Learner motivation and interest

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Motivation is one of the most important factors that influence the success in language
learning. Even though research has demonstrated that success in language learning is
related to positive attitudes and motivation, it is not easy to define and measure
motivation, and the direction of this relationship is not clear, whether motivation leads
to successful language learning or the success in language learning increases
motivation. Brown (1987: 114) defines motivation as an inner drive, impulse,
emotion or desire that moves one to a particular action. Thus, a motivated learner is
the learner who wants to achieve something and who is willing to invest time and
effort in reaching that goal. Brown (ibid.) remarks that all human beings have needs
or drives that are more or less innate, but their intensity depends on the environment.
Ausubel (1968: 368-379) has identified six needs and desires that encompass the
concept of motivation:
1. The need for exploration, for seeing the other side of the mountain, for probing
the unknown;
2. The need for manipulation, for operating on the environment and causing
change;
3. The need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental;
4. The need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by other
people, or by ideas, thought and feelings;
5. The need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the results of
exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to
quest for solutions to problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge;
6. The need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and
approved by the others.
The results of a study on successful language learning (Naiman et al., 1978, cited in
Ur, 1991: 275) showed that the most successful learners are not necessarily those who
have a natural aptitude for learning, but those who display certain characteristics most
of which are clearly associated with motivation. Some of these characteristics are the
following:
1. Positive task orientation. The learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges,
and has confidence in his or her success.
2. Ego-involvement. The learner finds it important to succeed in learning in order to
maintain and promote his or her own (positive) self-image.
3. Need for achievement. The learner has a need to achieve, to overcome
difficulties and succeed in what he or she sets out to do.
4. High aspirations. The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high
proficiency, top grades.
5. Goal orientation. The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of
specific learning activities, and directs his or her efforts towards achieving
them.

6. Perseverance. The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning,

and is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress.
7. Tolerance of ambiguity. The learner is not disturbed or frustrated by situations
involving a temporary lack of understanding or confusion; he or she can live
with these patiently, in the confidence that understanding will come later.

Types of motivation
Studies of motivation in second language learning have led to several distinctions, one
of which is the distinction between integrative and instrumental motivation.

Integrative and instrumental motivation

One of the most influential studies on motivation in second language learning was
carried out by Gardner and Lambert (1972). They studied motivation as a factor of
different kinds of attitudes and identified two kinds of attitude: attitudes to the people
who speak the target language, and attitudes to the practical use to which the learner
assumes he or she can put the language being learned. Gardner (1985: 10) maintains
that in contrast to motivation, attitudes do not have direct influence on learning:
Motivation in the present context refers to the combination of effort plus desire to
achieve the goal of learning plus favourable attitudes towards learning the language.
The two kinds of attitude correspond to the two kinds of motivation: integrative and
instrumental. Gardner et al. (1977: 244) describe these two kinds of motivation as
follows:
Integrative reasons are defined as those which indicate an interest in learning
the language in order to meet and communicate with members of the second
language community. Instrumental reasons refer to those reasons which stress
the pragmatic aspects of learning the second language, without any particular
interest in communicating with the second language community.
Thus, integrative motivation is the learners desire to integrate themselves into the
target-language community and to identify with the culture of the speakers of the
target language, while instrumental motivation is the desire to learn the language in
order to achieve personal goals such as passing an examination, studying, career
advancement, etc.
Brown (2007: 170-171) points out that, as other researchers have noted, more
appropriate terms would be instrumental and integrative orientation rather than
instrumental and integrative motivation, because within each orientation, one can
have either high or low motivational intensity. According to this view, learners
orientation can be academic or career related (instrumental) and socially or culturally
related (integrative). Further studies have failed to find support for the integrativeinstrumental construct, which indicates that there is no single means of learning a
second language: some learners in some contexts are more successful in learning a
language if they are integratively oriented, and others in different contexts benefit

from an instrumental orientation (ibid.). The studies have also shown that these two
orientations are not mutually exclusive, that is a learner may start studying a language
for instrumental purposes and later develop a desire to integrate with the culture and
people speaking that language.

