Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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Basic Principles of
Electricity
METU
by
Prof. Dr. Osman SEVAOLU
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 1
Course Syllabus
EE 209
Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering (3-0)3
Basic Principles of Electricity,
Circuit Analysis,
AC Circuits,
AC Power,
Phasors,
Three Phase Systems,
Transformers,
Magnetic Circuits,
Electrical Safety
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 3
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 4
Course Syllabus
Chapters to be Covered
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 5
Examinations
Two midterm examinations and a final exam
Midterm Exam 1 (Three questions, equal credits, 90 min)
Midterm Exam 2 (Three questions, equal credits, 90 min)
Final Exam
(Four questions, equal credits, 120 min)
Attendance
20
20
30
30
%
%
%
%
+
------------Total
100 %
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 6
Homework
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 7
Examinations
Midterm examinations will cover all the material taught until the
examination date,
Final Examination will cover the overall course material,
Announced exam schedule can neither be changed nor discussed
after it has been settled,
Duration of the examination will never be extended,
Questions will never be allowed during the examination
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 8
Make-up Examinations
Exam Questions
and Solutions
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ee209/
Yahoo Group for the course is;
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ee209/
This group is intended to be the main communication medium for
information exchange and storage for the course
Enrollment to this group is compulsory --All students are obliged to subscribe to this group by using the
procedure described in the next page
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 11
E-mail Group
Enrollment
To subscribe from the group, send an email to:
ee209-subscribe@yahoogroups.com
To unsubscribe from the group, send an email to:
ee209-unsubscribe@yahoogroups.com
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 12
E-mail Group
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 13
E-mail Group
Communication
All questions, suggestions, complaints, demands, requests and other
communication concerning the course should be directed to the e-mail
communication address of the group:
ee209@yahoogroups.com
The Course Instructor keeps the right of not answering some or all
of the questions, suggestions, complaints, demands, requests
forwarded in this mail group, in case that it is not necessary, or not
relevant, or not possible
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 14
E-mail Group
Rules of Communication
In your e-mails;
Be polite,
Start your letter with; Dear Group Members or Dear Friends
and end with; With best regards
Do not use disturbing abbreviatons, such as slm for selam,
Do not discuss your own personal, social or academic problems,
Do not be aggressive to the Group members and to Course
Instructor,
Do not discuss subjects not relevant to the course, (such as
last match of Fenerbahe)
People who violate the above rules will be deleted from the group
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 15
E-mail Group
Group Moderators
Course Instructor is the Main Moderator of the e-mail Group.
Assistant Moderator
An assistant moderator who is familiar with the management of
yahoogroups activities, will be elected and appointed for managing
the group from valunteer candidates in the class during the first hour.
Moderators have identical authorities in group management in all
respects
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 16
Problems
This course is NOT a proper platform for expressing your own problems,
negative or positive human feelings, such as, crying, complaining,
hating, admiring, or any other physiologic, psychological expressions
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 17
E-mail Group
Office Hours
Unfortunately, there will not be any chance for office hour
