THE HUMAN BODY

As commonly defined, the human body is the physical manifestation of

a human

being,

collection

of chemical

elements,

mobile electrons,

and

electromagnetic fields present in extracellular materials and cellular components

organized hierarchically into cells, tissues, organs,and organ systems. The human
body as an integrated whole is a highly dynamic system maintaining its form and
function even as individual cells are routinely dismantled and replaced with newly
constructed ones.
Several fields are involved in the study of the human body. Anatomy focuses
on the structure and form of the human body by describing, for example, organs and
organ systems. Human physiology, a specialized field within physiology, studies the
functioning of the human body, including its systems, tissues, and cells. The study of
tissues is the focus of histology, and the study of cells is part of cytology.
The human body is an intricate organism, with cells, tissues, organs, and
systems working together in remarkable harmony. In Eastern medicine, the meaning
of the term human body is extended to include networks of immaterial mental or
energetic pathways. This leads towards a holistic understanding of the "mind-body"
relationship.

1. Chemical elements
The most common chemical

elements in

the

human

body

are oxygen (65 percent by mass), carbon (18 percent), hydrogen (10 percent),
nitrogen (3 percent), calcium (1.5 percent), and phosphorus (1 percent)
(Harper, Rodwell, and Mayes 1977). These six elements make up 99 percent
of the mass of the human body. Potassium (0.35 percent), sulfur (0.25
percent), sodium (0.15 percent), and magnesium (0.05 percent) are the next
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four most common elements. Ten elements only combine for about 0.7
percent of the human body's mass: iron, copper, zinc, selenium, molybdenum,
fluorine, chlorine, iodine, manganese, and cobalt. Trace elements that have
been identified include lithium, strontium, aluminum, silicon, lead, vanadium,
arsenic, and bro mine.
The most common chemical compound in the human body is water,
with cells having between 65 percent and 90 percent by weight. Four other
common compounds are carbohydrates (such as glucose or starch),
lipids (fats), nucleic acids, and proteins. These last four all include the element
carbon.
2. Cells
The average adult human body is estimated to have ten trillion to one
hundred trillion cells. These range in size from a sperm cell, which is the
smallest, to the egg cell, which is the largest. The sperm head is about 2.5 to
3.5 microns wide and 5 to 7 microns long, with a tail about 50 to 80 microns
long. The egg cell is about 60 microns in diameter. Although muscle cells may
be considered larger, they are multinuclear and represent the fusion of many
individual cells. Nerve cells are large because of the axons, but the actual cell
body is smaller than the egg.
There are a wide variety of types of cells, and they differ in size, shape,
and function. Among the types of cells are bone cells, bloodcells, nerve cells,
muscle cells, stomach cells, and so forth. Red blood cells carry oxygen, bone
cells form the skeleton of the body, nerve cells carry electrical signals, and
muscle cells move the bones. Stomach cells secrete acids to digest food,
while cells in the intestines absorb nutrients.
3. Tissues
Tissues are collections of similar cells that perform a specialized function. The
human body has four primary tissue types :
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a. Muscle tissue. Muscle tissue, which is composed of muscle cells and has
the ability to contract and relax, makes up the body's muscles. There are
approximately 650 skeletal muscles in the human body. These muscles
are of three general types: smooth muscle (or "involuntary muscle"), such
as found in the intestine and throat; cardiac muscle, an involuntary muscle
found only in the heart; and skeletal muscle, a voluntary muscle anchored
by tendons to bones and used for skeletal movement. All three types of
muscle use actin and myosin to produce contraction and relaxation, and
thus movement. Exercise does not increase muscles, but rather the size
of the muscle cells.
b. Nerve tissue. Nerve tissue is composed of two cell types: neurons and
glial cells. Neurons have excitable membranes that allow them to generate
and transmit electrical signals. They are found in the peripheral nervous
system, the spinal cord, and the brain. Glial cells are non-neuronal cells
that form myelin, provide support and nutrition, and assist in signal
transmission. The human brain is estimated to have 50 times as many
glial cells as neurons.
c. Epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue is composed of tightly packed cells that
form continuous sheets and serve as linings for different parts of the body.
Epithelial tissues line organs, helping to protect and separate them.
Epithelial tissue lines both the outside of the body (skin) and the inside
(the mouth, stomach, intestine, lungs, reproductive and urinary tract,
endocrine glands, exocrine glands, etc.).
d. Connective tissue. Connective tissue is composed of a variety of types of
cells and generally provides the human body with support, protection, and
structure. Examples include cartilage, tendons, inner layers of skin, bone,
ligaments, lymph, and fat tissue.Blood is also considered a connective
tissue. Connective tissues are surrounded by, or embedded in, a matrix,
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that can be solid, semisolid, or even liquid. Blood is surrounded by a liquid

