Introduction

Outline

Fluid Mechanics
a complete theory

Peter in t panhuis
5th Seminar on Continuum Mechanics

3th May 2006

Introduction

Outline

Continuum Mechanics

Seminar Outline
Stress
Strain and deformation
General principles
Constitutive equations
Fluid Mechanics
...

Introduction

Outline

Fluid Mechanics
Continuum
Continuum
Mechanics

Solid
Mechanics
Fluid
Mechanics

Solid
Mechanics
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Newtonian Fluid

Definitions:
Fluid mechanics deals with fluids (both liquids and gases).
A fluid takes the shape of its container and cannot support
shear stresses.
Newtonian fluids are fluids in which the viscosity is
constant.

Introduction

Outline

Fluid Mechanics
Continuum
Continuum
Mechanics

Solid
Mechanics
Fluid
Mechanics

Solid
Mechanics
Non-Newtonian Fluid
J
Newtonian Fluid

Introduction

Outline

Fluid Mechanics
Continuum
Continuum
Mechanics

Solid
Mechanics
Fluid
Mechanics

Solid
Mechanics
Non-Newtonian Fluid
J
Newtonian Fluid

The general problem

Steady-flow boundary value problems:
time-independent flow problems.

Transient problems:
starting-up problem in a pipe;
propagation of sound waves through air or water;
generally more difficult to solve.

Introduction

Outline

Outline
1

Field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General equations
Simplifications

Dimensional analysis

Special cases
Laminar flow between parallel plates
Rayleigh problem
Perfect fluid
Acoustic waves of small amplitudes

Potential flow
Complex-function formulation
Flow past a circular cyclinder
Conformal mapping methods

Summary

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

The field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General theorems (5)

+ v = 0

T + b = ddtv

T : D + = q + du
dt
d
dt

Constitutive equations (11)

F (p, , ) = 0
T = (tr(D) p) I + 2D

q = k
u = u(, )

16 unknown variables

v : velocity
p: pressure
: temperature

: density
u: internal energy
T : stress tensor

q : heat flux

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

The field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General theorems (5)

+ v = 0

T + b = ddtv

T : D + = q + du
dt
d
dt

Constitutive equations (11)

F (p, , ) = 0
T = (tr(D) p) I + 2D

q = k
u = u(, )

16 unknown variables

v : velocity
p: pressure
: temperature

: density
u: internal energy
T :stress tensor

q :heat flux

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

The field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General theorems (5)

Constitutive equations (2)

d
+ v = 0
F (p, , ) = 0
dt

dv
dt = p + ( + ) ( v ) + v

= (k ) p v + + 2WD
du
dt

+b

u = u(, )
7 unknown variables

v : velocity
p: pressure
: temperature

: density
u: internal energy

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

The field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General theorems (5)

Constitutive equations (2)

d
+ v = 0
F (p, , ) = 0
dt

dv
dt = p + ( + ) ( v ) + v

= (k ) p v + + 2WD
du
dt

+b

u = u(, )
Remarks
The equations are only valid in laminar-flow situations and
not for turbulent flow.

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

The field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General theorems (5)

Constitutive equations (2)

d
+ v = 0
F (p, , ) = 0
dt

dv
dt = p + ( + ) ( v ) + v

= (k ) p v + + 2WD
du
dt

+b

u = u(, )
Remarks
Non-linearities appear in the inertial acceleration terms:

dv
v

=
+ ( v ) v .
dt
t

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

The field equations of a Newtonian fluid

General theorems (5)

Constitutive equations (2)

d
+ v = 0
F (p, , ) = 0
dt

dv
dt = p + ( + ) ( v ) + v

= (k ) p v + + 2WD
du
dt

+b

u = u(, )
Remarks
For barotropic flows: F (p, ) = 0.

The five unknowns v , p and can be determined using

only Navier-Stokes, the continuity equation and the
barotropic equation of state.

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Simplifications
Navier-Stokes equations of motion
Compressible fluid with Stokes condition: = 23 ,

dv

= p + v + b + ( v ).
dt
3

Incompressible fluid: v = 0,

dv

= p + v + b ,
dt

For irrotational flows: v = 0,

dv

= p + b (perfect fluid).
dt

Further reading

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Dimensional analysis
Buckingham theorem
If we have m physical parameters q1 , . . . , qm , expressed in k
independent physical units, satisfying: F (q1 , . . . , qm ) = 0,
then there are n = m k independent dimensionless
parameters 1 , . . . , n satisfying: G(1 , . . . , n ) = 0.
Here we have 7 independent dimensionless parameters.
Dimensional analysis
Rescale the variables with their characteristic values:

v = V v 0,

x = Lx 0 ,

t = Tt 0

p = p0 p 0 ,

= 0 0 ,

= 0 0 .