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 18
E-mail Group
Telephone Calls
My GSM No: 0 532 384 78 65
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 19
E-mail Group
Atom
Structure of atom
Electron is assumed to be negatively charged
Proton is assumed to be positive charged
Helium Atom
Electron
Proton
Neutron
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 21
Electrical Charge
Definition
Unit of Electrical Charge Coulomb
18
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 22
Inclined Surface
h2
h1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 23
Water Circuit
Water Current (I)
Pump
Water Circuit
Water Current (I)
P2
P1
Pump
Gravitational force
P = P2 - P1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 25
Electrical Circuit
Electromotive force
Consumer
(Load)
Electrical Circuit
Voltage (V)
Electromotive force
Current (I)
Consumer
(Load)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 27
Voltage Difference
Pressure Difference
Voltage Difference
Current (I)
P2
P1
Pump
Gravitational force
P = P2 - P1
V2
V = V2 - V1
V1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 28
Current (I)
V2
V = V2 - V1
= V2
Ground Node
V1
V1 = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 29
Ground Node
(Black Terminal )
Measured Node
(Red Terminal )
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 30
Electrical Current
Current = no. of electrons transferred / time duration
I = Q / t
1 Amp = 1 Coulomb / 1 Seconds
Current
(I)
Voltage difference
(V)
+
Current
(I)
Consumer
(Load)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 31
Traffic Current
Cars Flowing in a Highway
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 32
Water Current
1 meter
2 mm diameter
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 34
1 meter
2 mm diameter
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 35
1 meter
Electrical Current
2 mm diameter
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 36
Electrons
Current
Electromotive force
V2
V = V2 - V1
Electrons
V1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 37
Electrical Current
DC (Direct Current) Sources
V2
V2
V = V2 - V1
V1
V = V2 - V1
V1 = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 38
Simple AC Circuit
Current
(I)
Generator
Customer
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 39
Basic Principle
Cars entering = Cars leaving
Balance
Cars entering:
Cars leaving:
370
120
65
55
130
+
----------370
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 40
-----------Qin
Charges leaving
Qout = Qn
Balance
Qin = Qout
or
Qin Qout = 0 or
Q=0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 41
or
Q = 0
Qn Coulombs/sec
or
Q / t = 0
or
i=n
Ii = 0
i =1
Mechanical Force
Definition
F=mxa
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 43
Mechanical Energy
Definition
1 Meter
Wagon
1 Newton
Wagon
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 44
Power
Definition
Power is the work done within a certain
unit of time, i.e. one second or one hour
Power = Energy / Duration
= 1 Joule / sec
1 sec
1 Meter
Wagon
1 Meter
1 Newton
Wagon
Wagon
0.5 Newton
Wagon
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 45
Equivalance
1 Meter
Wagon
1 Newton
Wagon
Current (I)
Voltage
(V)
1 Joule
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 46
Electrical Power
Definition
Similar to mechanical power, electrical power is
the work done within a certain unit of time, i.e.
one second or one hour
Elecrical Power = Electrical Energy / Duration
= 1 Joule / sec
(1 sec)
Current (I)
1 sec
1 Meter
1 Newton
Voltage
(V)
Wagon
Wagon
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 47
(1 sec)
Current (I)
1 sec
1 Meter
Wagon
1 Newton
Wagon
Voltage
(V)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 48
Electrical Power
Definition
1 Joule / second = 1 Watt
(1 Joule energy is spent within 1 second)
1 sec
1 Meter
Wagon
1 Newton
Wagon
Voltage
(V)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 49
Electrical Power
Definition
P = V
(Watt) = (Volt)
I
x (Amp)
x
Current (Amp)
DC Voltage
(Volt)
+
Power (Watt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 50
Voltage
Definition
Power = Voltage x Current
or
P=VxI
