Hurricane Elena

For other storms of the same name, see Hurricane Elena stroying their reefs, and leaving thousands of workers un(disambiguation).
employed. Farther west, Dauphin Island in Alabama endured wind gusts as high as 130 mph (210 km/h) and a
Hurricane Elena was an unpredictable and damaging signicant storm surge. The island sustained some of the
most signicant damage inicted by Elena, including sevtropical cyclone that aected eastern and central portions of the United States Gulf Coast in late August and eral hundred damaged or demolished homes. The rest of
the states coast also sustained considerable damage, and
early September 1985. Threatening popular tourist destinations during Labor Day weekend, Elena repeatedly the inland pecan and soybean crops were severely dimindeviated from its forecast path, triggering evacuations ished in Alabama and Mississippi.
of unprecedented extent. The hurricane wrought havoc
to property and the environment between southwestern
Florida and eastern Louisiana, though lesser eects were
felt well beyond those areas. Elena developed on August 28 near Cuba, and after traveling lengthwise across
the island with little impact, it entered the Gulf of Mexico and continued to strengthen. Initially projected to
strike the central Gulf Coast, the hurricane unexpectedly
veered toward the east on August 30, stalling just 50 mi
(80 km) west of Cedar Key, Florida. Despite predictions
that Elena would continue eastward across Florida, the
cyclone remained nearly stationary for about 48 hours
before slowly retrograding westward, ultimately making
landfall near Biloxi, Mississippi, on September 2 as a
Category 3 major hurricane. The storm quickly weakened upon moving ashore and dissipated on September
4.

Over 13,000 homes were damaged in Mississippi, and

200 were destroyed. Cities close to the Alabama
borderincluding Pascagoulaexperienced widespread
damage to residences, schools, and businesses, and the
community of Gautier was eectively isolated from the
outside world. Several apparent but unconrmed tornadoes appear to have exacerbated the damage in the
Gulfport area. Wind damage extended into portions of
eastern Louisiana. Overall, nine people died as a result of the hurricane: two in Texas due to drownings in
rip currents, three in Florida, two in Louisiana, one in
Arkansas, and one in a maritime accident in the Gulf
of Mexico. Damage totaled about $1.3 billion,[1] and
power outages from the storm aected 550,000 people.
In Elenas wake, President Ronald Reagan declared parts
of Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida federal disaster areas, making storm victims eligible for nancial aid and
The hurricanes unpredictable shifts in direction created temporary housing. The name Elena was later retired
from the cyclical list of Atlantic hurricane names because
what was considered the largest peacetime evacuation in
the nations history. Evacuations occurred in sequence to of the storms eects.
follow the storms forecast positions, and many residents
and tourists along portions of the Gulf Coast were forced
to leave twice in a matter of days. Preparations were 1 Meteorological history
generally timely and ecient, though accommodations
and resources at storm shelters were stretched thin, and
many refugees tried to return home against ocials orders. About 1.25 million people ed the storm in Florida
alone, contributing to a region-wide total of nearly 2 million evacuees. Tropical cyclone warnings and watches
were continuously issued and adjusted, and forecasters
stressed the storms destructive potential for days.
Elenas slow movement o western Florida resulted in
severe beach erosion and damage to coastal buildings,
roads, and seawalls, especially to those of old or inadequate construction. Destruction was greatest near the
shore and on islands such as Cedar Key and Dog Island, though tornadoes spawned by the hurricane swept
Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm according to the
through communities and mobile home parks well inSarSimpson hurricane wind scale
land. The hurricane devastated the Apalachicola Bay
shellsh industry, killing large quantities of oysters, de- The origins of Hurricane Elena trace to an easterly
1

2
tropical wave that was rst identied o the western coast
of Africa on August 23, 1985. The system sped westward
across the Atlantic at up to 35 mph (56 km/h). Its rapid
motion, combined with the presence of an unusually hostile Saharan Air Layer, prevented tropical cyclogenesis
for several days. Driven by a strong subtropical ridge to
its north, the wave quickly approached North America as
it began to show signs of organization. At 00:00 UTC
on August 28, the disturbance developed into a tropical
depression while over the Windward Passage. The newly
designated depression began to track west-northwestward
over Cuba, which is known to disrupt tropical cyclone development. Despite that, its central barometric pressure
continued to deepen, and reconnaissance aircraft found
winds exceeding 50 mph (80 km/h) near the center. In
response, the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Elena over northern Cuba later
on August 28.[2][3]
After passing north of Havana, Cuba, Elena emerged
into the Gulf of Mexico. At 12:00 UTC on August 29,
Elena intensied into a Category 1 hurricane.[3] Analysis of steering currents through the morning of August
30 suggested that Elena would continue on its northwestward track, striking the area between New Orleans,
Louisiana, and Biloxi, Mississippi within 30 hours.[4] Unexpectedly, a mid-to-upper-level trough of low pressure
diving in from the northwest created a weakness in the
easterly currents, allowing Elena to recurve and slow drastically in forward speed.[2][5] Roughly 24 hours after attaining hurricane intensity, the storm abruptly turned east
in response to the trough.[2] Having deed initial forecasts, Hurricane Elena drifted on its new course toward
the coast of northwest Florida. Forecasters now called
for the trough to direct the hurricane across the Florida
Peninsula and into the western Atlantic. However, the relatively weak trough moved rapidly, and instead of fully
engaging Elena, its axis passed over the storms center.
Further, post-storm analysis of water vapor imagery suggested that the hurricane split the trough into two distinct
segments.[4]
Extrapolation from the storms eastward progress yielded
a projected landfall location near Levy County.[6] However, after the passage of the upper-level system early
on August 31, steering currents slackened, and Elena became nearly stationary in the extreme northeastern Gulf
of Mexico. At its closest, the center of the storm was
around 50 mi (80 km) from Cedar Key, Florida,[2][5]
with maximum sustained winds estimated at 105 mph
(170 km/h).[7] Elenas intensity remained consistent, and
the cyclone was able to continue strengthening as soon
as movement resumed. Early on September 1, Elena
reached Category 3 major hurricane status.[3] An area of
high pressure soon began to build over the eastern United
States, causing Elena to slowly retrograde westward.[7]
For much of September 1, the center of the hurricane was within range of the WSR-57 radar station in
Apalachicola, Florida, enabling extensive study of small

2 PREPARATIONS

Geopotential height chart for the 500-millibar level, showing

Elena (the closed isohypse over the Gulf of Mexico) on August
30. The trough that turned Elena toward the east can be seen
embedded within the ow over the United States, and the ridge
responsible for eventually pushing the storm back is denoted to
the east of Florida.

features within the eye and surrounding eyewall. During

that period of observation, the previously unobstructed
eye became cloud-lled.[8]
The hurricane accelerated on a trajectory toward the central U.S. Gulf Coast, sliding south of the Florida Panhandle. During the afternoon of September 1, the hurricane
attained its peak intensity, with winds of 125 mph (205
km/h) as conrmed by reconnaissance aircraft.[7] On
the morning of September 2, Elena approached coastal
Mississippi from the east-southeast, still at major hurricane status. It came ashore close to Biloxi,[7] which
was coincidentally within the hurricanes rst forecast
destination range before its extended detour.[4] Once inland, the hurricane immediately deteriorated, weakening to a tropical storm just hours after landfall,[3] and
its center rapidly lled.[9] The system curved northwestward over Mississippi and Louisiana, and despite weakening, it continued to ignite thunderstorm activity which
spawned heavy rains. Elena persisted for several days before degenerating into a remnant area of low pressure on
September 4. Its associated cloud structure became distorted on September 5, and dissipated over Kentucky that
same night.[5]

2 Preparations
The unpredictable nature of the hurricane, in conjunction with its arrival at popular tourist destinations on the
Labor Day holiday weekend, severely complicated preparations along the Gulf Coast.[6] Evacuations and the hoisting of weather advisories inadvertently occurred in stages
to keep up with Elenas shifts in direction; hurricane
warnings were in eect at one point or another for every coastal location between Morgan City, Louisiana, and
Sarasota, Florida. Much of the northern Gulf Coast

3
was under a hurricane warning on two separate occasions for two dierent trajectories of the storm.[10] Evacuations of residents and vacationers also overlapped in
many cases.[6] Collectively, this led to the largest number
of people ever evacuated, according to Robert Case.[11]
Some evacuees moved inland to meet relatives, but many
stayed relatively local, lling hotels and designated shelters such as schools and churches.[6] Despite the unusually uid scenario, ocials were well aware of the storms
destructive power days before its actual landfall. National Hurricane Center hurricane expert Bob Sheets cautioned on August 30 that Elena will be over a $1 billion
storm.[12]