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Another distinction is the distinction between extrinsic (externally regulated) and
intrinsic motivation (internally regulated). External motivation is influenced by some
kind of external incentive such as money, prize, grades, positive feedback (Brown,
2007: 172), the desire of students to please parents, their wish to succeed in an
external exam, peer-group influences (Ur, 1996: 277). Intrinsic motivation, on the
other hand, comes from the learners and their attitudes towards the language, their
learning aims and goals, their emotions, their ambitions, etc. Deci (1975: 23)
describes intrinsic motivation as follows:
Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is not apparent
reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their
own sake and because they lead to an extrinsic rewardIntrinsically motivated
behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding
consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination.
Ushioda (2010) emphasizes that what is crucially important is not whether
motivational factors are intrinsic or extrinsic, but whether they are internalized and
self-determined, or externally imposed and regulated by others.
Both types of motivation are important for the success in language learning, and as Ur
(1996: 276 - 279) points out, both are at least partially accessible to teacher influence.
Some of the sources of extrinsic motivation that are affected by teacher actions are the
following:
1. Success and its rewards. Learners who have succeeded in past tasks will be more
willing to engage with the next one, more confident in their chances of
succeeding, and more likely to persevere in their efforts. The most important
task of teachers is to make sure that learners are aware of their own success.
They should help learners develop an ability to recognize success on their own
and not become dependent on teachers explicit markers of success such as a
nod, a tick, praise or approval, because the more confident they become and the
more able to recognize such success on their own, the less they will need
explicit support from someone else.
2. Failure and its penalties. Failure is not just a matter of wrong answers, just as
success is not necessarily getting the answer right. Learners should be aware
that they are failing if they have done significantly less than they could have, if
they are making unsatisfactory progress, or not taking care. However, it is
inevitable that there will be occasional failures in any normal learning
experience, and they are nothing to be ashamed of; good learners recognize this,
take setbacks in their stride, and look for ways to exploit them in order to
succeed next time. Learners should be made aware when they are failing, but
constant awareness of shortcomings may lower learners motivation and

demoralize them, so there may be cases when teachers may prefer to ignore or
play down a failure.
3. Authoritative demands. Learners are often motivated by teacher pressure: they
may be willing to invest more effort in tasks simply because the teacher has told
them so, recognizing his/her authority and right to make this demand, and
trusting his/her judgment. Younger learners on the whole need the exercise of
such authority more, adults less. However, there should be a balance because if
learners only do things because they are obeying commands they are unlikely to
develop personal responsibility for their own learning or long-term motivation
to continue. On the other hand, an over-emphasis on learner freedom and
autonomy and corresponding lack of authoritative demand by the teacher can
lead to noticeable lowering of effort and achievement, and often, paradoxically,
to learner dissatisfaction.
4. Tests. The motivating power of tests appears clear: learners who know they are
going to be tested on specific material next week will normally be more
motivated to study it carefully than if they had simply been told to learn it.
Again, this is a useful incentive, provided there is not too much stress attached,
and provided it is not used too often.
5. Competition. Learners are often motivated to do their best not for the sake of the
learning itself, but in order to beat their opponents in a competition. Individual
competition can be stressful for people who find losing humiliating, and if overused, it affects negatively learners willingness to cooperate and help each other.
Group contests tend on the whole to get better results because they are more
enjoyable, less tense and equally motivating.
Although intrinsic motivation comes from within and thus is internally motivated,
teachers can also influence this type of motivation by developing a relationship with
learners, building learners self-confidence and autonomy, personalizing the learning
process, and increasing learners goal-orientation (Brown, 2007: 174).

Global, situational and task motivation

A third distinction has been made by Brown (1987: 115) who identifies three types of
motivation:
1. Global motivation, which refers to the general orientation of the learners to the
goals of learning the foreign language;
2. Situational motivation, which depends on the situation in which the learning
takes place (classroom learning, naturalistic learning);
3. Task motivation, which is the motivation of the learner to do a particular task.
Brown explains that learning a foreing language requires some of all three types of
motivation. For example, a learner may have high global motivation to learn the
foreign language, but low task motivation for doing a certain activity. While the
second motivation does not depend on the teacher, the first and especially the third
motivation is where teachers can have an influence and help learners develop,
maintain and enhance their motivation by discussing the benefits of learning the

foreign language and by designing and using tasks and activities that are interesting,
engaging and enjoyable for learners.

