CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Transformations
1.

a. Thermodynamic stability: the potential energy of a particular nucleus compared to the

sum of the potential energies of its component protons and neutrons.
b. Kinetic stability: the probability that a nucleus will undergo decomposition to form a
different nucleus.
c. Radioactive decay: a spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus to form a different nucleus.
d. Beta-particle production: a decay process for radioactive nuclides where an electron is
produced; the mass number remains constant and the atomic number changes.
e. Alpha-particle production: a common mode of decay for heavy radioactive nuclides
where a helium nucleus is produced, causing the atomic number and the mass number
to change.
f.

Positron production: a mode of nuclear decay in which a particle is formed having the
same mass as an electron but opposite in charge.

g. Electron capture: a process in which one of the inner-orbital electrons in an atom is

captured by the nucleus.
h. Gamma-ray emissions; the production of high-energy photons (gamma rays) that frequently accompany nuclear decays and particle reactions.
2.

Beta-particle production has the net effect of turning a neutron into a proton. Radioactive
nuclei having too many neutrons typically undergo beta-particle decay. Positron production
has the net effect of turning a proton into a neutron. Nuclei having too many protons typically
undergo positron decay.

3.

All nuclear reactions must be charge balanced and mass balanced. To charge balance,
balance the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of the reaction, and to mass balance,
balance the sum of the mass numbers on each side of the reaction.
a.

238
4
92 U 2 He

b.

234
90Th

234
91Pa

234
90Th ;

this is alpha-particle production.

this is -particle production.

0
1e ;

803

804
4.

5.

6.

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

a.

73 Ga
31

73
32 Ge

0
1 e

b.

192 Pt
78

c.

205 Bi
83

205 Pb
82

0
1

d.

241 Cm
96

e.

60
27 Co

f.

97
43Tc

g.

99
99
43Tc 44 Ru

0
1e

h.

239
94 Pu

a.

68
31Ga

68
30Zn

b.

62
29 Cu

0
1e

62
28Ni

c.

212
87 Fr

42 He

d.

129
51Sb

0
1e

129
52Te

a.

3
3
0
1 H 2 He 1e

b.

8
8
3 Li 4 Be

60
0
28 Ni 1e

0
1e

208
85At

188 Os
76

0
1e

0
1 e

4
2

He

241 Am
95

97
42 Mo

235
4
92 U 2 He

0
1e

8
Be 2 42 He
4__________
______

c.
7.

8.

7
4 Be

0
1e

73 Li

d.

8
4
3 Li 2 2 He

8
8
5 B 4 Be

0
1e

0
1 e

All nuclear reactions must be charge-balanced and mass-balanced. To charge-balance,

balance the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of the reaction, and to mass-balance,
balance the sum of the mass numbers on each side of the reaction.
a.

51
24 Cr

c.

32
15 P

0
1 e
0
1e

51
23V

b.

131
53 I

0
1e

131
54Xe

32
16S

53
26 Fe has

too many protons. It will undergo either positron production, electron capture,
and/or alpha-particle production. 59
26 Fe has too many neutrons and will undergo beta-particle
production. (See Table 20.2 of the text.) The reactions are:
53
26 Fe

53
25Mn

0
1e;

53
26Fe

0
53
53
1e 25Mn; 26Fe

49
24Cr

42 He;

59
26Fe

59
27 Co

0
1e

9.

Reference Table 20.2 of the text for potential radioactive decay processes. 17F and 18F contain
too many protons or too few neutrons. Electron capture and positron production are both
possible decay mechanisms that increase the neutron-to-proton ratio. Alpha-particle
production also increases the neutron-to-proton ratio, but it is not likely for these light nuclei.
21
F contains too many neutrons or too few protons. Beta-particle production lowers the
neutron-to-proton ratio, so we expect 21F to be a -emitter.

10.

a.

241
95 Am

42 He

b.

241
95 Am

8 42 He 4 01e

237
93Np
209
83Bi;

the final product is

209
83Bi.

CHAPTER 20
c.

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

241
95 Am

237
93Np

213
84 Po

209
82 Pb

213
83Bi

209
83Bi

233
91Pa

217
85At

233
92U

805

221
87 Fr

229
90Th

225
89Ac

225
88Ra

The intermediate radionuclides are:

237
233
233
229
225
225
221
217
213
213
209
93 Np, 91Pa, 92U, 90Th, 88Ra , 89Ac, 87 Fr, 85At, 83Bi, 84Po, and 82Pb

11.

4
0
207
82Pb ? 2 He ? 1e; The change in mass number (247 - 207 = 40) is due exexclusively to the alpha particles. A change in mass number of 40 requires 10 42 He particles
to be produced. The atomic number only changes by 97 82 = 15. The 10 alpha particles
change the atomic number by 20, so 5 01e (five beta particles) are produced in the decay
series of 247Bk to 207Pb.
247
97 Bk

42 He

01n

b.