Hurricane Elena early on September 1, shortly before attaining

peak intensity and accelerating to the west

During Elenas initial approach, the rst series of

hurricane warnings were issued between Grand Isle,
Louisiana, and Apalachicola, Florida. The storms projected path quickly nudged westward, prompting the
warnings to be extended to Morgan City, Louisiana, and
truncated to Pensacola, Florida on their eastern reach.[13]
Heeding the advisories, nearly one million residents and
vacationers ed the storms path.[6] Personnel on oshore
oil rigs in the northern Gulf of Mexico began leaving
as early as August 29.[14] The governors of Louisiana,
Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida declared states of
emergency by August 30.[15] Huge crowds formed at
stores as individuals searched for emergency supplies,
and simultaneously, lines grew at gas stations. Due to
the impending danger, many businesses closed and fortied their buildings. Across the Gulf Coast, classes at
schools were cancelled, and residents in the New Orleans area were particularly wary of what was being called
the rst serious hurricane threat in 20 years (Hurricane
Betsy caused catastrophic ooding in and around New
Orleans in 1965).[16] In Mississippi, the mass exodus
created bumper-to-bumper trac on crucial highways,

such as the westeast U.S. Route 90.[17] In Florida, thenGovernor Bob Graham activated 250 National Guard
troops on August 30 to facilitate ecient evacuations,
stating that 1,600 more were on standby.[18] By that time,
it became evident that Elena would head farther east than
initially expected, stirring more concern for the eastern Gulf Coast. Accordingly, hurricane warnings were
dropped for coastal Louisiana west of Grand Isle and replaced eastward to Apalachicola, Florida.[12][19]
By the evening of August 30, after Elenas sharp turn
to the east, hurricane warnings along most of the northern Gulf Coast were discontinued. In accordance, evacuees between Louisiana and the four westernmost counties of the Florida Panhandle returned home as shelters closed.[19][20] With the storms new course, the area
of highest threat translated east to the remainder of
the Panhandle and the western Florida Peninsula.[6][20]
As such, Governor Graham recommended evacuations
south to the Tampa area late on August 30.[19] A
mandatory evacuation was then issued overnight for ten
more coastal counties, encompassing 573,000 aected
individuals.[6][20] On August 31, Governor Graham advised residents in vulnerable areas of 15 inland counties
to nd safer ground.[21] In response to the heightening
danger, most of the National Guard troops previously on
standby were sent to block access to certain areas, and an
additional 3,000 were placed on standby.[22]
In the greater St. Petersburg, Pinellas County, area alone,
320,000 people evacuated ahead of the storm in what was
a national record for the largest evacuation of a single
county in history.[23][24] The large number of refugees
from the storm put a strain on facilities, highways, and
contingencies. Although the number of people required
to leave far exceeded the capacity of Pinellas County
shelters,[20] only 120,000 of the 300,000 or more refugees
made use of the shelters.[24] Still, ocial shelter usage
was considered to be higher than average, possibly due
to shortened lead times limiting the ability of individuals to make arrangements with friends and relatives, or
increased awareness of available resources. Post-storm
phone surveys indicated that evacuation order compliance rates were as high as 90% in Pinellas County,[25]
and the entire evacuation there took just 9 hours, rather
than the expected 15.[24] With over 200,000 individuals
recorded to be in more than 120 shelters along the coast
of west-central Florida, evacuees became restless as a result of the duration of the storm. Supplies such as food
ran short, and many people ignored orders and tried to return home prematurely.[22] The threat of Hurricane Elena
also triggered an unprecedented mass transfer of medical
and nursing home patients. Tampa General Hospital, at
84% of patient capacity, was evacuated; four more hospitals and around 19 nursing homes in Pinellas County
were also cleared. Overall, nearly 2,000 nursing home
patients were transported to safety. Although successful,
the process encountered issues such as time constraints
and stang shortages.[26]

3 IMPACT

Late on September 1, when the storm began to retrograde, hurricane warnings were reinstated westward
along the coast to Grand Isle, Louisiana,[27] as advisories
along the west coast of the Florida Peninsula were allowed
to expire. By the time ocials lifted evacuation orders,
the number of evacuees staying in shelters already decreased signicantly due to the rampant eagerness and
anxiety.[28] Roughly 250,000 people in the Florida Panhandle, 175,000 in Alabama, 70,000 in Mississippi, and
50,000 in Louisianaa total of 545,000were ordered
to leave.[29][30] Several hundred thousand of the people
aected by the new string of evacuation orders had also
been forced to leave just days earlier, and in extreme cases
had one day or less reprieve.[28] Governor Grahams ofce reported that during the entire storm event, 1.25 million people from Florida evacuated at some point,[31] and
state police in Louisiana estimated that gure in their state
to be around 400,000.[32] In total, nearly 2 million people
ed the storm over its entire course.[33]

four other oshore platforms,[41] and a 6 in (150 mm) oil

pipeline broke during the hurricane at an estimated cost
of $1.6 million (the same pipeline broke two more times
during the 1985 hurricane season).[42]

In addition to its eects over land, Elena also had an

impact on oshore interests. When a cargo ship close
to the hurricanes center rolled in high seas on August
29, two unsecured storage containers collided, crushing a
man to death.[39] An oil platform operated by Exxon and
anchored o the coast of Pensacola, Florida, was ripped
from its moorings and reported missing on September 2.
The oil rig drifted 14 mi (23 km) away before it was spotted by a Coast Guard aircraft. Exxon previously evacuated the platform after rough seas snapped the rst two
of its eight anchoring cables.[40] Damage was reported on

continue to impact the state for several days as it meandered oshore, resulting in moderate to heavy rainfall.
Upwards of 10 in (250 mm) accumulated in many locations, peaking at 15.67 in (398 mm) near Cross City
and reaching 11.31 in (287 mm) at Apalachicola. Farther
south in the Tampa area, the precipitation was less significant, exceeding 5 in (130 mm) at Clearwater. Parts of
the states northeastern coastfarther away from the hurricanes centeralso saw formidable rainfall, with a local maximum of 10.57 in (268 mm) at Jacksonville.[5][11]
Still, those totals represented a relatively dry storm, con-

A large aspect of the hurricanes devastation was the

havoc it wrought on the eastern Gulf of Mexico oyster
industry, particularly in the Apalachicola Bay area and
o the coast of Alabama.[43][44] Elena subjected the
Apalachicola Bay reefs to high winds, strong tidal action, and moderate to heavy rainfall, churning up huge
quantities of silt and mud which suocated up to 90%
of live oysters and virtually destroyed the most important
harvesting sites.[43][45] Commercial harvesting was suspended until May 1986, at which time some of the prominent reefs of the eastern Apalachicola Bay system were
deemed able to sustain oyster-catching.[46] Low astronomical tides amplied the eects of severe turbulence
in the water.[44] Thousands of individuals relying on the
Apalachicola Bay oyster industry soon found themselves
struggling to make a living;[43] losses in production at
two major reefs were expected to surpass $30 million.[45]
All of Alabamas major reefs were aected by the hur3 Impact
ricane, and its most productive was nearly destroyed.[42]
The problem was later confounded in November by HurAccording to the Hurricane Research Division of the ricane Kate, which, according to the National Hurricane
Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Labora- Center, "[dealt] the nal blow to certain oyster beds.[47]
tory, Hurricane Elena produced Category 3 winds (111
mph (179 km/h) or greater) in Florida, Alabama, and
Mississippi.[34] The American Red Cross reported that 3.1 Florida
in addition to the hundreds of single-family homes demolished by the hurricane, over 17,000 sustained some The storm began aecting Florida late on August 28
degree of damage; thousands of mobile homes, apart- and early on August 29. In Key West, on the east side
ments, and condominiums were also damaged or de- of Elenas strengthening center, wind gusts exceeded 50
stroyed. A forecaster at the National Hurricane Cen- mph (80 km/h), accompanied by 1.8 in (46 mm) of rain
ter determined the worst of the hurricanes eects and higher-than-normal tides.[11] Several boats washed
were focused around Dauphin Island, Alabama, and ashore at Smathers Beach. Similarly adverse conditions
Pascagoula, Mississippi,[35] though noteworthy damage occurred throughout rest of the Keys and across the
occurred across large areas of Louisiana, Mississippi, southern Florida Peninsula; 60 mph (100 km/h) wind
Alabama, and Florida, with impacts documented as far gusts and modest rainfall stretched as far east as the
west as South Padre Island, Texas, and as far north as Miami area.[48] Easterly winds produced signicant wave
Kentucky. Nine deaths were attributed to the hurricane heights of 5.2 ft (1.6 m) at West Palm Beach and 10.5
in four states and on the waters of the Gulf of Mex- ft (3.2 m) at Jacksonville, along the Atlantic coast of
ico, and 134 people along Elenas path were hospitalized, Florida, by August 31.[49]
many of them due to storm-related stress.[36] Power out- Outer rainbands of the large hurricane produced squally
ages plagued the entire region, aecting about 550,000 weather over parts of northern Florida as early as the
customers.[37] The National Climatic Data Center com- morning of August 30. By then, the low-lying coastline
piled a total monetary damage gure of $1.3 billion.[38]
near Apalachicola already began to ood.[50] Elena would