Promoting learners motivation

All the learners in the classroom do not have the same type and level of motivation.
Some learners may have a very strong motivation to learn the language, others may
have a weaker motivation, and yet others may have no motivation at all. However,
motivation is not static and it can change in both directions. As motivation is essential
in language learning, one of the tasks of the teacher is to awaken, sustain and
strengthen learners motivation. Harmer (2001: 53-54) suggests three areas where
teachers behaviour can influence learners motivation:
Goals and goal setting. Motivation is closely related to a persons desire to
achieve a goal. A distinction needs to be made between long- and short-term
goals. Long-term goals may include the mastery of English, the passing of an
exam, the possibility of a better job in the future, etc. Short-term goals, on the
other hand, may be the learning of a small amount of new language, the
successful writing of an essay, the ability to partake in a discussion or the
passing of the progress test at the end of the week. Since short-term goals are
much closer to the students day-to-day reality and they can be achieved in a
shorter time, teachers can have a significant effect on learners motivation if
they help students focus on and attain their short-term goals.
Learning environment. Although teachers may not choose the classrooms, they
can do a lot about their physical appearance and the emotional atmosphere of
the lesson, both of which can have a powerful effect on learners motivation.
Classrooms can be decorated with visual materials, the atmosphere can be
enlivened by the use of music, and even if it is not possible to move the
furniture, learners can get up and move around when it is appropriate. What is
even more important for the learners is the emotional atmosphere that teachers
can create in the classroom, which involves building positive relationship with
the learners, creating a supportive and cooperative environment and being
careful when responding to learners, especially when giving feedback and
corrections.
Interesting classes. If students are to continue to be intrinsically motivated they
clearly need to e interested both in the subject they are studying and in the
activities and topics they are presented with. So, teachers need to provide
learners with a variety of subjects and exercises to keep them engaged. The
choice of material to take into class will be crucial too, but even more important
than this will be the ways in which it is used in the lesson.
Ur (1996: 280) points out that it is in the arousing of interest, perhaps, that teachers
invest most effort, and get most immediate and noticeable pay-off in terms of learner
motivation. She lists several ways of arousing learner interest in the tasks and
activities in the classroom:

1. Clear goals. Learners should be aware of the objectives of the task both
language-learning and content. For example, a guessing-game may have the
language-learning goal of practicing questions, and the content goal of guessing
answers.
2. Varied topics and tasks. Topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as
interesting as possible; but few single types can interest everyone, so there
should be a wide range of different ones over time.
3. Visuals. It is important for learners to have something to look at that is eyecatching and relevant to the task in hand.
4. Tension and challenge: games. Game-like activities provide pleasurable tension
and challenge through the process of attaining some fun goal while limited by
rules. The introduction of such rules (an arbitrary time limit, for example) can
add spice to almost any goal-oriented task.
5. Entertainment. Entertainment produces enjoyment, which in its turn adds
motivation. Entertainment can be teacher produced (jokes, stories, perhaps
songs, dramatic presentations) or recorded (movies, video clips, television
documentaries).
6. Play-acting. Rope-play and simulations that use the imagination and take
learners out of themselves can be excellent; though some people are inhibited
and may find such activities intimidating at first.
7. Information gap. A particular interesting type of task is that based on the need to
understand or transmit information finding out what is in a partners picture,
for example. A variation on this is the opinion gap where participants exchange
views on a given issue.
8. Personalization. Learners are more likely to be interested in tasks that have to do
with themselves: their own or each others opinions, tastes, experiences,
suggestions.
9. Open-ended cues. A cue which invites a number of possible responses is usually
much more stimulating than one with only one right answer: participants
contributions are unpredictable, and are more likely to be interesting, original or
humorous.
Since classroom activities may have an influence on learners motivation and it is the
teacher who plans, designs and organizes them, it is worth investing time and effort in
preparing these activities in order to make them interesting and motivational for
learners. Hedge (2000: 24) suggests that teachers should create a checklist of ways to
motivate learners in the classroom, such as the following:
Give some time to considering group dynamics and to how to build
cohesiveness within the class.
Make sure that there is sufficient variety of input (listening, reading), of pace
and intensity, of interaction, and of activity to allow learners to work in their
own style and with their own strategies.
Show awareness of differences in motivation, in emotional responses, in
strategies, etc., and encourage learners to build awareness of their own
preferences.
Acknowledge that language learning is a serious endeavour requiting
perseverance and involving anxiety, and be sure to give reassurance.