238
92 U

260
105Db

4 01n

d.

249
98 Cf

263
106Sg

401 n

b.

259
263
104 Rf ; 106Sg

6 01n

a.

240
95 Am

c.

249
98 Cf

15
7N

13.

a.

249
98 Cf

18
8O

14.

The most abundant isotope is generally the most stable isotope. The periodic table predicts
that the most stable isotopes for parts a-d are 39K, 56Fe, 23Na, and 204Tl. (Reference Table 20.2
of the text for potential decay processes.)

12.

a. Unstable;

243
97 Bk

12
6C

10
5B

244
98Cf
257
103Lr

2 01n

42 He

259
104Rf

45

K has too many neutrons and will undergo beta-particle production.

b. Stable
c. Unstable; 20Na has too few neutrons and will most likely undergo electron capture or
positron production. Alpha-particle production makes too severe of a change to be a
likely decay process for the relatively light 20Na nuclei. Alpha-particle production
usually occurs for heavy nuclei.
d. Unstable; 194Tl has too few neutrons and will undergo electron capture, positron
production, and/or alpha-particle production.

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

15.

k=

ln 2
0.69315 1 yr
1d
1h

= 5.08 1011 s 1
t1 / 2
433yr
365 d 24 h 3600s

806

CHAPTER 20
Rate = kN = 5.08 1011 s 1 5.00 g

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

1 mol 6.022 1023 nuclei

= 6.35 1011 decays/s

241g
mol

6.35 1011 alpha particles are emitted each second from a 5.00-g 241Am sample.
16.

Kr-81 is most stable because it has the longest half-life, whereas Kr-73 is hottest (least stable)
since it has the shortest half-life.
12.5% of each isotope will remain after 3 half-lives:

100%

50%
t 1/2

25%
t 1/2

12.5
t 1/2

For Kr73: t = 3(27 s) = 81 seconds

For Kr74: t = 3(11.5 min) = 34.5 minutes
For Kr76: t = 3(14.8 h) = 44.4 hours
For Kr81: t = 3(2.1 105 yr) = 6.3 105 years
17.

175 mg Na332PO4

N
ln
N0

32.0 mg 32P
32

165.0 mg Na 3 PO4

= 33.9 mg 32P; k

m
(0.6931) t
kt
, ln
t1/ 2
33.9 mg

ln 2
t 1/ 2

0.6931(35.0 d)

; carrying extra sig. figs.:
14.3 d

ln(m) = 1.696 + 3.523 = 1.827, m = e1.827 = 6.22 mg 32P remains

18.

N
ln
N0

kt ; k = (ln 2)/t1/2 ; N = 0.001 N0

0.001 N 0
(ln 2) t

ln
, ln(0.001) = (2.88 105)t, t = 200,000 years
N0

24,100 yr
19.

N
ln
N0

0.17 N 0
(ln 2) t
kt
(5.64 102)t, t = 31.4 years
, ln
12
.
3
yr
N
0

It takes 31.4 years for the tritium to decay to 17% of the original amount. Hence the watch
stopped fluorescing enough to be read in 1975 (1944 + 31.4).
20.

a. 0.0100 Ci

ln 2
3.7 1010 decays/s
= 3.7 108 decays/s; k =
t1/ 2
Ci

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

Rate = kN,

807

1h
3.7 108 decays 0.6931
N, N = 5.5 1012 atoms of 38S

=
s
2.87 h 3600 s
38

5.5 1012 atoms 38S

1 mol Na 2 SO 4
1 mol 38S
= 9.1 1012 mol Na238SO4

23
6.02 10 atoms
mol 38S
38

9.1 1012 mol Na238SO4

148.0 g Na 2 SO 4
38

mol Na 2 SO 4

= 1.3 109 g = 1.3 ng Na238SO4

(0.6931) t
0.01
b. 99.99% decays, 0.01% left; ln
, t = 38.1 hours 40 hours
kt
2.87 h
100

21.

t = 67.0 yr; k =

N
(0.6931)67.0 yr
ln 2
= kt =
; ln
= 1.61,
t1/ 2
28.9 yr
N0

= e 1.61 = 0.200
N
0

20.0% of the 90Sr remains as of July 16, 2012.

22.

Assuming 2 significant figures in 1/100:

ln(N/N0) = kt; N = (0.010)N0; t1/2 = (ln 2)/k
ln(0.010) =

23.

a.

(ln 2) t
(0.693) t

, t = 53 days
t1 / 2
8.0 d

ln 2
0.6931 1 d
1h

= 6.27 107 s1
t1/ 2
12.8 d
24 h
3600s

1 mol 6.022 1023 nuclei

b. Rate = kN = 6.27 107 s1 28.0 103 g

64.0 g
mol

Rate = 1.65 1014 decays/s

c. 25% of the 64Cu will remain after 2 half-lives (100% decays to 50% after one half-life
which decays to 25% after a second half-life). Hence 2(12.8 days) = 25.6 days is the time
frame for the experiment.
24.