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Dimensional analysis
Dimensionless numbers
V 2)

E = p0 /(0
Re = 0 VL/
Fr = V 2 /(gL)
Sr = L/(TV )

Euler
Reynolds
Froude
Strouhal

M = V /c
Pe = 0 cp VL/k
= cp /cv

Mach
Pclet

Navier-Stokes equation

Suppose b = g .
The rescaled equations of motion read:
Sr 0

v0
1

+ 0 v 0 0 v 0 = E 0 p0 +
t 0
Re

0 v 0 + 0 ( 0 v 0 )
3


+

1
0
g .
Fr

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Dimensional analysis
Dimensionless numbers
V 2)

E = p0 /(0
Re = 0 VL/
Fr = V 2 /(gL)
Sr = L/(TV )

Euler
Reynolds
Froude
Strouhal

M = V /c
Pe = 0 cp VL/k
= cp /cv

Continuity equation
The rescaled continuity equation reads:
Sr

+ 0 (0 v 0 ) = 0.
0
t

Mach
Pclet

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Dimensional analysis
Dimensionless numbers
V 2)

E = p0 /(0
Re = 0 VL/
Fr = V 2 /(gL)
Sr = L/(TV )

Euler
Reynolds
Froude
Strouhal

M = V /c
Pe = 0 cp VL/k
= cp /cv

Mach
Pclet

Energy equation
For a perfect gas du = cv d.
The rescaled energy equation becomes:
Sr 0

0
2( 1) 0
0 0

+ 0 v 0 0 0 =
( 1)p0 0 v 0 +
WD .
t 0
Pe
ERe

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Steady (incompressible) laminar flow between parallel plates
Non-linearities disappear due to incompressibility and
geometry:
2

p
+ yv2x = 0,
x
p
y
g = 0,

p = gz + Cx+ h U h2 C,

2
2
vx = y2 C + yh U h2 C .

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Steady (incompressible) laminar flow between parallel plates
Non-linearities disappear due to incompressibility and
geometry:
2

p
+ yv2x = 0,
x

p
y
g = 0,

Couette flow

p = gz + Cx+ h U h2 C,

2
2
vx = y2 C + yh U h2 C .

Poiseuille flow

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Special cases
Rayleigh problem
Instationary flow along plate
Initially plate is at rest, then it
starts to move at constant
speed U
No pressure gradient
vy = 0; vx = vx (y , t).

vx
=
t

2 vx

y 2

p
x

= 0;

t = 0 : vx = 0,
y = 0 : vx = U,
y : vx 0.

Further reading

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Special cases
Rayleigh problem
Introduce: =

y ,
4t

f () = vUx .
(

f 00 + 2f 0 = 0,

Similarity solution:
f () = 1 erf()
Z
2
2
=1
ex dx.
0

= 0 : f = 0,

: f 0.

Further reading

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Perfect fluid
A perfect fluid is non-viscous and satisfies the Euler
equation

dv

= p + b .
dt
At the boundary the normal velocity component is zero.
Kelvins theorem
In barotropic flow under conservative body forces, the velocity
circulation around
I any closedZmaterial contour is independent

of time.

=
v ds = ( v ) n dS.
A

Irrotational flows remain irrotational.

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Perfect fluid
A perfect fluid is non-viscous and satisfies the Euler
equation

dv

= p + b .
dt
At the boundary the normal velocity component is zero.
Bernoulli equation for steady incompressible flow
In steady, incompressible, barotropic flow under conservative

body forces b = ,

p + V 2 + = constant along streamlines (V = | v |).

2
For irrotational flow it is constant everywhere.

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Acoustic waves of small amplitudes (1D)
Neglecting body forces the 1D Euler and continuity
equations are:
v
1 p
v
+v
=
,
t
x
x

(v )
+
= 0.
t
x

Rescale velocity with speed of sound c:

v
v
p
(v )
+ v
+ Ec
= 0,
Src
+
= 0.
t
x
x
t
x
Barotropic equation of state: = (p).
Src

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Acoustic waves of small amplitudes (1D)
We linearize assuming small Mach number M:
v = Mv1 (x, t),

p = p0 + Mp1 (x, t), = 0 + M1 (x, t).