3.1

Florida

5
gust reports included 75 mph (121 km/h) at Cedar Key
and nearly 70 mph (110 km/h) at Clearwater; later, on
September 2, a gust of 90 mph (140 km/h) was observed
at Pensacola along the Florida Panhandle, with sustained winds exceeding 50 mph (80 km/h).[7][11] Winds
in Franklin County approached 125 mph (201 km/h) by
unocial estimates. The storms eects were not limited
to the shore, however, as fallen trees in the inland Tallahassee area damaged around 50 vehicles.[27]

Numerous coastal roads, such as this one along the Gulf Coast
of Florida, were damaged by the hurricanes storm surge.

sidering its long duration.[51] Despite initial hopes that the

hurricane would help alleviate drought conditions across
interior portions of southern Florida, precipitation there
was generally inconsequential.[52]
Storm-heightened tides extended along the Florida coast
as far south as Sarasota and generally ran a modest 3 to
6 ft (0.91 to 1.83 m) above normal, though their duration and extent proved noteworthy. The highest recorded
storm surge associated with the hurricane was 10 ft (3.0
m) at Apalachicola.[7] The combination of raised water levels and strong waves resulted in severe erosion
along many beaches. Many homes near the water were
destroyed by the surge, and shoreline structures such
as docks, causeways, bridges, low-lying roads, and seawalls sustained substantial damage.[27] Several large shing piers were either partially or totally destroyed; notably, the city pier at Cedar Key and the popular 1,500 ft
(460 m) Big Indian Rocks Fishing Pier were both demolished by the hurricane.[53][54] Debris from the Big Indian
Rocks Fishing Pier drifted northward toward Clearwater
Pass and accumulated along private beaches at Belleair
Shore.[53]
The storms strongest winds remained largely over open
waters, although severe gusts still brushed coastal cities
and barrier islands.[55] The strongest winds were observed
in two areas of the coast: from Cedar Key to Clearwater, and from Apalachicola to Pensacola.[55] Ocial

Map of Floridas counties: click to enlarge

Though Hurricane Elena never crossed Floridas coast,

its drawn-out interaction with land agitated large swaths
of the states western shore.[56] Winds along and around
the Pinellas County coast generally blew from the south
or southwest for several days, creating persistent onshore
ow that built up heavy seas.[57] Near Clearwater, waves
reached 8.2 ft (2.5 m) in height, marked by a period of 13
seconds on August 31.[49][58] One study determined that
the storm removed an average of 10 cubic yards of coastal
material per linear foot of shoreline in Escambia County,
Gulf, Franklin, and Pinellas counties, with values peaking
at 15.6 cubic yards per foot.[56] Along the predominately
marshy coasts of Pasco, Hernando, and Citrus counties,
erosion and structural damage were much more limited,
partly due to the local southerly or southeasterly wind
direction.[59]
In some cases, the hurricane left quasi-permanent alterations on beaches and small islands. For example, North
Bunces Keyan island of southern Pinellas County
lost most of its vegetation to the storm, and overwashing shifted the southern part of the island up to 330 ft
(100 m) from its original settlement. More extensive
changes were seen on and near Caladesi Island, which
formed in 1921 after a hurricane split a larger barrier island into two by a new channel. The inlet became dominant over Dunedin Pass to the south, which grew narrower very gradually until Elena rearranged the dynamics of the beach, allowing Dunedin Pass to ll completely

6
with sand within a couple years of the hurricanes passage. As a result, Clearwater Beach became connected to
Caladesi Island.[60] Elena also created a new inlet known
as Willys Cut, which existed until 1991.[61] Interest in
articially reopening Dunedin Pass prompted an ocial
study in 1994 on the engineering and nancial merits of
such a project. Due to the high cost of dredging and the
likelihood of nearly continuous maintenance, no action
was taken.[62]

3 IMPACT
were damaged, and several condominiums, townhouses,
and commercial buildings were damaged or destroyed.
The hurricane also wrecked or irreparably compromised
nearly 2.7 mi (4.3 km) of coastal bulkheads and inicted
minor damage on 2.15 mi (3.46 km) more.[70] Most of the
aected seawalls were degrading or poorly reinforced.[71]
Seawalls with higher standards of construction generally remained intact, though even in those cases, overwash from the Gulf of Mexico topped the barriers and
deposited large volumes of sand.[72] The hurricane cost
roughly $100 million in Pinellas County.[24]

Example of a beachfront structure destroyed by the hurricane in

Florida

The hurricane tore two barges from their moorings in

Tampa Bay and blew them into Gandy Bridge,[27] leaving the bridge with unspecied damage.[63] Throughout the area, rising waters inundated streets, washed
boats ashore, and destroyed numerous homes along the
coast.[64] At low-lying Cedar Key to the north, storm
surge exceeded 9 ft (2.7 m).[27] There, and at Alligator
Point to the northwest, the surge values represented return
periods of 25 to 30 years; elsewhere, they were equivalent
to about 10-year events.[65] Floodwaters in Cedar Key
rose to 8 ft (2.4 m) in depth, with 2 ft (0.61 m) waves
atop the standing water. The extent of structural damage was largely dependent on construction type, as newer,
elevated buildings fared much better than older structures nearer sea level. Waterfront restaurants were especially susceptible; winds blew out several large slidingglass doors at one establishment, allowing both the winds
and the tide to enter its interior.[49] Elena severed the sole
bridge to Cedar Key, temporarily isolating the city and
stranding several residents. The Florida Department of
Transportation hurriedly worked to make the bridge passable long enough to rescue the stranded individuals.[66]
The hurricane compromised several other roads, destroying a 75 ft (23 m) section of State Road 24. Monetary losses in Cedar Key alone were estimated at $2
million,[67] and all major aspects of local infrastructure
were severely aected, initially preventing residents from
returning home to the island.[68] At least 34 homes and
businesses on the island were damaged or destroyed.[69]

The storm washed maritime debris, such as small vessels and

parts of docks, over land.

Elenas track parallel to the Florida Panhandle subjected

the coastline between Apalachicola and Pensacola Beach
to particularly severe conditions that resulted in signicant property damage there.[73] In Apalachicola proper,
winds tore large roofs o buildings,[74] and data from
Floridas Department of Natural Resources indicate that
20 residences and one community building in Franklin
County were damaged or destroyed.[75] Structural failure was prevalent along the countys waterfront and on
islands such as Dog Island; however, it was mainly limited to poorly constructed buildings.[72] Several miles of
roadways in the county sustained signicant damage, and
about 1 2 mile (800 m) of bulkhead was destroyed.[75]
Low seawalls allowed crucial points of the causeway to
St. George Island to erode, causing it to fail.[72] In Escambia County, the hurricane left $2 million in damages.
Throughout much of the remainder of the Florida Panhandle, structural damage was limited, though 100,000
people in the Pensacola area lost power.[76] The conguration of the southern tip of Cape San Blas in Gulf County
was changed by the storm.[77] The hurricane wiped out
eagle nests, generated freshwater sh kills, and impacted
other species of wildlife at the St. Vincent and St. Marks
National Wildlife Refuges.[56] St. George Island and
Honeymoon Island State Parks were heavily impacted,
with appreciable but lesser damage in numerous other
protected areas.[78] U.S. Route 98, which closely follows
after
Pinellas County suered some of the worst damage from the coast in this region, required extensive repairs
[79]
being
undermined
in
nearly
two
dozen
locations.
[55]
Hurricane Elena in Florida. At the height of the storm,
over 500,000 of its residents were without electricity.[21] When tropical cyclones move over land, they often proForty-four single-family homes were destroyed, 31 more duce the wind shear and atmospheric instability required

3.2

Alabama

for the development of weak, embedded supercell thunderstorms, which can produce tornadoes. These tornadoes are usually weak and short-lived, but still capable of producing signicant damage.[80] While centered
over the Gulf of Mexico, the eastern side of Hurricane
Elenas circulation spawned several such tornadoes over
central Florida.[9] A tornado struck just east of Leesburg
on September 1, destroying 64 single-family houses and
mobile homes, and damaging another 118; seven people
were treated for non-life-threatening injuries.[81] Later
that same day, another tornado touched down over downtown Leesburg, with much less damage.[82] In nearby
Marion County, tornadic activity destroyed six mobile
homes, compromised another 50 residences, and inicted
as much as $500,000 in total losses, though only minor injuries were reported.[83] At Kennedy Space Center
Launch Complex 39 in Cape Canaveral, a weak tornado
struck two vehicles near the location where Space Shuttle
Atlantis was being prepared for its rst ight.[84] A tornado in New Port Richey tore parts of the roof o at least
one building and brought down trees,[68] and tornadic activity was also identied in Sumter County.[84]