Units for N and N0 are usually number of nuclei but can also be grams if the units are
identical for both N and N0. In this problem, m0 = the initial mass of 47Ca2+ to be ordered.
k

5.0 g Ca 2 0.693(2.0 d)
N
ln 2
(0.693) t

kt
; ln
, ln
0.31

t1 / 2
N
t
m
4.5 d
1/ 2
0
0

808

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

5 .0
= e0.31 = 0.73, m0 = 6.8 g of 47Ca2+ needed initially
m0
107.0 g

6.8 g 47Ca2+

47.0 g

47

CaCO 3

47

Ca

= 15 g 47CaCO3 should be ordered at the minimum.

25.

Plants take in CO2 during the photosynthesis process, which incorporates carbon, including
14
C, into its molecules. As long as the plant is alive, the 14C/12C ratio in the plant will equal
the ratio in the atmosphere. When the plant dies, 14C is not replenished because 14C decays by
beta-particle production. By measuring the 14C activity today in the artifact and comparing
this to the assumed 14C activity when the plant died to make the artifact, an age can be
determined for the artifact. The assumptions are that the 14C level in the atmosphere is
constant or that the 14C level at the time the plant died can be calculated. A constant 14C level
is a pure assumption, and accounting for variation is complicated. Another problem is that
some of the material must be destroyed to determine the 14C level.

26.

238

27.

Assuming 1.000 g 238U present in a sample, then 0.688 g

206
Pb is produced per mol 238U decayed:

U has a half-life of 4.5 109 years. In order to be useful, we need a significant number of
decay events by 238U to have occurred. With the extremely long half-life of 238U, the period of
time required for a significant number of decay events is on the order of 10 8 years. This is the
time frame of when the earth was formed. 238U is not useful for aging 10,000-year-old objects
or less because a measurable quantity of decay events has not occurred in 10,000 years or
less. 14C is good at dating these objects because 14C has a half-life on the order of 103 years.
14
C is not useful for dating ancient objects because of the relatively short half-life; no
discernable amount of 14C will remain after 108 years.

238

U decayed = 0.688 g Pb

206

Pb is present. Because 1 mol

1 mol Pb 1 mol U 238 g U

= 0.795 g 238U
206 g Pb mol Pb
mol U

Original mass 238U present = 1.000 g + 0.795 g = 1.795 g 238U

N
ln
N0
28.

1.000 g
(ln 2) t
kt
, ln
t1/ 2
1.795 g

a. The decay of
b. Decay of

40

0.95 g

40

Ar

1.00 g

40

c.

0.95 g of
or:

K
40

40

(0.693) t

, t = 3.8 109 years
9
4.5 10 yr

K is not the sole source of

K is the sole source of

40

Ca.

40

Ar and no 40Ar is lost over the years.

= current mass ratio

K decayed to 40Ar; 0.95 g of

40

K is only 10.7% of the total 40K that decayed,

(0.107)m = 0.95 g, m = 8.9 g = total mass of

40

K that decayed

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

Mass of

809

40

K when the rock was formed was 1.00 g + 8.9 g = 9.9 g.

1.00 g 40K
(ln 2) t
(0.6931) t
kt

, t = 4.2 109 years

ln
9
40

t
9
.
9
g
K
1
.
27

10
yr
1/ 2

d. If some 40Ar escaped, then the measured ratio of 40Ar/40K would be less than it should
be. We would calculate the age of the rocks to be less than it actually is.
29.

t1/2 = 5730 y; k = (ln 2)/t1/2; ln (N/N0) = kt; ln

15.1
(ln 2) t

, t = 109 years
15.3
5730 yr

No; from 14C dating, the painting was produced during the early 1900s.
30.

N
ln 2
(0.6931) t
0.6931(15,000 yr)
N
kt
ln
, ln
= 1.8

t 1/ 2
t 1/ 2
5730 yr
15.3
N0

N
= e1.8 = 0.17, N = 15.3 0.17 = 2.6 counts per minute per g of C
15.3
If we had 10. mg C, we would see:
10. mg

1g
2.6 counts 0.026 counts

1000 mg
min g
min

It would take roughly 40 minutes to see a single disintegration. This is too long to wait, and
the background radiation would probably be much greater than the 14C activity. Thus 14C
dating is not practical for very small samples.

Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions

31.

E = mc2, m

E
3.9 1023 kg m 2 /s 2

4.3 106 kg
c2
(3.00 108 m/s) 2

The sun loses 4.3 106 kg of mass each second. Note: 1 J = 1 kg m2/s2.

32.

1.8 1014 kJ 1000 J 3600s

24 h
= 1.6 1022 J/day

s
kJ
h
day

E = mc2, m
1.6 1022 J

E
1.6 1022 J

1.8 105 kg of solar material provides

c2
(3.00 108 m/s) 2
1 day of solar energy to the earth.

