda
2.8
8.0
44.8
13.9
115
Uganda
1.6
14.7
38.5
13.7
116
Economy
Comoros
1.5
6.0
39.7
13.0
117
Togo
1.0
4.0
46.3
12.9
118
Benin
0.5
3.8
37.7
12.5
119
Liberia
2.7
3.8
36.6
12.0
120
Sudan
15
0.6
21.0
11.2
11.9
121
United Republic of
Tanzania
3.7
4.0
37.8
11.4
122
Malawi
1.4
4.4
36.5
10.8
123
Lesotho
2.5
4.6
31.3
10.1
124
Burkina Faso
0.8
3.7
35.7
10.1
125
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
1.6
1.7
28.5
8.0
126
Burundi
0.6
1.2
27.5
7.7
127
Niger
0.4
1.4
22.9
7.4
128
Central African
Republic
0.6
3.0
25.0
7.1
129
Guinea
1.3
1.5
17.7
6.4
130
Source: 81&7$'EDVHGRQGDWDIURP,78838DQGWKH:RUOG%DQN
104
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X
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X
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X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
Business account
X
X
3UHPLHUDFFRXQW
eBay local
EX\RQO\VLWH
eBay international
site
Bank accounts
supported by Amazon
Countries and
currencies supported
by Amazon
X
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X
3D\3DOVHUYLFHV
eBay services
3HUVRQDODFFRXQW
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
Andorra
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo
Costa Rica
Cte d'Ivoire
Sellers supported to
ship by Amazon
United Nations
Member State
Amazon services
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
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X
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X
X
X
X
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X*
X
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X
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X*
X
X
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X
X
X
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X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
STATISTICAL ANNEX
105
$QQH[ $PD]RQH%D\DQG3D\3DOVHUYLFHVDYDLODELOLW\LQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV0HPEHU6WDWHV(continued)
X
X
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X
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X
Business account
3UHPLHUDFFRXQW
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
eBay local
EX\RQO\VLWH
eBay international
site
Bank accounts
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Countries and
currencies supported
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X
X
X
3D\3DOVHUYLFHV
eBay services
3HUVRQDODFFRXQW
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Peoples Republic
of Korea
Democratic Republic of the
Congo
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji
Finland
France
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
Iraq
Sellers supported to
ship by Amazon
United Nations
Member State
Amazon services
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X*
X
X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
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106
$QQH[ $PD]RQH%D\DQG3D\3DOVHUYLFHVDYDLODELOLW\LQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV0HPEHU6WDWHV(continued)
X
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X
X
X
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Business account
3UHPLHUDFFRXQW
3HUVRQDODFFRXQW
eBay local
EX\RQO\VLWH
eBay international
site
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supported by Amazon
X
X
X
Countries and
currencies supported
by Amazon
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Democratic
Republic
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
/X[HPERXUJ
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Mauritania
Mauritius
0H[LFR
Micronesia (Federated States
of)
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru
3D\3DOVHUYLFHV
eBay services
Sellers supported to
ship by Amazon
United Nations
Member State
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X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
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X
X
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X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
STATISTICAL ANNEX
107
$QQH[ $PD]RQH%D\DQG3D\3DOVHUYLFHVDYDLODELOLW\LQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV0HPEHU6WDWHV(continued)
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currencies supported
by Amazon
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Republic of Korea
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines
Samoa
San Marino
Sao Tome and Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
Somalia
South Africa
3D\3DOVHUYLFHV
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108
$QQH[ $PD]RQH%D\DQG3D\3DOVHUYLFHVDYDLODELOLW\LQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV0HPEHU6WDWHV(continued)
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Spain
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Suriname
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Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