7
and were strong enough to snap hundreds of large pine
trees.[86] Dauphin Island received an 8.4 ft (2.6 m) storm
surge that resulted in substantial ooding and areas of total overwash.[86][87] Rainfall amounted to just 3 in (76
mm) on the island.[11]
With its location close to the storms center, Dauphin
Island saw the greatest damage in Alabama. Access
to the island was shut down during and immediately
after the hurricane, slowing the progression of damage assessments.[88] Additionally, the storm cut power
and phone services.[86] Post-storm surveys revealed discernible patterns in structural damage on the island;
these included a nearly complete lack of destruction on
the heavily wooded eastern end, and damage concentrated closer to the western side and along areas exposed to strong easterly winds.[89] First-hand accounts relayed that in the most severe cases, entire elevated homes
were torn from their pilings and swept into the Gulf of
Mexico.[90] The number of homes demolished in that
manner was informally placed at 50,[91] though such total building collapses were typically conned to poorly
secured buildings.[89] In total, the hurricane destroyed
190 residences on Dauphin Island, accounting for nearly
25% of all homes, and a further 235 sustained substantial
damage.[91] An unocial and early estimate of losses on
the island was $30 million.[86]

The hurricane took one life in the state and indirectly

contributed to two additional deaths. In Daytona Beach,
a tree struck a parked vehicle, killing a person inside.
The exact cause of the trees uprooting was unknown, although it may have been hit by lightning or a short-lived Windspeeds were markedly lower over mainland
tornado.[85] Elsewhere, two individuals died of heart at- Alabama;[92] Mobile recorded winds of over 50 mph (80
tacks: one while installing storm shutters on his home, km/h),[11] with gusts as high as 84 mph (135 km/h).[87]
and another at a designated shelter.[32]
The storms angle of approach created strong oshore
winds along the mainland, which depressed water levels
and limited the extent of positive surge once winds
3.2 Alabama
shifted to onshore.[93] Winds from the hurricane took
a toll on crops, ruining 8,000,000 lb (3,600,000 kg) of
pecans and reducing soybean production by 10%. Farms
were still in the process of recovering from Hurricane
Frederic in 1979 when Elena struck.[87]

Wave action took a toll on the foundations of waterfront structures along the coasts of Baldwin and Mobile
counties,[92] where Elena inicted about $715,000 worth
of damage to roadways.[94] Most damage was concentrated near the shore, where extensive erosion took
place, and on islands and minor peninsulas. Farther inland, Elenas impact was generally limited to downed
trees and power lines.[87] The storm destroyed the city
boardwalk at Gulf Shores, with the cost of rebuilding
expected to approach $300,000. Alabama Power reSatellite view of the hurricanes core on September 1, while trav- ported extensive power outages aecting up to 100,000
customers.[86][88] According to the Insurance Informaeling westward
tion Institute, storm-related damages in Alabama totaled
[95]
An estimated 300 homes in the
The center of Elena passed 30 mi (50 km) south of main- about $100 million.
state
were
destroyed
by
Hurricane Elena, and another
land Alabama as it accelerated toward the Gulf Coast,
[87]
1,345
sustained
lighter
damage.
impacting the states two-county coast and oshore islands. Wind gusts at Dauphin Island, situated much closer
to the hurricanes eye, were estimated to have reached
130 mph (210 km/h); these velocities represented some
of the highest experienced on land from the storm,[11]

3.3

3 IMPACT

Mississippi

Along the coast of Mississippi, where Elena made landfall, the most signicant eects of the storm stemmed
from its strong winds gusting to over 120 mph (190
km/h). Recorded gusts included 121 mph (195 km/h)
at Gulfport, 115 mph (185 km/h) at Pascagoula, and 90
mph (140 km/h) at Biloxi.[7][96] Several other weather
stations clocked sustained winds at over 90 mph (140
km/h).[11] Consistent with the storms dry nature, rainfall in the state was mainly light and conned to southern
and western areas.[5] Gulfport picked up more than 4.5
in (110 mm),[97] while just over 3 in (75 mm) of rain
fell at Natchez.[11] Some streets in Gulfport and Biloxi
ooded at the height of the storm.[97] The highest tides ran
6 to 8 ft (1.8 to 2.4 m) above normal along the coast,[51]
reaching 7.9 ft (2.4 m) above average at Pascagoula and
Ocean Springs.[11] As with Alabama, negative surge values were recorded at the storms onset. The tide gauge at
Gulfport recorded a water level of 5.6 ft (1.7 m) below
average early on September 2, before quickly swelling
to 5.43 ft (1.66 m) above normal.[93] Air pressure reportedly fell so rapidly at Pascagoula ahead of the hurricanes approaching center that car windows began to
shatter.[84] The barometer there bottomed out at 953 mb,
the lowest recorded pressure on land in association with
the cyclone.[9]

Elenas storm total rainfall in the United States

The worst of the damage occurred along a 40 mi (64

km) stretch of coastline, particularly in the Pascagoula
area and surrounding towns.[97] Elenas winds damaged
most of the schools in Jackson County, and more specifically, every school in Pascagoula was structurally impaired to some degree. Damages to schools in Ocean
Springs totaled $3 million;[98] in the same city, the overall conditions following the hurricane were described
as worse than those in the prior hurricanes Frederic or
Camille. Elena destroyed 20 houses and two supermarkets in Ocean Springs, and several buildings on each city
block sustained severe roof damage due to fallen trees.

Two shopping centers were destroyed in nearby Gautier,

possibly by short-lived tornadoes. A re captain in Gautier remarked immediately after the storm that he had not
yet seen an unharmed building in the city. The community became essentially isolated from the outside world,
and quickly began to run short of food, clean water, and
gasoline supplies.[99] Initial reports from Pascagoula also
indicated that most, or all, of that citys buildings were
damaged.[100] Nearly every business in the city was damaged to the extent that none were able to operate by
the time the storm cleared.[35] A post-storm assessment
by the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency revealed over 900 businesses in Jackson County sustained
damage, contributing to a total of nearly 1,500 in the
states three coastal counties.[101]
Harrison and Hancock counties were generally not impacted quite as severely as areas closer to the Alabama
border, but the entire area still suered extensively. In
sections of Gulfport, large res were sparked by downed
power lines and fed by broken natural gas pipes. Debris on roadways prevented reghters from reaching the
res, thereby allowing them to spread. Similar destruction was seen to the east at Biloxi, where the hurricanes
winds tore the roofs o many buildings. Beachfront communities were in a state of disarray, with large trees uprooted, debris littering the ground, and accumulations
of sand on parts of roads like U.S. 90.[97] Damage to
schools in Harrison Countyparticularly in Gulfport and
Biloxiwas extensive.[102] Most homes in the area survived the storm, which was locally estimated to have been
a once-in-50-year event, with relatively little damage.
Several buildings along the coast in the Biloxi area sustained severe damage, but many of the older houses near
the Gulf of Mexico there fared remarkably well.[97][103]
Winds brought down large highway signs, in some cases
causing damage to nearby buildings.[104] Along the coast,
Elena caused beach erosion, damaged coastal structures
and recreational beach facilities,[105] and dislocated navigational buoys and markers in various ports, several of
which were closed pending Coast Guard inspection.[106]
Winds over inland Pearl River County damaged 350 permanent and mobile homes, and as in Alabama, the hurricane took a large toll on pecan and soybean crops and
farms.[107]
There were numerous reports in southern Mississippi
of embedded tornadoes that exacerbated the hurricanes eects.[36] Reports in Gulfport indicated that three
schools actively being used as hurricane shelters were
struck and damaged by tornadoes. At one location, almost 400 people being housed in a school had to rush to
safety before part of the structures roof collapsed. Another apparent tornado sideswiped a senior citizens center, endangering nearly 200 people in a structure that sustained damage to windows, doors, and part of its roof;
about 20 people required rescue by paramedics. Only
minor injuries occurred in association with the possible
tornadoes.[97][108] Teams of experts tasked with review-

3.4

Louisiana

ing the validity of tornado reports were scarcely able to

uncover sucient evidence that much of the damage in
southern Mississippi had been done by tornadoes. As a
result, few of the events were conrmed to have been
tornadoes,[9] and it was considered likely that most of
the damage in the region was the result of squall-like
winds that are part of an intense hurricanes nature, or
potentially localized microbursts.[36][107] This conclusion
was not denitive, however; indeed, a city ocial in
Biloxi remarked that in situations as extreme as Elenas
onslaught, when you can't even see your hand in front
of you, its very hard to tell if its a tornado or the
hurricane.[100] Any unconrmed tornadoes would have
possessed winds equal to or weaker than the hurricanes
synoptic winds.[107]