1 kJ
1g
1 kg

= 5.0 1014 kg of coal is needed to provide the

1000 J 32 kJ 1000 g
same amount of energy.

810
33.

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

From the text, the mass of a proton = 1.00728 amu, the mass of a neutron = 1.00866 amu, and
the mass of an electron = 5.486 104 amu.
Mass of

56
26 Fe

nucleus = mass of atom mass of electrons = 55.9349 26(0.0005486)

= 55.9206 amu

26 11H 30 11n

56
26Fe;

m = 55.9206 amu [26(1.00728) + 30(1.00866)] amu

= 0.5285 amu

E = mc2 = 0.5285 amu

1.6605 1027 kg
(2.9979 108 m/s)2 = 7.887 1011 J
amu

Binding energy 7.887 1011 J

1.408 1012 J/nucleon

Nucleon
56 nucleons

34.

For 21 H : mass defect = m = mass of 21 H nucleus mass of proton mass of neutron. The
mass of the 2H nucleus will equal the atomic mass of 2H minus the mass of the electron in an
2
H atom. From the text, the pertinent masses are: me = 5.49 104 amu, mp = 1.00728 amu,
and mn = 1.00866 amu.
m = 2.01410 amu 0.000549 amu (1.00728 amu + 1.00866 amu) = 2.39 103 amu
E = mc2 = 2.39 103 amu

1.6605 1027 kg
(2.998 108 m/s)2
amu
= 3.57 1013 J

Binding energy 3.57 1013 J

1.79 1013 J/nucleon

Nucleon
2 nucleons

For 13 H : m = 3.01605 0.000549 [1.00728 + 2(1.00866)] = 9.10 103 amu

E = 9.10 103 amu

1.6605 1027 kg
(2.998 108 m/s)2 = 1.36 1012 J
amu

Binding energy 1.36 1012 J

4.53 1013 J/nucleon

Nucleon
3 nucleons

35.

Let me = mass of electron; for 12C (6e, 6p, 6n): mass defect = m = [mass of 12C nucleus]
[mass of 6 protons + mass of 6 neutrons]. Note: Atomic masses given include the mass of the
electrons.
m = 12.00000 amu 6me [6(1.00782 me) + 6(1.00866)]; mass of electrons cancel.
m = 12.00000 [6(1.00782) + 6(1.00866)] = 0.09888 amu

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

811

1.6605 1027 kg
(2.9979 108 m/s)2
amu
= 1.476 1011 J
Binding energy 1.476 1011 J

1.230 1012 J/nucleon

Nucleon
12 nucleons

E = mc2 = 0.09888 amu

For 235U (92e, 92p, 143n):

m = 235.0439 92me [92(1.00782 me) + 143(1.00866)] = 1.9139 amu
E = mc2 = 1.9139

1.66054 1027 kg
(2.99792 108 m/s)2 = 2.8563 1010 J
amu

Binding energy
2.8563 1010 J

1.2154 1012 J/nucleon

Nucleon
235 nucleons

Because 56Fe is the most stable known nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon for 56Fe
(1.408 1012 J/nucleon) will be larger than that of 12C or 235U (see Figure 20.9 of the text).
36.

Let mLi = mass of 6Li nucleus; an 6Li nucleus has 3p and 3n.
0.03434 amu = mLi (3mp + 3mn) = mLi [3(1.00728 amu) + 3(1.00866 amu)]
mLi = 6.01348 amu
Mass of 6Li atom = 6.01348 amu + 3me = 6.01348 + 3(5.49 104 amu) = 6.01513 amu
(includes mass of 3 e)

37.

Binding energy =

1.326 1012 J
27 nucleons = 3.580 1011 J for each 27Mg nucleus
nucleon

E
3.580 1011 J
=
= 3.983 1028 kg
c2
(2.9979 108 m/s) 2
1 amu
m = 3.983 1028 kg
= 0.2399 amu = mass defect
1.6605 10 27 kg

E = mc2, m =

Let mMg = mass of

27

Mg nucleus; an 27Mg nucleus has 12 p and 15 n.

0.2399 amu = mMg (12mp + 15mn) = mMg [12(1.00728 amu) + 15(1.00866 amu)]
mMg = 26.9764 amu
Mass of 27Mg atom = 26.9764 amu + 12me, 26.9764 + 12(5.49 104 amu) = 26.9830 amu
(includes mass of 12 e)

812
38.

CHAPTER 20
1
1H

11H 12 H

0
1e;

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

m = (2.01410 amu - me + me) 2(1.00782 amu me)

m = 2.01410 2(1.00782) + 2(0.000549) = 4.4 104 amu for two protons reacting
When 2 mol protons undergo fusion, m = 4.4 104 g.
E = mc2 = 4.4 107 kg (3.00 108 m/s)2 = 4.0 1010 J
4.0 1010 J 1 mol
= 2.0 1010 J/g of hydrogen nuclei

2 mol protons 1.01 g

39.

