15-09-04

Introduction to Earth Science:

Studying the Earth

Scientific methods
Earth scientists:
areas of study within
the Earth sciences
Systems and cycles
in Earth science
Applications of Earth
and Atmospheric
Science
Read:
Blue Planet: Ch. 1 The Earth System

Scientific methods and the study

of the Earth

Source: USGS

Experiment and observation

Physics and
chemistry are
primarily
experimental
sciences
Earth Science is
primarily an
observational
science (though
experiments are
also used)

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Observation in the age of satellites

https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003800/
a003868/GlobalSnowNDVIFire.mp4

Earth Science in the age of computers

https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/
a011700/a011719/11719-1920-MASTER.mp4

What makes an
idea scientific?
It can be tested against
observation or experiment

BP 12.18

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What makes an
idea scientific?
It can be tested against
observation or experiment

BP 12.18

The Scientific Method

A long, careful series of
experiments or observations
that aims to explain or
understand the natural world.

Observation and hypotheses

Step 1: Observation

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The Scientific Method

Step 2: Hypothesis formation
hypothesis:
A tentative explanation for an
observation, phenomenon, or
scientific problem that can be
tested by further investigation.

The Scientific Method

Step 3: Hypothesis testing

The Scientific Method

Step 3: Hypothesis testing

And steps
4, 5, 6, etc.

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The Scientific Method

Step 3: Hypothesis testing

And steps
4, 5, 6, etc.
If a hypothesis
passes the tests

Source: www.destination360.com

The Scientific Method

Hypothesis becomes theory
theory:
A set of statements or
principles devised to explain a
group of facts or phenomena,
especially one that has been
repeatedly tested or is widely
accepted and can be used to
make predictions about
natural phenomena.

The Scientific Method

If, over many years
and much
additional testing,
the theory holds

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The Scientific Method

Theory becomes law
law:
A statement describing a
relationship observed to be
invariable between or among
phenomena for all cases in
which the specified conditions
are met

The Scientific Method

Example: Law of Conservation of Energy (1st Law of

Thermodynamics)
In a system of constant mass, the energy involved in
physical or chemical change is neither created not
destroyed but merely converted from one form to another

The Scientific Method

Example: Law of Conservation of Energy (1st Law of

Thermodynamics)
In a system of constant mass, the energy involved in
physical or chemical change is neither created not
destroyed but merely converted from one form to another

E = mc2

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The Scientific Method

Repeated testing, evaluation,
modification of hypothesis, more
testing

Very powerful methodology!

Principles: generalizations with

exceptions
An example:
principle of
superposition

Sandstone layers in Nova Scotia

Principles: generalizations with

exceptions
An exception:
overturned
strata in
mountain belts

Folded sedimentary layers in the Swiss Alps

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The principle of uniformitarianism

Ancient sand dune,
Zion, Utah

The principle of uniformitarianism

Ancient sand dune,
Zion, Utah

Modern sand dune,

Yuma, Arizona

The principle of uniformitarianism

Ancient sand dune,
Zion, Utah

Modern sand dune,

Yuma, Arizona

Are the processes that created ancient features

similar to those that create modern ones?

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The principle of uniformitarianism

Proposed by
James Hutton in
1795 Theory of
the Earth
Ancient features of
the Earth are best
interpreted in
terms of processes
that operate at the
present day
The present is the
key to the past

Siccar Point, Berkwickshire, Scotland

Huttons unconformity

BP 1.12

Hutton interpreted the contact between the lower rocks and the upper
rocks as an ancient erosion surface, produced by processes similar to
those operating at the present day

Changes in Earth History

Hutton proposed a very
strict principle of
uniformitarianism
We now recognize that
there have been big
changes in Earth
processes including:

Meteor Crater, Arizona

long term changes (e.g.

tectonics; evolution of
the atmosphere)
short term changes
(catastrophic meteorite
impacts)

Source: exploratorium.com

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Principle of actualism
A more moderate
version of Huttons
principle is called
actualism
The natural (i.e.,
physical and chemical)
laws that allowed the
formation of ancient
features of the Earth
are the same ones in
operation today.

This allows for

change!

Relationship to other sciences:

Earth science is largely an observational science

Source: USGS

Relationship to other sciences:

Earth science makes use of principles and laws derived
from other sciences, such as physics, chemistry and
biology.
Example: Law of Conservation of Energy
(e.g., 1st Law of Thermodynamics)
In a system of constant mass, the energy involved in physical
or chemical change is neither created not destroyed but merely
converted from one form to another

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Earth scientists: areas of study

within the Earth sciences

Source: NASA

Geologists

Field observations
Geologic maps
Samples
Chemical
analyses
Resource
development and
extraction

Shiprock Peak, New Mexico

Source: University of Wisconsin-Madison

Geophysicists
Use variations in the Earths
physical properties to
determine subsurface
structure, composition, etc.
Seismic velocities
Magnetic, electrical properties
Variations in strength of local
gravitational field

Examine the earth using

natural phenomena such as
earthquakes

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Paleontologists and Biogeographers