Satellite image of Elena making landfall on September 2

The storm left 80,000 customers under the jurisdiction

of the Mississippi Power Company without power; most
of Jackson Countys 126,000 residents were aected
by the outage.[101][109] Operations at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula were halted due to the power outage and widespread damage to the shipyards buildings
and cranes;[109] at least two other shipyards in the state
were compromised by the hurricane.[110] Additionally,
the storm forced the temporary closure of the Chevron
USA renery at Pascagoula.[106] Facilities at Horn Island in the Gulf Islands National Seashore, Buccaneer
State Park, and the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National
Wildlife Refuge required repairs following the storm; at
the latter, damages included the cost of healing a Florida
sandhill crane's injured leg. Thirty seafood plants were
impaired, and another was destroyed.[110] The Red Cross
estimated that 200 single-family houses in the state were
destroyed, and some 13,200 were damaged, 1,200 of
them heavily. Additionally, the hurricane demolished
390 mobile homes and damaged another 2,290.[111] The
overall cost of damage in Mississippi alone approached
$1 billion.[107]

3.4 Louisiana
After moving inland, the storms northwestward track
brought it over the Louisiana border on two separate
occasions,[5] rst reaching Washington Parish as a minimal hurricane. Winds there were strong enough to
bring down hundreds of trees, damaging houses and
knocking out power to over 15,000 customers in the
process.[112][113][114] The hurricane also overturned mobile homes and strewn debris throughout communities
such as Bogalusa and Franklinton in Washington Parish,
the hardest-hit area in the state.[31] Downed trees caused
damage to 200 homes and another 200 businesses, chiey
near Bogalusa.[112]
Winds across the rest of the state were moderate, gusting
to around 50 mph (80 km/h) at Slidell on the northeastern shore of Lake Pontchartrain,[11] so damage outside
of Washington Parish was sporadic.[112] Throughout the
state, at least 40,000 electric customers lost power.[100]
Located southwest of the storms core, New Orleans escaped with little damage and relatively benign weather
conditions; still, the hurricane triggered minor ooding and brought down tree limbs around the city. Levees along the shores of Lake Pontchartrain were able
to contain the lakes large waves, despite initial fears to
the contrary.[30][31] Still, the adverse conditions forced
the temporary closure of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway.[115] The storm led to the deaths of two individuals in the state: one due to a drowning in St. Tammany
Parish and another in a trac accident attributed to the
weather.[31] Insured and uninsured damages were worth
near $17 million combined, with an additional $500,000
in agricultural losses.[112]
Elena subjected the Chandeleur Islands to a 6.5 ft (2.0 m)
or greater storm surge. The island chain is an important
buer to parts of mainland Louisiana against storms, but
is frequently reshaped or shrunken by intense hurricanes.
Hurricane Danny and Hurricane Juan also impacted the
islands in 1985. Elena eroded away at least 20% and
possibly up to 40% of the Chandeleur Islands total land
mass and cut 30 signicant channels into the island chain.
Parts of the islands left intact suered extensive loss of
vegetation.[112][116][117] The hurricane, along with Danny
and Juan, also impacted several other barrier islands, and
Elena itself removed as much as 112 ft (34 m) of beach
along the island of Grand Isle.[118]

3.5 Elsewhere
Precipitation from Hurricane Elena reached into southern Georgia and parts of South Carolina,[5] with little impact aside from meager drought relief.[119] For several
days after landfall, the weakening tropical cyclone produced moderate to heavy rainfall across portions of central and northern Arkansas. Rainfall totals were generally
2 to 4 in (51 to 102 mm), with locally higher amounts;
Mountain Home, Arkansas received 8.95 in (227 mm) of

10

4 AFTERMATH

rain,[11][120] including 6.6 in (170 mm) in just three hours

on September 4.[121] Clinton to the south recorded 8.6 in
(220 mm). At the state capital of Little Rock, under 3
in (76 mm) of liquid fell.[11][120] Listed by the National
Weather Service among some of the most signicant
tropical cyclones to aect Arkansas, the remnants of
Elena triggered ash ooding in parts of four counties; 2
ft (0.61 m) of standing water submerged streets in downtown Hot Springs.[120] In Mountain Home, oodwaters
forced 10 families to evacuate their homes, and one person died after a swollen creek swept her car o a bridge
spanning it.[121]
Signicant rainfall also occurred over parts of western
Kentucky, with lighter precipitation in several adjacent
states.[5] Over 8 in (200 mm) fell at Paducah, where urban streets and low-lying terrain experienced freshwater
ooding Floodwaters 4 ft (1.2 m) deep submerged cars
to their windows and inltrated 40 homes, several businesses, a hotel, and a high school.[122][123] Localized evacuations and road closures were required, and a person
wading in an active creek had to be rescued after the creek
swept him downstream. Around 10,000 customers lost
electric service for a short period due to the storm. Shelters were opened to those displaced by the ooding, but
scarcely used.[123]

Thousands of families required temporary housing after their

homes were rendered unlivable.

centers were opened in those four counties as centralized locations for federal, state, and volunteer agencies
to operate relief programs.[128] President Reagan later included Hillsborough, Wakulla, and Dixie counties, bringing the total number of Florida counties eligible for federal aid to seven. The deadline for residents of all seven
counties to apply for either state or federal assistance was
set for November 12.[129] Several major corporations
including Texaco, Exxon, and J.C. Penneycontacted
customers in the aected areas and oered to make special arrangements for their monthly payments if they had
been nancially impacted by the storm. While only a
small number of customers took advantage of the assistance, the companies actions were met with highly positive feedback.[130]

Early in its formative stages, Elena triggered rainshowers and thunderstorms over parts of Cuba, The Bahamas,
and Hispaniola.[124] Later, the mature hurricane generated strong rip currents as far away as South Padre Island,
Texas, where two swimmers drowned in separate incidents over the Labor Day weekend. Both victims were
male Texas residents.[99][125]
In the days following the storm, residents of Cedar Key
were forbidden from returning to their homes and businesses while washed-out roadways underwent repairs and
debris was cleared. Portable toilets were delivered and
4 Aftermath
clean water trucked in for use while the citys infrastructure was being stabilized.[131] After the city of Cedar
Hurricane Elena has a multifaceted legacy; it is reKey dropped its participation in the National Flood Inmembered not only for its severe impacts, but also for
surance Program in early 1984, leaving residents unable
its unpredictability and the wide extent of pre-storm
to purchase ood insurance for their property, the city
[39]
preparations. Due to its notoriety, the name Elena was
council voted unanimously to return to the program after
retired from the cyclical list of Atlantic hurricane names
Hurricane Elena.[69] Tourism decreased signicantly in
in the spring of 1986. Consequently, it will never again
some areas due to prospective travelers concerns about
be used for an Atlantic hurricane.[126] The name was rethe extent of the damage. The hurricane created a 13%
placed by Erika, which was rst used during the 1991
drop in visitors between October 1984 and October 1985
[3]
season.
in Pinellas County, marking an early end to the annual
tourist season, which generally ends after Labor Day
weekend; tourist spending fell accordingly.[132]
4.1 Florida
The state of Florida received a federal Major Disaster
Declaration on September 12.[127] Franklin, Levy, Manatee, and Pinellas countieswhere the storm left 5,000 individuals without workbecame eligible for federal aid
after President Ronald Reagan visited the state and determined that residents in those areas would benet from
assistance such as temporary housing, low-interest loans
for rebuilding eorts, and monetary grants.[69] Disaster

After the storm, residents were allowed to return to their

neighborhoods on a by-town basis. Once authorized to
enter their communities, many individuals inadvertently
gained access to other municipalities in the area that were
not ready for the return of civilians. In turn, dangerous
situations arose amid preliminary cleanup operations. In
Pinellas County, laws were proposed to unify the municipal decisions to accept residents after future disasters. As part of the proposed laws, the county sheri,