Voltage = Power / Current
or
V=P/I
Current
DC
Voltage
+
Power
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 51
Voltage
Definition
Current (1 Amp)
or
Voltage = Power / Current
or
V=P/I
DC Voltage
(1 Volt)
Power
(1 Watt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 52
Electrical Energy
Definition
Energy = Power x Time
(Watt-sec) (Watt) (second)
Current (I)
DC Voltage
(V)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 53
Definition
Energy = Power
(Watt-sec) (Watt)
Energy =
Time
(second)
Power
(KiloWatt-hour) (KiloWatt)
x 1000
x 1000
Current (I)
Time
(hour)
DC Voltage
+
(V)
x 3600
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 54
Electrical Energy
Example
Calculate the monthly payment for the energy
consumed by the lamp shown on the RHS
V = 220 V
I = 5 Amp
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 55
----------------------------(*)
= 1 Watt / 1 Amp
= (1 Joule /sec) / 1 Amp
= 1 Joule / (1 Amp x sec)
= 1 Joule / 1 Coulomb (*)
1 Coulomb
+
1 Volt
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 56
1 Coulomb
+
1 Volt
1 Joule energy
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 57
Resistance
Definition
Resistance R1
R1 > R2
Resistance R2
Resistance is the
reaction of a pipe
against water flow
Pump
Current I1
I1
Pump
I2 > I 1
I2
Current I2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 58
Resistance
Definition
Resistance is the reaction of a
conductor against electrical current
Resistance R1
Current I1
R1 > R2
Resistance R2
Current I1
I1 < I 2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 59
Ohm Law
Basic Principles
Current flowing in the circuit is;
proportional to voltage,
inversely proportional to resistance
Current I (Amp)
Voltage
(Volt)
Hence
Unit of resistance is Ohm
1 Ohm is the resistance that allows 1 Amper
to pass at 1 Volts voltage;
1 Ohm = 1 Volt / 1 Amper
(Amp)
Resistance
(R)
/ R
(Volt)
(Ohm)
or
V
(Volt)
= R
(Ohm)
I
(Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 60
Ohm Law
Resistance R1
Resistance R2
Current (I1)
Voltage
(V)
Current (I2)
Voltage
(V)
Resistance
(R1)
V / R1 = I1
I 1 < I2
Resistance
(R2)
V / R2 = I2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 61
Ohm Law
V-I Characteristics
30,0
Resistance
(R)
Voltage (Volts)
Voltage (Volt)
Current I (Amp)
25,0
20,0
15,0
Slope = V / I = R
10,0
V
(Volt)
= R x I
5,0
(Ohm) (Amp)
0,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
Current I (Amp)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 62
Question
Calculate the current flowing in the
circuit shown on the RHS
V
(Volt)
I
Current I (Amp)
V= 220 V
R = 5 Ohm
= R
x I
= (Ohm) x (Amp)
=V/R
= 220 / 5 = 44 Amps
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 63
Ohm Law
Nonlinear V-I Characteristics
= R x
(Volt)
(Ohm) (Amp)
R = R0 (1 + t)
t = T 23 0 C
R0 = Resistance at 23 0 C
= The temperature coeff. of the metal
Voltage (Volts)
250
200
150
100
50
0
V = 220 V
Slope = V / I = R
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
I = 5 Amp
-15
-10
-5
10
15
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 64
Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula
R=l /A
ACSR Conductor
(Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
l (meter)
A (mm2)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 65
Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula
Resistance of a cable is proportional to the
length and inversely proportional to the
cross sectional area of the cable
R=l /A
where, R is the resistance of conductor,
is the resistivity coefficient,
= 1 / 56 Ohm-mm2/m (Copper)
1 / 32 Ohm-mm2/m (Aluminum)
l (m) is the length of the conductor
A (mm2) is the cross sectional area of
the conductor
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 66
Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula
Aluminum Conductors
Example
Calculate the resistance of a
copper cable with length 3200
meters and cross section 240 mm2
Solution
R = (1 / 56) 3200 / 240
= 0.238 Ohms
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 67
Resistance Formula
Resistance Formula
Example
Calculate the resistance of a copper cable
with length 3200 meters and cross section
240 mm2
Solution
R = (1 / 56) 3200 / 240 = 0.238 Ohms