Teachers should be aware that learners of different ages have different types of
motivation, so that they can not use the same methods with all groups of learners.
Harmer (1991: 7-8) describes the characteristics of the learners of different ages and
different levels and suggests ways of approaching them:
Children

Adolescents

Adult
beginners

Adult
intermediate
students

Adult
advanced
students

are curious.
have short span of attention and concentration.
often seek teacher approval.
need frequent changes of activity.
need activities which are exciting and stimulate their curiosity.
need to be involved in something active.
need to be appreciated by the teacher.
depend on the attitude and behaviour of the teacher.
dont usually have extrinsic motivation.
are often brittle.
are not inspired by mere curiosity.
do not depend on teacher approval so much.
may see the teacher as a potential enemy.
value the approval of their peers.
need to be seen in a good light by their peers.
are easily prone to humiliation if the teacher is careless with
criticism.
can be highly intelligent if stimulated, and dedicated if involved.
need the right level of challenge: if it is too low, they may
switch off, if it is too high they may become discouraged and
de-motivated.
need to be involved in the task and eager to accomplish it.
may come to the classroom with a high degree of extrinsic
motivation.
often succeed very quickly.
perceive and achieve learning goals easily.
need realistic challenges and positive teacher attitude.
may well be motivated extrinsically.
may have very positive feelings about the way they are treated.
may be motivated by success, and the perception of having
more advanced English may be a primary goal.
already know a lot and may not perceive any progress.
may be overwhelmed by the new complexity of the language.
need to see that there is still a lot to learn.
need realistic goals.
need the right level of challenge.
are often highly motivated.
find progress more difficult to perceive.
may not be learning anything new much of the time, but learning
better how to use what they already know.
need to know what it is they will achieve at this level.
need the clarity that the setting of short-term goals, tasks, etc.
can give them.

Dorney and Csizer (1998: 215, cited in Brown, 2007: 182) give 10 commandments
for motivating learners:
1. Set a personal example with your own behaviour.
2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
3. Present the tasks properly.
4. Develop a good relationship with the learners.
5. Increase the learners linguistic self-confidence.
6. Make the language classes interesting.
7. Promote learner autonomy.
8. Personalize the learning process.
9. Increase the learners goal orientedness.
10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.

Conclusion
There are a lot of factors which influence the success in language learning. However,
one of the most important factors is learners motivation to learn the language.
Research and experience show that learners with strong motivation can achieve a lot
regardless of circumstances. Whether the motivation comes from within or from an
outside source, whether it is instrumental or integrative, these students have set
themselves long-term goals and they are determined to achieve them in any way
possible. These students are the easiest to teach, and the teachers task is to help them
sustain and even enhance the motivation they already have.
However, not all learners come with strong motivation and clearly set goals. It may
stem from their previous learning experiences, from the attitudes of their parents,
peers and other members of the society they live in, the attitudes to the target
language and the target-language community and culture, etc. The teachers attitude
and behaviour are very important for these learners. Even though teachers cannot
control all aspects of motivation, they can do a lot to help these learners develop
motivation for learning the language by creating a positive atmosphere in the
classroom and a positive attitude towards the target language and its speakers, by
using varied and interesting activities and forms of work in the classroom, by setting
short-term goals that are not too difficult for learners to achieve, by creating
conditions for success and feeling of achievement, by building positive rapport with
the learners and by treating them with respect, care, fairness and understanding.

References
Ausubel, D. A. (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (2nd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (5th ed.). New
York: Pearson Education.
Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic Motivation. New York: Plenum Press.
Harmer. J. (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Longman.
Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. (3rd ed.) Harlow:
Longman.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: the Role
of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C. and Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second
Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Gardner, R. C., Smythe, P. C. & Brunet, G. R. (1977). Intensive second language
study: effects on attitudes, motivation and French achievement. Language learning
27, 243-262.
Naiman, N., Froelich, M., Stern, H. H. & Todesco, A. (1978). The Good Language
Learner. Research in Education Series, No. 7, Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education.
Ur, P. (1991). A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ushioda, E. (2010). Socializing students motivation and autonomy in the English
language classroom. Plenary talk at 44th Annual International IATEFL Conference and
Exhibition, Harrogate, 7-11 April.

Discussion questions:
1. At the beginning of a teaching course with a new group of adolescent or adult
students, what kind of activity could you engage them in to:
a) find out their reasons for learning English?
b) motivate them towards their language learning task?
2. Divide into pairs or groups for the following discussion. Each group should take
one of the following factors: self-esteem, self-efficacy, willingness to
communicate, inhibition, risk taking, anxiety and extroversion. In your group,
a) define each factor,
b) agree on a generalized conclusion about the relevance of each factor for
successful second language acquisition.
3. What are some examples of learning a foreign language in an integrative
orientation and in an instrumental orientation? Is one orientation necessarily
better than another? Think of situations where either orientation could contain
powerful motives.
4. In pairs, make a quick list of activities or other things that happen in a foreign
language classroom. Then decide whether each activity fosters extrinsic or
intrinsic motivation, or degrees of each type. Which activities seem to offer
deeper, more long-term effect?