11
as opposed to local ocials, would become responsible
for allowing cities to reopen.[133] Despite extensive resistance, county commissioners approved the change, giving
the sitting sheri power to override municipal evacuation
orders.[134] An additional ordinance was proposed to allow banning of alcohol sales during emergencies. During
Hurricane Elena, intoxicated individuals created disorder
at shelters and impeded evacuations by refusing to leave
hurricane parties.[133][134]
To help the Apalachicola Bay shellsh industry recover,
special regulations were put in place to monitor harvests,
and $2 million was designated toward rehabilitation efforts. Using a portion of the funds, out-of-work oyster
catchers were employed to repopulate crucial reefs.[44]
The state of Florida also issued a grant to help individuals in the crippled seafood industry make necessary
payments.[135] Eorts to help newly unemployed individuals in the shellsh industry continued in the months following the storm; local Tallahassee musicians organized
a benet concert in January 1986 to raise money for families of oystermen in Franklin County.[136]
On September 1 and 2, Florida Power Company received help from Gulf Coast companies to return power to
170,000 customers before the assisting companies home
areas were struck by the hurricane. Power was restored
to most areas by September 4, with an exception being
St. Georges Island; service was expected to be restored
after several additional days.[37] More broadly, owners of
heavily damaged homes in the state faced new regulations
on coastal construction in the state, which went into eect
less than a month after the storm. The new rules entailed
more rigorous study of factors such as a propertys prior
history and surrounding buildings before approval to rebuild a demolished structure would be granted. Governor Graham preliminarily advised that houses more than
halfway destroyed not be rebuilt.[137] Recovery eorts after Hurricane Elena continued to a small degree for years
after its passage; for example, beach replenishment at
Indian Rocks Beach in Pinellas County began in the summer of 1990.[138]

Mississippi Governor William Allain sent 500 members of the National Guard to partner with 200 law
enforcement ocers along Mississippis coast in minimizing crime, and nighttime curfews were established
in several cities.[40] On September 4, President Reagan
declared Mississippis coastal counties a Major Disaster area.[141][142] The Federal Emergency Management
Agency estimated that as many as 3,000 homes in the
state were uninhabitable, their occupants forced to nd
temporary living arrangements. The Small Business Administration approved special loans up to $500,000 for
owners of damaged businesses.[142] Mississippi Power
Companys system was the hardest-hit,[37] and restoration
of service was slow; 50,000 of 80,000 customers were
still without electricity by September 5.[101]
By September 5, the Salvation Army, Red Cross, and
other organizations had served 100,000 meals to those
displaced by the hurricane in Mississippi, and federal
food stocks became available for the state to distribute
to storm victims.[143] Still, resources such as food and ice
started to run short in the hardest-hit locations, and long
lines formed at the rst few stores and gas stations to reopen. With dwindling supplies, the Salvation Army had
to procure food from other parts of the region to serve to
victims.[101] In the days after the hurricane, an increase
in heart attack deaths in the Harrison County area was
noted.[143]

5 See also
List of United States hurricanes
List of Florida hurricanes (19751999)
List of retired Atlantic hurricane names
History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes

6 Notes
4.2

Central Gulf Coast

Power companies from several states sent workers to

help restore service to the hardest-hit areas of the Gulf
Coast.[40] Most of Alabama Powers aected customers
had power within 24 hours of the storm, though restoration of service to Dauphin Island took signicantly
longer. Power was fully restored to Central Louisiana
Electric customers by September 4.[37] Alabamas two
coastal counties were declared federal disaster areas on
September 7.[139][140] Special loan assistance was made
available by the Small Business Administration and the
Farmers Home Administration, the latter of which sought
to help commercial growers who lost their crops to the
storm.[140]

[1] Monetary gures in 1985 USD, unless otherwise noted.

[2] National Hurricane Center (1985). Hurricane Elena Preliminary Report Page 1. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[3] Hurricane Research Division (2012). Easy to Read
HURDAT Best Track 2012. National Hurricane Center.
Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[4] Christopher S. Velden (March 1987).
Satellite
Observations of Hurricane Elena (1985) Using the VAS 6.7-m Water-Vapor Channel.
Monthly Weather Review (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration) 68 (3):
212214.
Bibcode:1987BAMS...68..210V.
doi:10.1175/15200477(1987)068<0210:SOOHEU>2.0.CO;2.

12

6 NOTES

[5] David M. Roth. Hurricane Elena - August 28 September 6, 1985. Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved
February 2, 2013.

[22] Associated Press (September 2, 1985). Hurricane Elena

Changes Course, Picks Up Devastating Strength. Harlan
Daily Enterprise. Retrieved February 5, 2013.

[6] Barnes, p. 252

[23] Christi Harlan and David Hanners (September 1, 1985).

Elena Sends Rain, Twister to Florida. The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved February 5, 2013.

[7] National Hurricane Center (1985). Hurricane Elena Preliminary Report Page 2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[8] Kristen L. Corbosiero, et. al (November 2006). The
Structure and Evolution of Hurricane Elena (1985).
Part II: Convective Asymmetries and Evidence for Vortex Rossby Waves. Monthly Weather Review (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) 134
(11): 30733091. Bibcode:2006MWRv..134.3073C.
doi:10.1175/MWR3250.1.
[9] Sparks, p. 17
[10] National Hurricane Center (1985). Hurricane Elena Preliminary Report Page 4. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
[11] Robert A. Case (July 1986).
Atlantic Hurricane
Season
of
1985
(PDF).
Monthly
Weather Review (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) 114 (7):
13951397.
Bibcode:1986MWRv..114.1390C. doi:10.1175/15200493(1986)114<1390:AHSO>2.0.CO;2.
Retrieved
February 4, 2013.
[12] Associated Press (August 30, 1985). Gulf counties declare emergencies as Elena rumbles toward U.S. coast.
The Deseret News. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[13] Sparks, p. 29
[14] Associated Press (August 30, 1985). Hurricane Elena
is poised to hit Floridas coast. The Montreal Gazette.
Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[15] Sentinel Wire Services (August 30, 1985). Hurricane
Elena gathers force as residents ee Gulf Coast. The Milwaukee Sentinel. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[16] Associated Press (August 30, 1985). Hurricanes routine
to N. Orleans area folk. The Miami News. Retrieved
February 5, 2013.
[17] Associated Press (August 30, 1985). Thousands ee before hurricane. The Calgary Herald. Retrieved February
5, 2013.
[18] Associated Press (August 30, 1985). Florida braces for
Elenas attack as hurricane gathers force in gulf. The
Montreal Gazette. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[19] Sparks, p. 30
[20] Associated Press (August 31, 1985). 573,000 ee as hurricane aims at Florida. The Pittsburgh Press. Retrieved
February 5, 2013.
[21] Associated Press (September 1, 1985). Stalled Elena
still thrashes Florida coast. The Spokesman-Review. Retrieved February 5, 2013.

[24] Jane Meinhardt (September 13, 1985). Evacuation impact was far-reaching. The Evening Independent. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
[25] Sparks, p. 36
[26] Wiley P. Mangum; Kosberg, JI; McDonald, P (1989).
Hurricane Elena and Pinellas County, Florida: Some
Lessons Learned from the Largest Evacuation of Nursing
Home Patients in History. Gerontologist 29 (3): 388
392. doi:10.1093/geront/29.3.388. PMID 2759460. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[27] Barnes, p. 253
[28] Lloyd Dunkelberger (September 2, 1985). Many ordered
to evacuate for 2nd time. Lakeland Ledger. Retrieved
February 5, 2013.
[29] Ed Birk (September 2, 1985). 4 States Evacuate Residents 2nd Time. The Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[30] Dan Even (September 2, 1985). Hurricane strikes hard at
Mississippi. Lawrence Journal-World. Retrieved March
20, 2013.
[31] Storer Rowley and Michael Hirsley (September 3, 1985).
Hurricane Thrashes Gulf States. The Chicago Tribune.
Retrieved March 20, 2013.
[32] Associated Press (September 2, 1985). Elena roars
ashore. The Spokane Chronicle. Retrieved March 18,
2013.
[33] Bruce Nichols and David Hanners (September 3, 1985).
Elena nally howls ashore. The Lakeland Ledger. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
[34] Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory
(February 2013). Chronological List of All Continental
United States Hurricanes: 18512012. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved May 29,
2013.
[35] Dan Even (September 2, 1985). Ocials Begin Assessing Damages Left By Elena. The Harlan Daily Enterprise. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
[36] National Hurricane Center (1985). Hurricane Elena Preliminary Report Page 3. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
[37] Southern Co. Hardest Hit in Hurricane as 550,000 on
Gulf Coast Lose Power. September 9, 1985 via LexisNexis.
[38] National Climatic Data Center. Billion Dollar U.S.
Weather/Climate Disasters, 1980October 2011. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved April 6, 2013.