ACSR Conductor
(Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
l 3200 (m)
A = 240 (mm2)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 68
Resistivity Coefficients
Material
= 0.0178571 Ohm-mm2/m
R=l /A
where, R is the resistance of conductor,
is the resistivity coefficient,
= 1 / 56 Ohm-mm2/m (Copper)
1 / 32 Ohm-mm2/m (Aluminum)
l (m) is the length of the conductor
A (mm2) is the cross sectional area
of the conductor
Resistivity
Coefficient
Resistance
Ohm-mm2/m
Ohms/feet
Silver
0.0162
0.00094
Copper
0.0172
0.00099
Gold
0.0244
0.00114
Aluminum
0.0282
0.00164
Mercury
0.9580
Brass
0.0700
0.00406
Nickel
0.7800
0.00452
Iron
0.1000
0.00579
Platinium
0.1000
0.00579
Steel
0.1180
0.00684
Lead
0.2200
0.01270
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 69
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 70
Insulator
Insulator
HV side
Ground side
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 71
V = R x I
(Volt) = (Ohm) (Amp)
On the other hand, it was shown
in this lecture that;
+
Voltage, V
R
Power
R1 = l 1 / A1
R2 = l 2 / A2
Let A1 = A2
Hence;
l total = l 1 + l
l 3200 (m)
A = 240 (mm2)
l 3200 (m)
A = 240 (mm2)
Rtotal = l total / A
= (l 1 + l 2 ) / A
=l1/A+l2/A
= R1 + R2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 73
Rtotal = R1 + R2
R2
Rk
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rk
l 3200 (m)
A = 240 (mm2)
l 3200 (m)
A = 240 (mm2)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 74
= Rtotal x
(Volt)
(Ohm)
(Amp)
(Volt)
Resistance
(Rtotal)
Voltage (Volt)
Voltage (Volt)
(Volt)
(Volt)
Current I (Amp)
Current I (Amp)
= R1 x I + R2 x I
Resistance
(R1)
Resistance
(R2)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 75
+
V1 (Volt)
+
V (Volt)
V2 (Volt)
= R1 x I + R2
(Volt)
xI
(Volt)
(Volt)
V1
V2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 76
Admittance
Definition
Inverse of resistance is called
Admittance
= 1/R
(Siemens)
(1 / Ohm)
+
R1
V = VT
I1
R1
V = VT
I1
I1 = VT / R1 = VT x g1
I2
R2
ITotal
R2
I2
ITotal
I2 = VT / R2 = VT x g2
Rk
Ik
Rk
Ik
Ik = VT / Rk = VT x gk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 78
I1
R1
I2
R2
Ik
Rk
V = VT
I1 = VT / R1
ITotal
I2 = VT / R2
Ik = VT / Rk
Itotal = VT(1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ... + 1 / Rk) = VT / Requivalent
Hence,
1
R equiv = ------------------------------------1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 79
1
R equiv = --------------------------------1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4
V = VT
R1 = 1 Ohm
R2 = 2 Ohms
Rk = 4 Ohms
1
R equiv = ------------------------------------1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
I1
ITotal
Ik
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 80
1
R equiv = ------------------------------------1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
or
V = VT
g1 = 1/1 Siemens
g2 = 1/2 Siemens
gk = 1/4 Siemens
1
1 / gequiv = ----------------------g1 + g2 + ...+ gk
I1
I2
Ik
ITotal
gequiv = g1 + g2 + g3
=1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4
=7/4
= 1.75 Siemens
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 81
V1 +
(Volt)
V2
or
generalizing
(Volt)
Current I (Amp)
V =
(Volt)
V1 + ... + Vn-1
(Volt)
(Volt)
Current I (Amp)
+
+
V1 (Volt)
+
V (Volt)
...
Vs (Volt)
V1 (Volt)
+
V2 (Volt)
Vn-1 (Volt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 82
Current I (Amp)
V1 + ... + Vn-1
(Volt)
(Volt)
i = n-1
V =
V1(Volt)
Vi
i =1
i = n-1
Vn -
Vi = 0
Vs (Volt)
i=1
i=n
Vi = 0
V2 (Volt)
i=1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 83
Statement
The above result may be
expressed as;
Sum of voltages in a closed loop
is zero
Current I (Amp)
+
V1(Volt)
Vs (Volt)
or
i=n
Vi = 0
i=1
+
V2 (Volt)
Example
Current I (Amp)
i=n
Vi = 0
V1 = -100 (Volt)
i=1
Vs = 220 Volts
V = 220 V
Vs V1 V2 = 0
220 100 120 = 0
+
V2 = -120 (Volt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 85
Simple Rules
Head (pinpoint) of the arrow is negative,
Tail of the arrow is positive
This current is assigned
Vs (Volt)
such a direction that it
always enters from the +
side of the resistance
V1(Volt)
+
V2 (Volt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 86
A Simple Rule
V1
Current I
...