Paleontologists
Fossils and the
history of life

Biogeographers
Distribution of
living things at
the present day

Hydrologists & Oceanographers

Liquid water on
and below the
Earths surface
Living things in
water
Sediments
deposited on the
sea floor or the
bottom of lakes

Atmospheric Scientists
Hurricane Katrina

Meteorologists &
climatologists
Physics of the
atmosphere
Short term changes in
the atmosphere
(weather)
Geographical variation
and long term changes
in the atmosphere
(climate)
Source: University of Washington

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Glaciologists
Behaviour and
distribution of ice
The impact of glaciers
on the landscape (e.g.,
erosion, deposition)
and downstream
environments
Interactions between
ice masses and
climate

Canine Glacio-hydrologists

Donjek

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Logan

Logan

Systems and cycles

A system is a
portion of the
universe that can
be separated from
the rest for the
purpose of
observing changes

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Types of systems
Systems may be:
Isolated
Closed
Open

BP 1.3

Isolated systems
No matter or
energy lost or
gained
Imaginary concept

BP 1.2

Closed systems
No matter lost or
gained; energy
may be exchanged
with surroundings
The Earth is
approximately a
closed system

BP 1.2

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Open systems
Matter and energy
exchanged with
surroundings
Examples of open
systems:

An ocean
An island
A forest
A leaf
You

BP 1.2

The Earth as a system

BP 1.5

Earth is
approximately a
closed system
Note:
Small amounts of
gas are lost to
space
Small amounts of
material are added
by meteorites and
comets
These amounts are
extremely small
compared with the
mass of the Earth

Systems within the Earth

The Earth system
contains several
major open
systems

Atmosphere
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Cryosphere

BP 1.5

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Cycles
Cycles trace the flow of material or energy through
systems
Examples include:
The energy cycle
The hydrologic cycle
The rock cycle

When a cycle is quantified

it is sometimes called a
budget

www.savingadvice.com/images/blog/hello-kitty-bicycle.jpg

The Energy Cycle

Source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov

The Sun

Suns energy output

3.8 x 1026 W total
energy output
1.7 x 1017 W
reaches Earth
Energy flux at
Earths distance is
1370 W per m2

BP 3.4

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Energy flux on Earths surface

BP 3.5
Earth Radius:
R=6370 km
Energy flux:
1370 W/m2
Earth intercepts
R2=1.74x1017 W
Spread out over
sphere, which has
area 4R2
Average energy flux is thus
1370 [W/m2]/4 = 342 W/m2

Energy budgets
Energy flow is measured in Watts per square meter
1 W = 1 J/s
First law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy

Source: http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu

The Energy
Cycle

Drives all of the processes that

we see operating on the Earth
Energy inputs
Solar radiation: light, radiant heat,
etc.,
Geothermal energy: released
from nuclear breakdown of
Uranium, Thorium etc.,
Tidal energy a result of
gravitational attraction of Moon

Tides

Energy losses
Reflection into space
Re-radiation, as radiant heat

Geothermal energy

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Solar
energy

Energy comes from the sun as electromagnetic

(or EM) radiation, mainly in the visible and
infrared bands.
About 1.74 x 1017 W (Watts) or 174,000 TW
(Terawatts)
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW

Where does
solar energy
go? (1)
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

Where does
solar energy
go? (2)
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

About 30% is reflected into space (52,000 TW)

Just under half is converted to heat and is reradiated (81,000 TW)

Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW

Long wavelength
radiation

Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

Just under a quarter goes into melting ice and

evaporating water; energy is stored in the
hydrosphere (40,000 TW)
350 TW are converted to winds, ocean currents,
waves etc
Long wavelength
radiation
Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

Water and ice

storage bank

Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW
Precipitation

Wind, Waves and currents

350 TW

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Where does
solar energy
go? (3)
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

40 TW are captured by living things

Long wavelength
radiation

Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

Water and ice

storage bank

Evaporation
and melting
TW

40,000
Decay
Plant
storage
bank

40 TW
Photosynthesis

Buried
organic
matter

Geothermal
energy

Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

Precipitation

Wind, Waves and currents

350 TW

Energy is released within the Earth by the slow

breakdown of Uranium, Thorium and other
radioactive elements.
Total amount is estimated at ~32 TW
Long wavelength
radiation

Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW
Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

40 TW
Photosynthesis

Water and ice

storage bank

Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW

Decay
Plant
storage
bank

Buried
organic
matter

Precipitation

Wind, Waves and currents

350 TW

Geothermal energy 32 TW

Where does geothermal energy go?