13

[39] Barnes, p. 255

[40] Associated Press and United Press International (September 3, 1985). Gulf states add up the damage. The Milwaukee Journal. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
[41] Minerals Management Service, p. D-16
[42] Mineral Management Service, p. D-10
[43] Jon Nordheimer (October 6, 1985). Hurricane Elena
leaves Apalachicola Bay oyster industry devastated. The
Lakeland Ledger. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
[44] Mark E. Berrigan (March 1987). Management of Oyster Resources in Apalachicola Bay Following Hurricane
Elena (PDF). Journal of Shellsh Research 7 (2): 281
288. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
[45] Mineral Management Service, p. D-20
[46] Robert J. Livingston (2010). Trophic Organization in
Coastal Systems. CRC Press. p. 251. ISBN 1-4200-40855. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
[47] National Hurricane Center (December 10, 1985).
Hurricane Kate Preliminary Report Page 4. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved
May 29, 2013.
[48] Keith B. Richburg and Thomas O'Toole (August 31,
1985). Hurricane Elena Brushes Gulf Coast at 110 mph;
318,000 in Florida Ordered Evacuated. The Washington
Post. via LexisNexis (subscription required)
[49] Bodge, p. 6
[50] Jane Meinhardt (August 30, 1985). Elena gaining
strength in Gulf near Pensacola. The Evening Independent. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[51] Sparks, p. 16
[52] John Mulliken (September 4, 1985). Hurricane Did Little To Combat South Florida Water Shortage. South
Florida Sun Sentinel. Retrieved March 14, 2013.
[53] Ralph R. Clark (May 2010). Fishing Pier Design Guidance, Part 1: Historical Pier Damage in Florida (PDF).
Florida Department of Environmental Protection. pp. 9
11. Retrieved March 14, 2013.
[54] Wayne Ayers (July 2010). Indian Rocks Beachs Piers
... A Prime Attraction (PDF). Indian Rocks Historical
Society. p. 1. Retrieved March 14, 2013.
[55] Bodge, p. 12
[56] Jerry Brashier, Susan B. Gaudry, Johnnie W. Tarver (October 1986). Synopsis of Impacts from the 1985 Gulf of
Mexico Hurricanes (PDF). The Coastal Society. p. 3.
Retrieved March 14, 2013.
[57] Robert A. Davis, Jr. and Margaret Andronaco. Impact
of Hurricanes on Pinellas County, Florida 1985 (PDF).
National Sea Grant Library/Florida Sea Grant College. p.
9. Retrieved March 16, 2013.
[58] Bodge, p. 18

[59] Albert C. Hine and Mark W. Evans. Eects of Hurricane Elena on Floridas Marsh-Dominanted Coast: Pasco,
Hernando, and Citrus Counties. National Sea Grant Library/Florida Sea Grant College. p. ii (Abstract). Retrieved March 16, 2013.
[60] Richard A. Davis, Jr. and Albert C. Hine (1989).
Quaternary Geology and Sediment of the Barrier Island
and Marshy Coast, West-Central Florida, U.S.A. American Geophysical Union. p. 13. ISBN 0-87590-576-5.
[61] David K. Camp (2011). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters,
and Biota: Volume 3, Geology. Texas A&M University
Press. p. 95. ISBN 1-60344-290-1.
[62] Dunedin Pass Coastal Management History (PDF).
Pinellas County, Florida. Retrieved March 15, 2013.
[63] Mike Deeson (September 3, 2010). Hurricane Elena 25
years ago this weekend. WTSP. Retrieved March 16,
2013.
[64] Associated Press (September 2, 1985). Worst in Tampa
area came from ooding. The Miami News. Retrieved
March 16, 2013.
[65] Bodge, p. 2
[66] Ed Birk (September 1, 1985). Cedar Key Flooded, Isolated by Elena. Associated Press. Retrieved March 4,
2013.
[67] Kevin M. McCarthy (2007). Cedar Key Florida, A History. The History Press. p. 112. ISBN 1-59629-310-1.
[68] Mark Zaloudek (September 2, 1985). Graham: Fla.
Damage Worse Than Expected. The Sarasota HeraldTribune. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
[69] Associated Press (September 13, 1985). 4 Counties Eligible for Federal Disaster Aid. The Palm Beach Post.
Retrieved April 8, 2013.
[70] Bodge, p. 13
[71] Bodge, p. 7
[72] Bodge, p. 8
[73] Federal Emergency Management Agency (December 19,
2006). Flood insurance study number 12113CV000A
(PDF) (Report). Santa Rosa County, Florida. p. 9. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
[74] Charlie Jean (September 2, 1985). Elena Lashes Out At
Panhandle. The Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved March 16,
2013.
[75] Bodge, p. 15
[76] Ed Birk (September 2, 1985). Domestic News. Associated Press via LexisNexis.
[77] Ralph R. Clark and James LaGrone. A Comparative
Analysis of Hurricane Dennis and Other Recent Hurricanes on Coastal Communities of Northwest Florida
(PDF). Florida Shore And Beach Preservation Association. pp. 1415. Retrieved March 16, 2014.

14

6 NOTES

[78] Minerals Management Service, p. D-21

[100] Associated Press (September 3, 1985). Hurricane Elena

Pounds Gulf Coast. The Bangor Daily News. Retrieved
[79] Associated Press (December 1, 1985). Florida Studies
March 20, 2013.
Plan to Relocate Coastal Highways. The Ocala Star[101] Associated Press (September 5, 1985). Food Short In
Banner. Retrieved April 10, 2013.
Mississippi Counties. The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved
[80] Hurricanes and Tornadoes. Central Pacic Hurricane
April 4, 2013.
Center. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
[102] Sparks, p. 49
[81] Wesley Loy (September 2, 1985). Lake County Residents Try To Salvage What Twister Smashed. The Or- [103] Sparks, p. 59
lando Sentinel. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
[104] Sparks, p. 72
[82] Wesley Loy (September 1, 1985). Tornadoes Smash
[105] Sand Beach Planning Team (1986). Sand Beach Master
Dozens Of Homes: Storm Spinos Touch Down In LeesPlan (Report). Mississippi Department of Wildlife Conburg, Ocala Areas. The Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved
servation. pp. 15, 34, 41. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
March 18, 2013.
[106] Associated Press (September 4, 1985). More than
[83] Dan Powell (September 1, 1985). Tornado Rips Through
17,000 dwellings damaged by Hurricane Elena. The
Homes: Tropicana Feels Wrath Of Hurricane. The Ocala
Daily News. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
Sun-Star. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
[107] National Climatic Data Center, p. 36
[84] Barnes, p. 254
[108] Barry Bearak and J. Michael Kennedy (September 3,
[85] Barnes, pp. 254255
1985). Storm Rips Into Coastal Mississippi : Damage
Is Massive in 35-Mile Strip; Injuries Are Minor. The
[86] Brian E. Crowley (September 3, 1985). Alabama Resort
Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
Virtually Swept Away. The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved
March 18, 2013.
[109] Michael Hirsley and Storer Rowley (September 4, 1985).
Elena Leaves Megadollar Mess. The Chicago Tribune.
[87] National Climatic Data Center, p. 28
Retrieved April 4, 2013.
[88] Associated Press (September 4, 1985). At least 370 [110] Mineral Management Service, p. D-12
dwellings sustain damage from Hurricane Elena. The
Gadsden Times. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
[111] Dan Even (September 3, 1985). Elenas victims return
to rebuild homes. The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved April
[89] Sparks, p. 78, 80
4, 2013.
[90] Associated Press (September 3, 1985). "'Bama natives [112] National Climatic Data Center, p. 33
clean up in aftermath of Elena. The Kentucky New Era.
[113] David M. Roth. Louisiana Hurricane History (PDF).
Retrieved March 18, 2013.
Weather Prediction Center. p. 45. Retrieved March 20,
[91] Jim Nesbitt (September 4, 1985). "'We Don't Know
2013.
Where Our House Went'". The Orlando Sentinel. Re[114] Dan Even (September 3, 1985). Hurricane Howls
trieved March 18, 2013.
Ashore at Biloxi. The Schenectady Gazette. Retrieved
[92] Timothy P. Marshall (September 1985). Hurricane
March 20, 2013.
Elena Damage Survey: September 2, 1985. Stormtrack.
[115] John Demers (September 2, 1985). Elena spares
Retrieved April 14, 2013.
Louisiana but spoils holiday. United Press International
[93] Sparks, pp. 2324
via LexisNexis.
[94] Minerals Management Service, p. D-19

[116] Minerals Management Service, p. D-7

[95] Associated Press (September 9, 1985). Two Alabama [117] Sarah Fearnley et al. (2009). Hurricane Impact and Recovery Shoreline Change Analysis and Historical Island
Coastal Counties Declared Major Disaster Area. The
Conguration: 1700s to 2005 (PDF). United States GeOcala Star-Banner. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
ological Survey. p. 22. Retrieved March 20, 2013.
[96] Sparks, p. 15
[118] Minerals Management Service, p. D-8
[97] United Press International (September 3, 1985).
Tornadoes hit Mississippi shelters. St. Petersburg [119] Elenas rain helped, but South Georgias crops still need
more. The Atlanta Journal Constitution. September 5,
Times. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
1985. Retrieved March 17, 2013.
[98] Sparks, p. 50
[120] National Weather Service Little Rock (August 29, 2012).
[99] United Press International (September 3, 1985).
Tropical systems and their eects in Arkansas. NaCasualties light amid Elena damage. The Telegraph.
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. ReRetrieved April 4, 2013.
trieved March 17, 2013.