The former Yugoslav Republic
of Macedonia
Timor-Leste
Togo
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United Republic of Tanzania
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STATISTICAL ANNEX
109
$QQH[ $YDLODELOLW\RIOHJLVODWLRQRUGUDIWOHJLVODWLRQLQNH\DUHDVRIF\EHUODZV
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UNCTAD member States
Developed economies
Andorra
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
/X[HPERXUJ
Malta
Monaco
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
San Marino
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States
Holy See
Legislation
Yes
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes*
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Yes*
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no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
Cybercrime
Draft
Legislation
Draft
no data
no data
no data
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110
$QQH[ $YDLODELOLW\RIOHJLVODWLRQRUGUDIWOHJLVODWLRQLQNH\DUHDVRIF\EHUODZV(continued)
Electronic
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UNCTAD member States
Consumer protection
Legislation
Draft
3ULYDF\DQGGDWD
protection
Legislation
Cybercrime
Legislation
Draft
Draft
Legislation
Draft
Burundi
No
Yes
No
Yes
Comoros
No
No
no data
no data
No
Yes
No
Yes
no data
no data
No
No
Djibouti
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
Yes
Eritrea
No
No
No
No
no data
no data
no data
no data
Ethiopia
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Kenya
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Madagascar
No
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Malawi
No
Yes
no data
no data
No
Mauritius
Yes*
no data
no data
Mozambique
No
no data
no data
Rwanda
Yes*
No
Developing economies
Africa
Eastern Africa
Seychelles
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes*
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
no data
no data
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Somalia
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
No
South Sudan
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Uganda
Yes
No
Zambia
Yes*
Zimbabwe
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
no data
No
Yes
Middle Africa
Angola
Cameroon
Yes
Yes
no data
no data
Chad
no data
no data
Congo
Yes*
No
No
no data
no data
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
Yes
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
No
No
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
Yes
No
No
Equatorial Guinea
no data
no data
No
Gabon
no data
no data
Yes
no data
no data
no data
Yes
no data
no data
no data
Northern Africa
Algeria
Yes
no data
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Egypt
Yes
no data
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Libya
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Morocco
Yes
Yes
Sudan
Yes
no data
Tunisia
Yes
Yes
no data
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
STATISTICAL ANNEX
111
$QQH[ $YDLODELOLW\RIOHJLVODWLRQRUGUDIWOHJLVODWLRQLQNH\DUHDVRIF\EHUODZV(continued)
Electronic
transactions
UNCTAD member States
Legislation
Consumer protection
Draft
Legislation
3ULYDF\DQGGDWD
protection
Cybercrime
Draft
Legislation
Draft
Legislation
No
No
Yes
Yes
Draft
Southern Africa
Botswana
Yes
Lesotho
No
Yes
no data
Yes
no data
Namibia
No
Yes
no data
no data
South Africa
Yes*
Yes
Swaziland
Yes
no data
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
no data
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Western Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Cape Verde
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cte d'Ivoire
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Gambia
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ghana
Yes*
Yes
Yes
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No
No
Guinea-Bissau
No
No
Liberia
Yes*
Mali
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Nigeria
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Senegal
Yes*
Sierra Leone
No
Togo
No
Mauritania
Niger
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes*
no data
Yes
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
Mongolia
Yes
no data
Republic of Korea
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Southern Asia
Afghanistan
No
Bangladesh
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Bhutan
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
India
Yes*
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes*
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
no data
no data
Yes
Maldives
No
no data
no data
No
Nepal
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
No
No
Pakistan
Yes*
no data
no data
No
Yes
No
Sri Lanka
Yes*
no data
no data
no data
no data
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
112
$QQH[ $YDLODELOLW\RIOHJLVODWLRQRUGUDIWOHJLVODWLRQLQNH\DUHDVRIF\EHUODZV(continued)
