Appendix E

E.1

Introduction to Logic

Introduction to Logic
Statements Truth Tables

Statements
In everyday speech and in mathematics you make inferences that adhere to
common laws of logic. These methods of reasoning allow you to build an algebra of statements by using logical operations to form compound statements from
simpler ones. A primary goal of logic is to determine the truth value (true or false)
of a compound statement knowing the truth value of its simpler components. For
instance, the compound statement The temperature is below freezing and it is
snowing is true only if both component statements are true.

Definition of a Statement
1. A statement is a sentence to which only one truth value (either true or false) can be meaningfully assigned.
2. An open statement is a sentence that contains one or more variables and becomes a statement when each
variable is replaced by a specific item from a designated set.

NOTE In this definition, the

word statement can be replaced
by the word proposition.

EXAMPLE 1 Statements, Nonstatements, and Open Statements

Statement
A square is a rectangle.
3 is less than 5.

Truth Value
T
F

Nonstatement
Do your homework.
Did you call the police?

Truth Value
No truth value can be meaningfully assigned.
No truth value can be meaningfully assigned.

Open Statement
x is an irrational number.
She is a computer science
major.

Truth Value
We need a value of x.
We need a specific person.

Symbolically, statements are represented by lowercase letters p, q, r, and so

on. Statements can be changed or combined to form compound statements by
means of the three logical operations and, or, and not, which are represented by
 (and),  (or), and ~ (not). In logic the word or is used in the inclusive sense
(meaning and/or in everyday language). That is, the statement p or q is true
E1

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APPENDIX E Introduction to Logic

if p is true, q is true, or both p and q are true. The following list summarizes the
terms and symbols used with these three operations of logic.

Operations of Logic
Operation

Verbal Statement

Symbolic Form

Name of Operation

~



not p
p and q
p or q

~p
pq
pq

Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction

Compound statements can be formed using more than one logical operation,
as demonstrated in Example 2.

EXAMPLE 2 Forming Negations and Compound Statements

The statements p and q are as follows.

p: The temperature is below freezing.
q: It is snowing.
Write the verbal form for each of the following.
(a) p  q

(b) ~p

(c) ~  p  q

(d) ~p  ~q

Solution

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The temperature is below freezing and it is snowing.

The temperature is not below freezing.
It is not true that the temperature is below freezing or it is snowing.
The temperature is not below freezing and it is not snowing.

EXAMPLE 3 Forming Compound Statements

The statements p and q are as follows.

p: The temperature is below freezing.
q: It is snowing.
(a) Write the symbolic form for: The temperature is not below freezing or it is
not snowing.
(b) Write the symbolic form for: It is not true that the temperature is below
freezing and it is snowing.
Solution

(a) The symbolic form is: ~p  ~q

(b) The symbolic form is: ~  p  q

APPENDIX E

E3

Introduction to Logic

Truth Tables
To determine the truth value of a compound statement, you can create charts
called truth tables. These tables represent the three basic logical operations.
Negation

Conjunction

Disjunction

~p

~q

pq

pq

For the sake of uniformity, all truth tables with two component statements will
have T and F values for p and q assigned in the order shown in the first two
columns of each of these three tables. Truth tables for several operations can be
combined into one chart by using the same two first columns. For each operation,
a new column is added. Such an arrangement is especially useful with compound
statements that involve more than one logical operation and for showing that two
statements are logically equivalent.

Logical Equivalence
Two compound statements are logically equivalent if they have identical truth tables. Symbolically, we denote
the equivalence of the statements p and q by writing p  q.

EXAMPLE 4 Logical Equivalence

Use a truth table to show the logical equivalence of the statements ~p  ~q and
~  p  q.
Solution

~p

~q

~p  ~q

pq

~  p  q

Identical

Because the fifth and seventh columns in the table are identical, the two given
statements are logically equivalent.

E4

APPENDIX E Introduction to Logic

The equivalence established in Example 4 is one of two well-known rules in

logic called DeMorgans Laws. Verification of the second of DeMorgans Laws
is left as an exercise.