13H 42 He 10 n; mass of electrons cancel when determining m for this nuclear

reaction.
2
1H

m = [4.00260 + 1.00866 - (2.01410 + 3.01605)] amu = 1.889 102 amu

For the production of 1 mol of 42 He : m = 1.889 102 g = 1.889 105 kg
E = mc2 = 1.889 105 kg (2.9979 108 m/s)2 = 1.698 1012 J/mol
For one nucleus of 42 He :
1.698 1012 J
1 mol
= 2.820 1012 J/nucleus

23
mol
6.0221 10 nuclei

40.

m = 2(5.486 104 amu) = 1.097 103 amu

E = mc2 = 1.097 10-3 amu

1.6605 1027 kg
(2.9979 108 m/s)2
amu
= 1.637 1013 J

Ephoton = 1/2 (1.637 1013 J) = 8.185 1014 J = hc/

hc
6.6261 1034 J s 2.9979 108 m/s

2.427 1012 m = 2.427 103 nm

E
8.185 1014 J

Detection, Uses, and Health Effects of Radiation

41.

The Geiger-Mller tube has a certain response time. After the gas in the tube ionizes to
produce a "count," some time must elapse for the gas to return to an electrically neutral state.
The response of the tube levels out because at high activities, radioactive particles are
entering the tube faster than the tube can respond to them.

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

813

42.

Not all the emitted radiation enters the Geiger-Mller tube. The fraction of radiation entering
the tube must be constant for a meaningful measurement.

43.

In order to sustain a nuclear chain reaction, the neutrons produced by the fission process must
be contained within the fissionable material so that they can go on to cause other fissions.
The fissionable material must be closely packed together to ensure that neutrons are not lost
to the outside. The critical mass is the mass of material in which exactly one neutron from
each fission event causes another fission event so that the process sustains itself. A
supercritical situation occurs when more than one neutron from each fission event causes
another fission event. In this case the process rapidly escalates, and the heat buildup causes a
violent explosion.

44.

No, coal fired power plants also pose risks. A partial list of risks are:

45.

Coal

Nuclear

Air pollution
Coal mine accidents
Health risks to miners
(black lung disease)

Radiation exposure to workers

Disposal of wastes
Meltdown
Terrorists

Fission:

Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two (or more) lighter nuclei.

Fusion:

Combining two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.

The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs at Fe. Nuclei smaller than Fe become
more stable by fusing to form heavier nuclei closer in mass to Fe. Nuclei larger than Fe form
more stable nuclei by splitting to form lighter nuclei closer in mass to Fe.
46.

The temperatures of fusion reactions are so high that all physical containers would be
destroyed. At these high temperatures, most of the electrons are stripped from the atoms. A
plasma of gaseous ions is formed that can be controlled by magnetic fields.

47.

Moderator:

Slows the neutrons to increase the efficiency of the fission reaction.

Control rods: Absorbs neutrons to slow or halt the fission reaction.

48.

For fusion reactions, a collision of sufficient energy must occur between two positively
charged particles to initiate the reaction. This requires high temperatures. In fission, an
electrically neutral neutron collides with the positively charged nucleus. This has a much
lower activation energy.

49.

All evolved oxygen in O2 comes from water and not from carbon dioxide.

50.

Radiotracer: a radioactive nuclide introduced into an organism for diagnostic purposes whose
pathway can be traced by monitoring its radioactivity. 14C and 32P work well as radiotracers
because the molecules in the body contain carbon and/or phosphorus; they will be
incorporated into the worker molecules of the body easily, which allows monitoring of the
pathways of these worker molecules.

814

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

51.

(i) and (ii) mean that Pu is not a significant threat outside the body. Our skin is sufficient to
keep out the particles. If Pu gets inside the body, it is easily oxidized to Pu 4+ (iv), which is
chemically similar to Fe3+ (iii). Thus Pu4+ will concentrate in tissues where Fe3+ is found,
including the bone marrow, where red blood cells are produced. Once inside the body,
particles can cause considerable damage.

52.

Even though gamma rays penetrate human tissue very deeply, they are very small and cause
only occasional ionization of biomolecules. Alpha particles, because they are much more
massive, are very effective at causing ionization of biomolecules; these produce a dense trail
of damage once they get inside an organism.

53.

A nonradioactive substance can be put in equilibrium with a radioactive substance. The two
materials can then be checked to see whether all the radioactivity remains in the original
material or if it has been scrambled by the equilibrium.

54.

Water is produced in this reaction by removing an OH group from one substance and an H
from the other substance. There are two ways to do this:
O
i.

CH 3C

O
OH +

18

OCH 3

O
ii.

CH 3CO

18

CH 3C

OCH 3 +

HO

O
18

H +H O

CH 3

CH 3CO

CH 3 + H

18

OH

Because the water produced is not radioactive, methyl acetate forms by the first reaction
where all of the oxygen-18 ends up in methyl acetate.
55.