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Legislation
Draft
Consumer protection
Legislation
Draft
3ULYDF\DQGGDWD
protection
Cybercrime
Legislation
Draft
Legislation
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Draft
South-Eastern Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Yes*
Cambodia
No
Yes
Indonesia
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Malaysia
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Myanmar
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Singapore
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Thailand
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Viet Nam
no data
no data
Yes*
no data
no data
Yes
no data
No
Yes
Philippines
Timor-Leste
Yes
no data
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Western Asia
Bahrain
Yes*
Yes
No
Yes
Iraq
Yes
no data
no data
No
Yes
No
Jordan
Yes*
no data
no data
No
Yes
Yes
Kuwait
Yes*
Lebanon
No
Oman
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes*
no data
no data
Yes
Qatar
Yes*
Yes
Saudi Arabia
Yes*
No
No
Yes*
No
Yes
Turkey
Yes
Yes
Yes*
no data
Yemen
Yes
no data
Yes*
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
no data
No
No
Yes
no data
Yes
No
Yes
Oceania
Fiji
Kiribati
no data
no data
Yes
No
No
no data
no data
No
No
Yes
Marshall Islands
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
No
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
No
Nauru
No
No
no data
no data
No
No
No
No
Palau
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
Yes
no data
no data
No
No
No
No
Samoa
Yes*
no data
no data
No
No
Yes
Solomon Islands
Yes
no data
no data
No
No
No
Tonga
Yes
no data
no data
No
No
Yes
Tuvalu
No
no data
no data
No
No
No
No
Vanuatu
Yes*
no data
no data
No
No
No
No
No
No
STATISTICAL ANNEX
113
$QQH[ $YDLODELOLW\RIOHJLVODWLRQRUGUDIWOHJLVODWLRQLQNH\DUHDVRIF\EHUODZV(continued)
Electronic
transactions
UNCTAD member States
Legislation
Draft
Consumer protection
Legislation
Draft
3ULYDF\DQGGDWD
protection
Legislation
Draft
Yes
Cybercrime
Legislation
Draft
No
No
Yes*
Yes
No
Costa Rica
Yes*
Yes
Yes
El Salvador
No
Yes
No
Guatemala
Yes*
No
No
Honduras
Yes*
Yes
No
0H[LFR
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Nicaragua
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Panama
Yes*
Yes
No
Argentina
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Brazil
Yes
Yes
No
Chile
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Colombia
Yes*
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ecuador
Yes*
Guyana
No
Paraguay
Yes*
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
South America
Peru
No
Yes
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
no data
Yes
Yes
Yes
no data
Yes
Yes
Yes
no data
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
no data
Yes
Yes
Suriname
no data
no data
Uruguay
Yes
Yes
Yes
Venezuela
(Bolivarian Republic of)
Yes*
Yes
No
No
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Yes*
no data
no data
No
Bahamas
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Barbados
Yes*
No
No
No
Yes
Cuba
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Dominica
Yes*
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Dominican Republic
Yes*
No
No
Yes
Grenada
Yes*
no data
no data
No
Yes
Yes
Haiti
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Jamaica
Yes*
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes*
no data
no data
No
Yes
Yes
Saint Lucia
Yes*
no data
no data
Yes
No
Yes*
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
114
$QQH[ $YDLODELOLW\RIOHJLVODWLRQRUGUDIWOHJLVODWLRQLQNH\DUHDVRIF\EHUODZV(continued)
Electronic
transactions
UNCTAD member States
Legislation
Draft
Consumer protection
Legislation
Draft
3ULYDF\DQGGDWD
protection
Legislation
Draft
Cybercrime
Legislation
Draft
No
Transition economies
Albania
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Armenia
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Azerbaijan
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Belarus
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Georgia
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Kazakhstan
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Kyrgyzstan
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
no data
Montenegro
Yes*
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Republic of Moldova
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
No
Russian Federation
Yes*
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Serbia
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Tajikistan
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
no data
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Yes
Turkmenistan
Yes
no data
no data
no data
Ukraine
Yes
no data
no data
Yes
Uzbekistan
Yes
no data
no data
No
no data
Yes
no data
no data
no data
no data
No
Yes
No
Yes
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ISBN 978-92-1-112887-1