DeMorgans Laws
p  ~ p is a tautology

~p

p  ~p

1. ~  p  q  ~p  ~q

2. ~  p  q  ~p  ~q

Compound statements that are true, no matter what the truth values of
component statements, are called tautologies. One simple example is the
statement p or not p, as shown in the table at the left.

Exercises

E.1

In Exercises 112, classify the sentence as a statement, a nonstatement, or an open statement.

In Exercises 2124, write the verbal form for each of

the following.

1.
3.
5.
7.
9.
10.
11.
12.

(a) ~p

All dogs are brown.

That figure is a circle.
x is larger than 4.
x  y  10

2.
4.
6.
8.

Can I help you?

Substitute 4 for x.
8 is larger than 4.
12  3  14

Hockey is fun to watch.

One mile is greater than 1 kilometer.
It is more than 1 mile to the school.
Come to the party.

In Exercises 1320, determine whether the open

statement is true for the given values of x.

Open Statement
x2  5x  6  0
x2  x  6  0
x2 4
x3 4
4 x 2
x2  x
x
19.  1
x
3 x  2
20. 
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.




Values of x
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)

x2
x2
x  2
x  1
x0
x3

(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)

x  2
x  2
x0
x7
x1
x  3

(a) x  4

(b) x  0

(a) x  8

(b) x  8

21. p:
q:
23. p:
q:
24. p:
q:

(b) ~q

(c) p  q

(d) p  q

The sun is shining. 22. p: The car has a radio.

It is hot.
q: The car is red.
Lions are mammals.
Lions are carnivorous.
Twelve is less than 15.
Seven is a prime number.

In Exercises 2528, write the verbal form for each of

the following.
(a) ~p  q

25. p:
q:
26. p:
q:
27. p:
q:
28. p:
q:

(b) ~p  q

(c) p  ~q

The sun is shining.

It is hot.
The car has a radio.
The car is red.
Lions are mammals.
Lions are carnivorous.
Twelve is less than 15.
Seven is a prime number.

(d) p  ~q

APPENDIX E

In Exercises 2932, write the symbolic form of the

given compound statement. In each case, let p
represent the statement It is four oclock, and let q
represent the statement It is time to go home.

29.
30.
31.
32.

It is four oclock and it is not time to go home.

It is not four oclock or it is not time to go home.
It is not four oclock or it is time to go home.
It is four oclock and it is time to go home.

In Exercises 3336, write the symbolic form of the

given compound statement. In each case, let p
represent the statement The dog has fleas, and let
q represent the statement The dog is scratching.

33. The dog does not have fleas or the dog is not
scratching.
34. The dog has fleas and the dog is scratching.
35. The dog does not have fleas and the dog is scratching.
36. The dog has fleas or the dog is not scratching.
In Exercises 3742, write the negation of the given
statement.

37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.

The bus is not blue.

Frank is not 6 feet tall.
x is equal to 4.
x is not equal to 4.
Earth is not flat.
Earth is flat.

In Exercises 4348, construct a truth table for the

given compound statement.

43. ~p  q
45. ~p  ~q
47. p  ~q

44. ~p  q
46. ~p  ~q
48. p  ~q

Introduction to Logic

E5

In Exercises 4954, use a truth table to determine

whether the given statements are logically equivalent.

49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.

~p  q, p  ~q
~  p  ~q, ~p  q
~  p  ~q, ~p  q
~  p  q, ~p  ~q
p  ~q, ~ ~p  q
p  ~q, ~ ~p  q

In Exercises 5558, determine whether the statements are logically equivalent.

55. (a)
(b)
56. (a)
(b)
57. (a)

The house is red and it is not made of wood.

The house is red or it is not made of wood.
It is not true that the tree is not green.
The tree is green.
The statement that the house is white or blue is
not true.
(b) The house is not white and it is not blue.
58. (a) I am not 25 years old and I am not applying for
this job.
(b) The statement that I am 25 years old and applying for this job is not true.
In Exercises 5962, use a truth table to determine
whether the given statement is a tautology.

59.
60.
61.
62.

~p  p
~p  p
~ ~p  ~p
~ ~p  ~p

63. Use a truth table to verify the second of DeMorgans

Laws:
~  p  q  ~p  ~q