15

[121] Associated Press (September 5, 1985). Heavy rain in [139] Alabama HURRICANE ELENA (DR-742)". Federal
Ark; record heat in east. The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved
Emergency Management Agency. Retrieved April 9,
March 17, 2013.
2013.
[140] Associated Press (September 8, 1985). Reagan declares
2 counties disaster areas. The Times Daily. Retrieved
Associated Press (September 6, 1985). Remnants of
April 9, 2013.
Hurricane Elena Cause West Kentucky Flooding. The
[141] Mississippi HURRICANE ELENA (DR-741)". FedHarlan Daily Enterprise. Retrieved March 17, 2013.
eral Emergency Management Agency. Retrieved April 9,
Sta writer (August 28, 1985). Domestic News. Asso2013.
ciated Press. via LexisNexis (subscription required)
[142] United Press International (September 5, 1985). Reagan
declares Mississippi coast ocial disaster area. The Lodi
United Press International (September 3, 1985).
News-Sentinel. Retrieved April 9, 2013.
Guardsmen patrol in the wake of Hurricane Elena. The
Courier. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
[143] Associated Press (September 6, 1985). Governor back
for disaster planning. The Lewiston Journal. Retrieved
National Hurricane Center. Tropical Cyclone Naming
April 8, 2013.
History and Retired Names. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved April 7, 2013.

[122] National Climatic Data Center, pp. 3233

[123]

[124]
[125]

[126]

[127] Florida HURRICANE ELENA (DR-743)". Federal

Emergency Management Agency. Retrieved April 8,
2013.
[128] Associated Press (September 16, 1985). 4 aid centers
open to help Elena victims. The Gainesville Sun. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
[129] Sta writer (November 8, 1985). Deadline Approaches
for Elena Aid. The Evening Independent. Retrieved April
9, 2013.
[130] Judy Garnatz (September 17, 1985). Hurricane Elena
victims given help and credit. The Evening Independent. Retrieved April 10, 2013.
[131] Gary Kirkland (September 3, 1985). Cedar Key pieces
itself together after Elenas destruction. The Gainesville
Sun. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
[132] Mitch Lubitz. Pinellas tourism took dip in aftermath of
hurricane. The Evening Independent. Retrieved April 9,
2013.
[133] Mary Ann Polak (August 26, 1986). Emergency rulings
may create a storm at tonights hearing. The Evening Independent. Retrieved April 10, 2013.
[134] Ned Barnett (August 27, 1986). Commission votes to
raise property taxes. The Evening Independent. Retrieved April 10, 2013.
[135] Linda Kleindienst (September 17, 1985). Fishermen
May Use Grant To Recover From Elenas Force. The
Orlando Sun Sentinel. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
[136] United Press International (January 21, 1986). "$25,000
Raised For Oystermen. The Orlando Sun Sentinel. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
[137] Associated Press (September 5, 1985). State will oversee
waterfront rebuilding. The Miami News. Retrieved April
11, 2013.
[138] Rochelle D. Lewis (January 26, 1990). New beach to x
damage by Elena. The St. Petersburg Times.

7 References
Jay Barnes (2007). Floridas Hurricane History.
Chapel Hill Press. ISBN 0-8078-3068-2.
Kevin R. Bodge and David L. Kriebel (1985).
Storm surge and wave damage along Floridas Gulf
Coast from Hurricane Elena (Report). University of
Florida. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
United States Minerals Management Service
(1996). Proposed oil and gas lease sales 110
and 112, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region: draft
environmental impact statement (Report). United
States Department of the Interior. Retrieved April
3, 2013.
National Climatic Data Center (September 1985).
Storm Data for September 1985 (PDF). Storm
Data (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) 27 (9). Retrieved April 15, 2013.
Peter R. Sparks, National Research Council (U.S.).
Committee on Natural Disasters (1991). Hurricane
Elena, Gulf Coast, August 29-September 2, 1985.
National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-04434-0.

8 External links
User-submitted footage of Hurricane Elena from
Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi
User-submitted footage from under the eye of Hurricane Elena
Image gallery from WTSP in St. Petersburg, Florida

16

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Hurricane Elena Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Elena?oldid=679340245 Contributors: Edward, Sannse, Ee79, Ed g2s,

Altenmann, Cholling, BigT27, Michael Devore, Golbez, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Shanes, LeonardoGregianin, Timl, Sandover, Jdorje,
WadeSimMiser, Miss Madeline, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Erebus555, WillC, Jaraalbe, Kummi, Mike Halterman, CrazyC83, Pb30, Hurricanehink, Byrdiecj, SmackBot, Ashenai, Hydrogen Iodide, IstvanWolf, Mitchazenia, Storm05, Ohconfucius, Thegreatdr, CapeVerdeWave, Mr Stephen, Dhp1080, Abog, CWY2190, Neelix, Nilfanion, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, AntiVandalBot, Sreejithk2000, NE2, Keith
D, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Plasticup, Juliancolton, Hugo999, NilfaBot, Slysplace, WereSpielChequers, Lightmouse, Denisarona,
ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, SchreiberBike, Another Believer, Laser brain, Cyclonebiskit, Addbot, Tassedethe,
Luckas-bot, 12george1, Plasticbot, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, GenQuest, Wonderworld1995268, FrescoBot, Alaphent, TheAustinMan, Lars Washington, Jroehl, Lightlowemon, Trappist the monk, Begoon, Students at the UCLA, EmausBot, John of Reading, GA bot, Hurricanefan101, Jarodalien, Brandmeister, Chris857, Hylian Auree, TropicalAnalystwx13, ClueBot
NG, Bibcode Bot, Typeractive, IPhonehurricane95, Dexbot, Frosty, Fox2k11, Jamesx12345, Zziccardi, VoxelBot, WxBot, TFA Protector Bot, Giftgowa, ChingstaEnxed, Monkbot, BethNaught, S26772566, The Dog 1019, Chene1994, Iceman MD, Trip8833, Anonymous13333333333333377777777777, Stopbanningme, Vinaysinghvinu, Durpyturtle and Anonymous: 44

9.2

Images

File:1985_Atlantic_hurricane_season_summary_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/1985_

Atlantic_hurricane_season_summary_map.png License: Public domain Contributors: Created using Wikipedia:WikiProject Tropical cyclones/Tracks. The background image is from NASA [1]. The tracking data is from the National Hurricane Center's Atlantic hurricane
database Original artist: Supportstorm
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/
Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Original artist: Astronaut photograph ISS008-E-19646 was taken March 7, 2004, with a Kodak DCS760 digital camera equipped with an 50-mm lens, and is provided by
the Earth Observations Laboratory, Johnson Space Center.
File:Elena_01_sep_1985_1253Z_N8.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Elena_01_sep_1985_1253Z_
N8.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.class.noaa.gov/ Original artist: NOAA
File:Elena_02_sep_1985_1411Z_N8.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Elena_02_sep_1985_1411Z_
N8.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.class.noaa.gov/ Original artist: NOAA
File:Elena_1985_rainfall.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Elena_1985_rainfall.gif License: Public
domain Contributors: WPC tropical cyclone rainfall data Original artist: David Roth, Weather Prediction Center, Camp Springs, Maryland
File:Elena_1985_track.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Elena_1985_track.png License: Public domain Contributors: Created using Wikipedia:WikiProject Tropical cyclones/Tracks. The background image is from NASA. Tracking data
from the National Hurricane Center.[1] Original artist: See le upload history for details.
File:Florida_counties_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Florida_counties_map.png License:
Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: United States Census Bureau
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hurricane_Elena_1985_Florida_boats_debris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Hurricane_
Elena_1985_Florida_boats_debris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/4135 Original
artist: State Archives of Florida, Florida Memory, http://floridamemory.com/items/show/4135
File:Hurricane_Elena_August_30_500_mb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Hurricane_Elena_
August_30_500_mb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/dwm/1985/19850826-19850901.djvu Original artist: NOAA Central Library Data Imaging Project
File:Hurricane_Elena_Florida_beach_house_damaged.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
Hurricane_Elena_Florida_beach_house_damaged.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/
4138 Original artist: State Archives of Florida, Florida Memory, http://floridamemory.com/items/show/4138
File:Hurricane_Elena_Florida_house_damage.jpg Source:
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Elena_Florida_house_damage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/4137 Original artist:
State Archives of Florida, Florida Memory, http://floridamemory.com/items/show/4137
File:Hurricane_Elena_Florida_road_damage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Hurricane_Elena_
Florida_road_damage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/4136 Original artist: State
Archives of Florida, Florida Memory, http://floridamemory.com/items/show/4136
File:Hurricane_Elena_NOAA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Hurricane_Elena_NOAA.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/images Original artist: User Timl2k4 on en.wikipedia
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol

9.3

9.3

Content license

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