Some factors for the biological effects of radiation exposure are:

a. The energy of the radiation. The higher the energy, the more damage it can cause.
b. The penetrating ability of radiation. The ability of specific radiation to penetrate human
tissue where it can do damage must be considered.
c. The ionizing ability of the radiation. When biomolecules are ionized, their function is
usually disturbed.
d. The chemical properties of the radiation source. Specifically, can the radioactive
substance be readily incorporated into the body, or is the radiation source inert
chemically so that it passes through the body relatively quickly.
90

Sr will be incorporated into the body by replacing calcium in the bones. Once incorporated,
Sr can cause leukemia and bone cancer. Krypton is chemically inert, so it will not be
incorporated into the body.
90

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

815

Additional Exercises
56.

The third-life will be the time required for the number of nuclides to reach one-third of the
original value (N0/3).

N
(0.6931) t
(0.6931) t
1
= kt =
ln
, t = 49.8 years
, ln =
3
N
31.4 yr
t

1/ 2
0
The third-life of this nuclide is 49.8 years.
57.

20,000 ton TNT

4 109 J 1 mol 235U 235 g 235U

= 940 g 235U 900 g 235U

13
235
ton T NT
2 10 J
mol U

This assumes that all of the 235U undergoes fission.

58.

a. Nothing; binding energy is related to thermodynamic stability, and is not related to

kinetics. Binding energy indicates nothing about how fast or slow a specific nucleon
decays.
b.

56

Fe has the largest binding energy per nucleon, so it is the most stable nuclide. 56Fe has
the greatest mass loss per nucleon when the protons and neutrons are brought together to
form the 56Fe nucleus. The least stable nuclide shown, having the smallest binding
energy per nucleon, is 2H.

c. Fusion refers to combining two light nuclei having relatively small binding energies per
nucleon to form a heavier nucleus which has a larger binding energy per nucleon. The
difference in binding energies per nucleon is related to the energy released in a fusion
reaction. Nuclides to the left of 56Fe can undergo fusion.
Nuclides to the right of 56Fe can undergo fission. In fission, a heavier nucleus having a
relatively small binding energy per nucleon is split into two smaller nuclei having larger
binding energy per nucleons. The difference in binding energies per nucleon is related to
the energy released in a fission reaction.
59.

Assuming that the radionuclide is long lived enough that no significant decay occurs during
the time of the experiment, the total counts of radioactivity injected are:
0.10 mL

5.0 103 cpm

= 5.0 102 cpm
mL

Assuming that the total activity is uniformly distributed only in the rats blood, the blood
volume is:
V

48 cpm
= 5.0 102 cpm, V = 10.4 mL = 10. mL
mL

816
60.

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

Mass of nucleus = atomic mass mass of electron = 2.01410 amu 0.000549 amu
= 2.01355 amu
1/ 2

3RT
urms =

KEavg =

3(8.3145 J K 1 mol1 )(4 107 K )

=

2.01355g(1 kg / 1000 g)

1/2

= 7 105 m/s

1
1
1.66 1027 kg
(7 105 m/s)2 = 8 1016 J/nucleus
mu2 2.01355amu

2
2
amu

We could have used KEave = (3/2) RT to determine the same average kinetic energy.
61.

N = 180 lb

453.6 g
18 g C
1.6 1010 g

lb
100 g body
100 g C

Rate = kN; k =

14

1 mol 14 C
14 g

14

6.022 1023 nuclei 14 C

mol

14

1.0 1015 nuclei 14 C

ln 2
0.693
1 yr
1d
1h

3.8 1012 s 1
t1/2
5730 yr 365 d 24 h 3600s

Rate = kN; k = 3.8 1012 s 1 (1.0 1015 nuclei 14 C) 3800 decays/s

A typical 180 lb person produces 3800 beta particles each second.
62.

a.

12

b.

13

c.

C; it takes part in the first step of the reaction but is regenerated in the last step.
not consumed, so it is not a reactant.

12

C is

N, 13C, 14N, 15O, and 15N are the intermediates.

4 11H 42 He 2 01e; ; m = 4.00260 amu 2me + 2me [4(1.00782 amu me)]

m = 4.00260 4(1.00782) + 4(0.000549) = 0.02648 amu for four protons reacting
For 4 mol of protons, m = 0.02648 g, and E for the reaction is:
E = mc2 = 2.648 10-5 kg (2.9979 108 m/s)2 = 2.380 1012 J
For 1 mol of protons reacting:

63.

2.380 1012 J
= 5.950 1011 J/mol 1H
1
4 mol H

The only product in the fast-equilibrium step is assumed to be N16O18O2, where N is the
central atom. However, this is a reversible reaction where N16O18O2 will decompose to NO
and O2. Because any two oxygen atoms can leave N16O18O2 to form O2, we would expect (at
equilibrium) one-third of the NO present in this fast equilibrium step to be N16O and twothirds to be N18O. In the second step (the slow step), the intermediate N16O18O2 reacts with

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

817

the scrambled NO to form the NO2 product, where N is the central atom in NO2. Any one of
the three oxygen atoms can be transferred from N16O18O2 to NO when the NO2 product is
formed. The distribution of 18O in the product can best be determined by forming a
probability table.