matrix, and fat cells by a semisolid matrix. Bone, or osseous tissue,
contains specialized cells (osteocytes) within a mineralized extracellular
matrix, aiding the bone's function as connective tissue. Fibrous strands of
the protein collagen often provide strength to connective tissue.
4. Organs
An organ is a group of two or more different kinds of tissues that work together
to perform a specific function or group of functions.
a. External body features
Common names of well known parts of the human body, from top to
bottom:
Head, Forehead, Eye, Ear, Nose, Mouth, Tongue, Teeth, Jaw, Face,
Cheek, Chin, Neck, Throat, Adam's apple, Shoulders, Arm, Elbow, Wrist,
Hand, Fingers, Thumb, Spine, Chest, Breast, Ribcage, Abdomen, Belly
button, Sex organs (Penis/Scrotum or Clitoris/Vagina), Rectum, Anus, Hip,
Buttocks, Leg, Thigh, Knee, Calf, Heel, Ankle, Foot, Toes
b. Internal organs
Common names of internal organs (in alphabetical order):
Adrenal glands, Appendix, Bladder, Brain, Duodenum, Gall bladder, Heart,
Intestines, Kidney, Liver, Lungs, Ovaries, Pancreas, Parathyroid gland,
Pituitary gland,

Prostate gland,

Spleen,

Stomach,

Thyroid gland, Testicles, Womb

Major systems of the human body

Thymus gland,

A group of organs functioning as a unit is called a system, or organ system. The

following are the major systems of the human body.
a. Cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system, or circulatory system, is
an organ system that moves substances to and from cells, such as
transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste materials. The human circulatory
system consists of the heart, a network of blood vessels, and blood.
b. Digestive system. The digestive system, noted above, breaks down food into
molecules that the body can use. The alimentary canal, or digestive tract,
begins

at

the

mouth

and

winds

through

the

esophagus, stomach,

small intestine, and large intestine, until the anus. The digestive system also
includes the liver, located near the stomach in the abdominal cavity. The liver
is vital for digesting fats by secreting bile, an emulsifying agent that breaks
down fat globules into small droplets. The gallbladder stores and concentrates
the bile. Thepancreas, also part of the digestive system, secretes pancreatic
fluid, which have digestive enzymes for breaking down nutrients.
c. Endocrine system. The endocrine system is a control system that transmits
chemical messages within the body using hormones, which are chemicals
that are produced in one part of the body to impact cells in another part of the
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body.

Major

endocrine

glands

include

the

pineal

gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, and gonads (the
ovary in females, and testis in males). There are also endocrine tissues in
such organs as the brain, kidneys, stomach, and pancreas that produce
hormones.
d. Immune system. The immune system involves organs and specialized cells
that protect the body against pathogens, such as bacteria and viral infections.
This system includes barriers to infection, such as skin and the mucus coating
of the gut and airways; phagocytic cells that can ingest and digest foreign
substances; and anti-microbrial proteins. The stomach also secretes gastric
acid that helps to prevent bacterial colonization, while an adaptive immune
system response helps to develop immunity against being infected twice by
the same pathogen.
e. Integumentary system. The integumentary system includes the skin, hair,
nails, and skin glands and their products. This system helps in retention of
body fluids, sensing the person's surroundings, regulation of body
temperature, elimination of waste products, and offering a protective barrier
from the environment outside the body.
f. Muscular system. The muscles, which are attached to the skeletal frame,
cause the body to move.
g. Skeletal system. The skeletal system or skeleton provides structural support
and protection by means ofbones. There are two basic parts, the axial
skeleton (spine, ribs, sacrum, sternum, cranium, and about 80 bones in all)
and the appendicular skeleton (bones of the arms, pelvis, legs, and shoulders,
totaling 126 bones in all). While at birth a human has about 350 bones, the
adult body has about 206 bones, due to the fusing of some bones.
h. Lymphatic system. The lymphatic system collects the blood plasma lost from
the circulatory system as lymph and returns it to the circulatory system.

i. Respiratory system. The respiratory system consists of the lungs, airways,

and respiratory muscles that mediate the movement of gases (oxygen and
carbon dioxide) into and out of the body. Involved in this system are external
respiration (exchange of gases between atmosphere and blood), and internal
respiration (exchange of gases between cells of the body and the blood).
j. Nervous system. The nervous system functions in collecting, transferring,
and processing information via cellular communication involving nerve cells,
or neurons. The brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system
and the nerves that radiate out to the rest of the body comprise the peripheral
nervous system. The human brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons.
k. Reproductive system. The reproductive system involves a group of
specialized organs that produce, store, and release gametes for reproduction.
l. Urinary system. The urinary system is the organ system that produces,
stores, and carries urine. This system includes twokidneys, two ureters, the
urinary bladder, two sphincter muscles, and the urethra.

CONVERSATION
VISIT A DOCTOR

A : Doctor, B : Patient

: Hi doctor.

: Hi. Come on in and have a seat. What is your name? How old are you?

: My name is Ryan. Im 19 years old, doctor.

: Okay, Ryan now what seems to be the problem?

: I have a rash on my arm, doctor.

: How long have you had the rash?

: Its been about a week.

: Are you taking anything for it?

: I put some cream on it but it doesn't seem to be helping.

: I see. Are you allergic to any medications?

: Not that I know of.

: Im going to give you this ointment. I want you to apply it three times a day.
You should also avoid scratching your skin. And its important to use as little
soap as possible. Make an appointment to see me next week if it doesn't get
better over the next few days.

: Okay thank you doctor. God Bless You.