+
Vk
Ground node
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 87
A Simple Rule
+
V1
Current I
...
+
Vk
Ground node
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 88
i=n
i=n
Ii = 0
Vi = 0
i=1
i=1
Current I (Amp)
Node (Junction)
Current I1
Current In-1
+
...
Current I2
V = 220 V
Current In
V1 = -100 (Volt)
+
Vn-1 = -120 (Volt)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 89
Rk
Voltage Division Ratio = -----------------R1 + ... + Rk
Input Voltage
Current I
+
R1
Vs
R2
+
...
V1 = R1 x I
V2 = R2 x I
...
Vk = Rk x I
+
----------------------------Vs = V1 + V2 + ... Vk
= ( R1 + ... + Rk ) x I
Vk / Vs = Rk / ( R1 + ... + Rk )
V1
V2
+
Rk Vk
Output Voltage
= Vs Rk / (R1+..Rk)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 90
Rk
Vk = --------------- Vs
R1 + ... + Rk
Current I
Rk
Division Ratio = --------------R1 + ... + Rk
+
R1
Vs
R2
V1
V2
...
+
Rk Vk
A B C
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 91
Rk
Division Ratio = -----------------R1 + ... + Rk
Rotary
Potentiometer
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 92
gk
Ik = --------------- Is
g1 + ... + gk
+-----------------------------------
gk
Division Ratio = --------------g1 + ... + gk
V = VT
g1
I1= VT x g1
g2
I2= VT x g2
Source Current Is
VT (g1 + ... gk ) = Is
Ik / Is = gk / ( g1 + ... + gk )
gk
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 93
Is
Voltage Sources
Definition
A simple Rule:
Current is assigned such a direction
that it always leaves the + side of the
voltage or current source.
Voltage Source
DC Voltage Source
V = 24 Volts
+
+
+
V = 24 V
V = 24 V
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 94
Definition
An ideal voltage source is the one that
the terminal voltage does not change
with the current drawn
An ideal voltage source has zero
internal resistance
Terminal Voltage (Volts)
V = 24 Volts
Battery
30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
Internal
resistance
VT = constant
V = R x I = 0
VT = Vs
+
Vs = 24 V
5,0
0,0
0,0
Load Current I
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
Definition
+V = 24 Volts
Battery
Load Current I
+
Internal
resistance
V = R x I
VT = 24 - V
+
Vs = 24 V
Definition
Writing down KVL for the above cct;
VT = Vs V
= Vs R x I
Battery
Load Current I
+
Internal
resistance
25,0
VT depends on I
i.e. it is reduced as I is increased
20,0
15,0
Slope = - VT / I = - R
10,0
V = R x I
VT = 24 - V
+
Vs = 24 V
5,0
0,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
Definition
Source Current Is
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 98
Definition
Non-Ideal Current Source
Is
+
Ideal Current
Source Is
I
g =1 / R
IT = Is I
IT = Is g x VT
Current Source Is
VT
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 99
+
Ideal Current
Source Is
I
g =1 / R
Terminal Current IT
IT = Is I
IT = Is g x VT
Terminal Current Is (Amp)
Definition:
Non-Ideal Current Source
30,0
25,0
IT depends on V
i.e. it is reduced as V is increased
20,0
15,0
Slope = - IT / VT = - g
10,0
VT
5,0
0,0
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 100
Voltage Controlled
Current Source
Is = A Vx
Is
Terminal Current: IT
+
Vx
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 101
Is
Terminal Current: IT
Current Controlled
Current Source
Is = A Ix
It - Is
Ix
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 102
Voltage Controlled
Voltage Source
Vs = A Vx
+
Vs
+
Vx
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 103
Is
Terminal Current: IT
Current Controlled
Voltage Source
Vs = A Ix
It - Is
+
Vs
Ix
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 104
Example
Question
Is
Current Controlled