N16O (1/3)

N18O (2/3)

16

O (1/3) from N16O18O2

N16O2 (1/9)

N18O16O (2/9)

18

O (2/3) from N16O18O2

N16O18O (2/9)

N18O2 (4/9)

From the probability table, 1/9 of the NO2 is N16O2, 4/9 of the NO2 is N18O2, and 4/9 of the
NO2 is N16O18O (2/9 + 2/9 = 4/9). Note: N16O18O is the same as N18O16O. In addition,
N16O18O2 is not the only NO3 intermediate formed; N16O218O and N18O3 can also form in the
fast-equilibrium first step. However, the distribution of 18O in the NO2 product is the same as
calculated above, even when these other NO3 intermediates are considered.
64.

Characteristic frequencies of energies emitted in a nuclear reaction suggest that discrete

energy levels exist in the nucleus. Extra stability of certain numbers of nucleons and the
predominance of nuclei with even numbers of nucleons suggests that the nuclear structure
might be described by using quantum numbers.

Challenge Problems
65.

mol I =

[I] =

33 counts
1 mol I min

= 6.6 1011 mol I

11
min
5.0 10 counts

6.6 1011 mol I

= 4.4 1010 mol/L
0.150 L

Hg2I2(s) Hg22+(aq)

2 I(aq)

Initial s = solubility (mol/L)

Equil.

2s

Ksp = [Hg22+][I]2

From the problem, 2s = 4.4 1010 mol/L, s = 2.2 1010 mol/L.

Ksp = (s)(2s)2 = (2.2 1010)(4.4 1010)2 = 4.3 1029
66.

a. From Table 11.1: 2 H2O + 2 e- H2 + 2 OH- E = -0.83 V

E ocell E oH 2O E oZr = -0.83 V + 2.36 V = 1.53 V

Yes, the reduction of H2O to H2 by Zr is spontaneous at standard conditions because
E ocell > 0.

818

CHAPTER 20
b.

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

(2 H2O + 2 e H2 + 2 OH) 2
Zr + 4 OH ZrO2H2O + H2O + 4 e
3 H2O(l) + Zr(s) 2 H2(g) + ZrO2H2O(s)

c. G = nFE = (4 mol e)(96,485 C/mol e)(1.53 J/C) = 5.90 105 J = 590. kJ

E = E

E =

0.0591
log Q; at equilibrium, E = 0 and Q = K.
n

0.0591
4(1.53)
log K, log K =
= 104, K 10104
0.0591
n

d. 1.00 103 kg Zr

2 mol H 2
1000 g
1 mol Zr

= 2.19 104 mol H2

kg
91.22 g Zr
mol Zr

2.19 104 mol H2

2.016 g H 2
= 4.42 104 g H2
mol H 2

nRT
(2.19 104 mol)(0.08206L atm K 1 mol1 )(1273 K)

2.3 106 L H2
P
1.0 atm

e. Probably yes; less radioactivity overall was released by venting the H 2 than what would
have been released if the H2 exploded inside the reactor (as happened at Chernobyl).
Neither alternative is pleasant, but venting the radioactive hydrogen is the less unpleasant
of the two alternatives.

67.

k=

ln 2
;
t1 / 2

N
(0.693)t
kt
ln
t1/2
N0

N (0.693)(4.5 109 yr)

N

0.693,
e 0.693 0.50
For 238U: ln
9
N
N
4.5 10 yr
0
0
N (0.693)(4.5 109 yr)
N

4.39,
e 4.39 0.012
For 235U: ln
8
N
N
7
.
1

10
yr
0
0
If we have a current sample of 10,000 uranium nuclei, 9928 nuclei of 238U and 72 nuclei of
235
U are present. Now lets calculate the initial number of nuclei that must have been present
4.5 109 years ago to produce these 10,000 uranium nuclei.
For 238U:

N
N
9928 nuclei
0.50, N 0

2.0 104
N0
0.50
0.50

238

U nuclei

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

For 235U: N 0

N
72 nuclei

6.0 103
0.012
0.012

235

819

U nuclei

So 4.5 billion years ago, the 10,000-nuclei sample of uranium was composed of 2.0 104
238
U nuclei and 6.0 103 235U nuclei. The percent composition 4.5 billion years ago would
have been:

2.0 104

238

U nuclei

(6.0 10 2.0 10 ) totalnuclei

3

68.

100 = 77% 238U and 23% 235U

238
92 U

4
0
222
86 Rn + ? 2 He + ? 1 e ; to account for the mass number change, four alpha
particles are needed. To balance the number of protons, two beta particles are needed.

a.