 
Approximate p1 by p1 = dp
1 =: 1 then
d
0

v1
v1
1
Src
+ Mv1
+ Ec
= 0,
t
x
x

Src

1 (0 v1 )
+
= 0.
t
x

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Acoustic waves of small amplitudes (1D)
We linearize assuming small Mach number M:
v = Mv1 (x, t),

p = p0 + Mp1 (x, t), = 0 + M1 (x, t).

 
Approximate p1 by p1 = dp
1 =: 1 then
d
0

v1
v1
1
Src
+ Mv1
+ Ec
= 0,
t
x
x

Src

1 (0 v1 )
+
= 0.
t
x

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Acoustic waves of small amplitudes (1D)
We linearize assuming small Mach number M:
v = Mv1 (x, t),

p = p0 + Mp1 (x, t), = 0 + M1 (x, t).

 
Approximate p1 by p1 = dp
1 =: 1 then
d
0

v1
1
Src 0
+ Ec
= 0,
t
x

Src

1
v1
+ 0
= 0.
t
x

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Special cases
Acoustic waves of small amplitudes (1D)
We linearize assuming small Mach number M:
v = Mv1 (x, t),

p = p0 + Mp1 (x, t), = 0 + M1 (x, t).

 
Approximate p1 by p1 = dp
1 =: 1 then
d
0

v1
1
1
v1
Src 0
+ Ec
= 0,
Src
+ 0
= 0.
t
x
t
x
v1 , p1 and 1 all satisfy the wave equation:
2
Ec
2
2
.
=
c
,
c02 =
0
2
2
Src
t
x
Solution is sum of right and left running wave:

(x, t) = f (x c0 t) + g(x c0 t).

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Potential flow of incompressible perfect fluids

Potential flow
We consider irrotational, incompressible, perfect fluids.

Irrotational flow: v = 0 v = .

Incompressibility: v = = 0.
Potential flow in 2D
Continuity equation:

vx
x

vy
y

= 0.

there exists a function , the stream function, such that

vx =
vy =
.
y
x

is constant along streamlines.

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Complex-function formulation
Holomorphic functions
A complex function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is holomorphic if
and only if it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u
v
u
v
=
,
=
(1)
x
y
y
x
and u and v have continuous first partial derivatives.
u and v both satisfy Laplaces equation.
Holomorphic functions are analytic functions.

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Plane potential flow

Complex-function formulation
The complex potential function f (z) = (x) + i(x) is
holomorphic as and satisfy Cauchy-Riemann.
Inverse method
Examine various holomorphic complex potential functions and
choose one thats useful
Examples
Power series of z within their circle of convergence.
Logarithmic potentials away from their points of singularity.
f (z) = az,

f (z) = m ln(z z0 ).

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Plane potential flow

Symmetric flow past a circular cylinder
For real V , the complex potential


a2

a2
f (z) = V z +
= V rei + ei ,
z
r
has real and imaginary parts
a2

a2

cos , = V r
sin .
=V r+
r
r

Further reading

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Plane potential flow

Conformal mappings
Conformal mappings can be used to map simply
connected subsets of the complex plane onto each other.
A potential problem on a very complicated domain can be
transformed to a potential problem on a simple domain.
Flow over airfoils can be mapped conformally onto the
exterior of a circular cylinder ([3]).

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Summary
Fluid mechanics: Newtonian fluids
General theorems:
equations of motion,
continuity equation,
energy equation.

Constitutive equations.
Simplifying assumptions:

steady flow,
incompressible flow,
irrotational flow,
Stokes condition,
barotropic fluids,
perfect (inviscid) fluids.

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading

Equations

Dimensional analysis

Special cases

Potential flow

Summary

Further reading
L.E. Malvern
Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuus Medium
Prentice-Hall, 1969.
L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz
Fluid mechanics
Pergamon Press, 1959.
L.M. Milne-Thomson
Theoretical Hydrodynamics
Macmillan, 1960.
Z. Nehari
Conformal Mapping
McGraw-Hill, 1952.

Further reading