This energy drives
volcanoes, hot
springs,
earthquakes, and
movements of
continents.
It is also radiated in
very small amounts,
averaging ~60 mW/
m2, from the Earths
surface

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Where does
geothermal
energy
go?
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

Volcanoes and hot springs on land 0.3 TW

Volcanoes under the sea 11 TW
Heat loss (conduction) from the surface 21 TW

Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

Evaporation
and melting
TW

Photosynthesis

Heat flow 21 TW

Geothermal energy 32 TW

Where does
tidal energy
go?
Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

Buried
organic
matter

Precipitation

Wind, Waves and currents

350 TW

Submarine volcanoes 11 TW

Tidal energy: 27 TW

Long wavelength
radiation

Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW

Tides
27 TW

Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

Water and ice

storage bank

Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW

Decay
Plant
storage
bank

40 TW

Volcanoes
Hot springs
0.3 TW

Water and ice

storage bank

40,000
Decay
Plant
storage
bank

40 TW

Volcanoes
Hot springs
0.3 TW

Long wavelength
radiation

Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW

Photosynthesis

Heat flow 21 TW

Geothermal energy 32 TW

Buried
organic
matter

Precipitation

Wind, Waves and currents

350 TW

Submarine volcanoes 11 TW

Summary of energy cycle

Reflected
into space
52,000 TW

Tides
27 TW

Converted to
heat 81,000
TW

Decay
Plant
storage
bank

Photosynthesis

Heat flow 21 TW

Geothermal energy 32 TW

Water and ice

storage bank

Evaporation
and melting
40,000 TW

40 TW

Volcanoes
Hot springs
0.3 TW

Long wavelength
radiation

Short wavelength
Solar radiation
174,000 TW

Buried
organic
matter

Precipitation

Wind, Waves and currents

350 TW

Submarine volcanoes 11 TW

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Solar energy budget

Source: http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu

Laws of thermodynamics
Energy is conserved (1st Law of Thermodynamics)
All energy flows are ultimately converted to heat. This
reflects the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics:
Whenever energy is used to do mechanical work in a system,
some of that energy is dispersed (lost) as heat.
Because heat is an unorganized, random vibration of molecules,
we say that the entropy (a measure of disorganization) of the
system has increased.
The net entropy of the universe always increases.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Without some external source of energy, entropy on
Earth would increase until we use up all available
energy (losing it as heat).

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2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Without some external source of energy, entropy on
Earth would increase until we use up all available
energy (losing it as heat).

Source: http://www.geocities.com/larkspur10/neo/228/towers.jpg

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov

The Sun

The Hydrologic Cycle

Water cycle

BP 1.9

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Hydrologic pathways:
Evapotranspiration

BP 1.9

Evaporation
from
surface
water
from land

Transpiration
from plants

Hydrologic pathways:
Condensation and precipitation

BP 1.9

Condensation
Clouds

Precipitation
Rain
Snow

Hydrologic pathways:
Surface and subsurface flow

BP 1.9

Melting
Surface flow
Glaciers
Streams
Rivers

Infiltration
Groundwater
movement

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Hydrologic reservoirs
BP 1.9
Oceans
(97.5%)
Ice sheets
(1.85%)
Groundwater
(0.64%)
Lakes, rivers,
atmosphere
(.01%)

Earths water budget

1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000

Earths water budget

1015 = 1,000,000,000,000,000 (a million billion)

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Reservoir change
For most of these reservoirs, the rate of flow in
approximately balances rate of flow out.
Volume of water in the reservoir is approximately
constant
When flow in > flow out, reservoir expands
When flow in < flow out, reservoir contracts
The ice sheet reservoir has been getting smaller over
time because melting > snowfall

Residence time
Size of reservoir / flow rate = residence time
A measure of the average time that a water molecule
spends in the reservoir
Typical residence times:
Oceans and ice caps:
Streams and rivers:
Atmosphere:

thousands of years
a few weeks
a few days

Hydrologic cycle
BP 1.9

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The Rock Cycle

Cycling of rock material at
surface of the Earth
Three types of rock
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic

BP 1.12

Magma
Melting point: 800-1200C
(depending on rock type)
Molten rock is magma; at the
surface, its called lava

BP 7.5

Igneous rock
Cooling
Solidification

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Intrusive Rocks
Magma cools
below surface
Generally have
larger crystals
Phaneritic
(visibly crystalline)

Ansel Adams

Extrusive Rocks
Lava that cools
above surface
Typically have
microscopic
crystals
Aphanitic
(without visible
crystals)

Source: USGS

Differences in Crystal Size

http://www.birdseyefoods.com

Intrusive rocks
phaneritic
large crystals
Extrusive rocks
aphanitic
small crystals
Due to differences in rate
of cooling
Slow = large
Fast = small

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Weathering
Destructive processes that change the physical and chemical
characteristics of rocks at the earth's surface.

Erosion
Transportation
of weathering
products

Source: http://www.truecolorearth.com

Sediment
Deposition Sediment

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCormick's_Creek_State_Park

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Sedimentary rock
Results from lithification of sediments
Sedimentary
Rock:
Often Clastic
(made up of
fragments)

Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00461/images/sandstone.jpg

Metamorphism
Results from heat and pressure (without melting)
BP 4.22

Metamorphic rocks
New minerals
Change in texture
Fabric

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Igneous rock
For comparison

Metamorphic rocks
New minerals
Change in texture
Fabric

The rock cycle: summary

Deposition

Sediment
Lithification

Transportation
Erosion

Sedimentary rock

Weathering
Metamorphism

Igneous rock
Cooling

Magma

Melting

Metamorphic rock

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Other Cycles
Biogeochemical cycles
Nitrogen cycle
Carbon cycle

(Well look at these later on.)

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