222
86 Rn

42 He +

218
84 Po;

polonium-218 is produced when 222Rn decays.

b. Alpha particles cause significant ionization damage when inside a living organism.
Because the half-life of 222Rn is relatively short, a significant number of alpha particles
will be produced when 222Rn is present (even for a short period of time) in the lungs.
222
86 Rn

4
214
218
42 He + 218
84 Po;
84 Po 2 He + 82 Pb; polonium-218 is produced when
218
radon-222 decays. Po is a more potent alpha-particle producer because it has a much
shorter half-life than 222Rn. In addition, 218Po is a solid, so it can get trapped in the lung
tissue once it is produced. Once trapped, the alpha particles produced from polonium218 (with its very short half-life) can cause significant ionization damage.

c.

d. Rate = kN; rate =

4.0 pCi 1 1012 Ci 3.7 1010 decays/ s

= 0.15 decays s1 L1

L
pCi
Ci

k=

ln 2
0.6391 1 d
1h

= 2.10 106 s 1
t1/ 2
3.82 d
24 h 3600 s

N=

rate 0.15 decays s 1 L1

= 7.1 104 atoms 222Rn/L

6 1
K
2.10 10 s

7.1 104 atoms 222 Rn

L

69.

2
1

H + 21 H

E=

4
2

1 mol 222 Rn
6.02 1023 atoms

= 1.2 1019 mol 222Rn/L

He; Q for 21 H = 1.6 1019 C; mass of deuterium = 2 amu.

9.0 109 J m / C 2 (Q1Q 2 )

9.0 109 J m / C 2 (1.6 1019 C) 2
=
r
2 1015 m
= 1 1013 J per alpha particle

KE = 1/2 mv2; 1 1013 J = 1/2 (2 amu 1.66 1027 kg/amu)v2, v = 8 106 m/s

820

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

From the kinetic molecular theory discussed in Chapter 5:

1/ 2

3RT
urms =

where M = molar mass in kilograms = 2 103 kg/mol for deuterium

3(8.3145 J K 1 mol1 )(T)

8 10 m/s =

2 103 kg

70.

1/ 2

, T = 5 109 K

Total activity injected = 86.5 103 Ci

Activity withdrawn

3.6 106 Ci
1.8 106 Ci

2.0 mL H 2O
mL H 2O

Assuming no significant decay occurs, then the total volume of water in the body multiplied
by 1.8 106 Ci/mL must equal the total activity injected.
V

1.8 106 Ci
= 8.65 102 Ci, V = 4.8 104 mL H2O
mL H 2 O

Assuming a density of 1.0 g/mL for water, the mass percent of water in this 150-lb person is:

1.0 g H 2 O
1 lb

mL
453.6 g
100 = 71%
150 lb

4.8 104 mL H 2 O

71.

a. For a gas, uavg = 8RT/R where M is the molar mass in kg. From the equation, the
lighter the gas molecule, the faster is the average velocity. Therefore, 235UF6 will have
the greater average velocity at a certain temperature because it is the lighter molecule.
b. From Grahams law (see Section 5.7 of the text):
diffusion rate for 235UF6

diffusion rate for 238UF6

M ( 238 UF6 )

M ( 235 UF6 )

352.05 g/mol
= 1.0043
349.03 g/mol

Each diffusion step increases the 235UF6 concentration by a factor of 1.0043. To

determine the number of steps to get to the desired 3.00% 235U, we use the following
formula:
0.700 235UF6
3.00 235UF6
N

(
1
.
0043
)

99.3 238UF6
97.0 238UF6
original ratio
final ratio

where N represents the number of steps required.

CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

821

Solving (and carrying extra sig. figs.):

(1.0043)N =

N=

297.9
= 4.387, N log(1.0043) = log(4.387)
67.9

0.6422
= 345 steps
1.863 103

Thus 345 steps are required to obtain the desired enrichment.

235

c.

UF6
1526
(1.0043)100
,
238
UF6
1.000 105 1526
original ratio
final ratio
235
238

72.

235
238

UF6
1526
1.5358
98500
UF6

UF6
= 1.01 102 = initial 235U to 238U atom ratio
UF6

60
+ 2 01 n 27
Co + ?; in order to balance the equation, the missing particle has no
mass and a charge of 1; this is an electron.
58
26 Fe

An atom of

60
27 Co

has 27 e, 27 p, and 33 n. The mass defect of the 60Co nucleus is:

m = (59.9338 27me) [27(1.00782 me) + 33(1.00866)] = 0.5631 amu

E = mc2 = 0.5631 amu

1.6605 1027 kg
(2.9979 108 m/s)2 = 8.403 1011 J
amu

Binding energy
8.403 1011 J
=
= 1.401 1012 J/nucleon
Nucleon
60 nucleons
The emitted particle was an electron, which has a mass of 9.109 1031 kg. The deBroglie
wavelength is:

h
6.626 1034 J s
=
= 2.7 1012 m
mv
9.109 1031 kg (0.90 2.998 108 m / s)