Voltage Source
Vs = 10 Ix
Solution
Write down KVL;
Vs 10 2 Ix = 0
10 Ix 10 2 Ix = 0
8 Ix = 10 Ix = 10 / 8 = 1.25 Amp
Terminal Current: IT
+
10 V
+
Vs
Ix
2 Ohm
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 105
Coil
Magnet
Spring forcing
arm back to zero
position
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 106
Iload
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 107
Ammeter
Ramp
Iload
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 108
Ideal Ammeter
Ammeter
Definition
Ramp 0
Iload
Vs
RL
Ideal Ammeter
Ramp 0
Iload
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 110
Definition
Ammeter
Ramp
Iload
Vs +
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 111
RL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 112
RL
-----------R1 + R L
I Voltmeter
(negligible)
R1
Rm
I Load
Voltmeter
Vs
RL
Vo
Ideal Voltmeter
I Source
Definition
Im
(negligible)
R1
Rm
I Load
Voltmeter
Vs
RL
Vo
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 115
Ideal Voltmeter
I Source
i.e. Rm >> RL
I m << I Load
ISource = ILoad + Im I Load
Im
(negligible)
R1
Rm
I Load
Voltmeter
Vs
RL
Vo
Vo = RL ( Isource Im )
= RL I Source RL Im
RL I Source
Negligible
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 116
Example
Problem
Calculate the internal admittance
gm of a voltmeter, if it reads 11.81
Volts when connected to a 0.48 mA
current source with an internal
admittance of
gs = 4 x 10-5 Siemens
Siemens = 1/
Im 0
Ideal Voltmeter
Ig
Non-ideal Voltmeter
Ig
+
Vread = 11.81 V
Im
(negligible)
Voltmeter
gm = 1/Rm
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 117
Example
Problem
Ig
Rs = 1 / gs = 1 / (4 x10-5) Siemens
= 105 / 4 = 25 k
Im 0
Ideal Voltmeter
Non-ideal Voltmeter
Ig
IS=0.48 mA
+
Vread = 11.81 V
gs= 4 x 10-5 S
Im
(negligible)
Voltmeter
gm = 1/Rm
Req = Rs // Rm
Hence,
Req =(Rs x Rm) / (Rs + Rm) = 24607.17
Rm = 155.39 M
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 118
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 119
Wheatstone Bridge
Rb
Rx
R1
R2
A
x
I=0
B
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 120
Wheatstone Bridge
Principle
Adjust the resistances R1, R2
and Rb such that the ammeter
connected between the
terminals C and D reads zero
current
Hence, the voltage difference
between the terminals C and D is
zero
V CD = 0
or
VC = VD
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 121
Wheatstone Bridge
A
Principle
VC = VD
VC = Vs Rb / ( Rx + Rb )
VD = Vs R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
Vs Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) = Vs R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
or
Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) = R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
Rb ( R1 + R2 ) = R2 ( Rx + Rb )
Rb R1 + Rb R2 = R2 Rx + R2 Rb
or
Rx = Rb x R1 / R2
+
I=0
Vs C
A
B
A
+
Vs
Rx
R1
D
R2
Rb
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 122
Wheatstone Bridge
Basic Rule
Cross multiplication branch
resistances must be equal at
balance condition
Rx x R2 = Rb x R1
Please note that voltage Vs
is neither used, nor needed
in the above equation, i.e.
its value is arbitrary
A
x
Vs
I=0
B
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 123
Wheatstone Bridge
Example
Open
Off
R1
Closed
On
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 125
I Load = 0
R1
R1
+
Vs
R1
Vs
R1
Open (Off)
Switch
Closed
Circuit
Closed (On)
Switch
I Load
I Load = 0
R1
R1
+
Vs
R1
Vs
R1
R1
I Load = 0
Vs
R1
Spring handle (taken off)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 128
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 129