Closed Conduit Flow Expt

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CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW
The wisest mind has something yet to learn.

George Santayana
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The first great gift a teacher can bestow on his student

is a good lab manual.
Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank all who helped and encouraged us to complete this
laboratory manual; especially, our fluid mechanics professor, Prof. Cornelio Dizon
for guiding us throughout our research work.
Also, special thanks to Kuya Cesar, Cesar Catibayan, who

has guided us very well in handling the instruments used in
this manual.
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Alvin Seria
Imee Bren Villalba
Jannebelle Dellosa
Jaime Angelo Victor
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Introduction ..
Oil Pipe Assembly

Experiment 1: Laminar and Turbulent Flow .
Air Pipe Assembly

Experiment 2: Smooth and Rough Pipes .
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Water Pipe Assembly

Experiment 3: Minor Losses .
38
Hydraulic Bench ................................................................................................
53
Experiment 4: Calibrating a Venturi Meter
58
Experiment 5: Calibrating a Flow Nozzle .
70
Experiment 6: Calibrating an Orifice Meter ..
78
References .
86
Appendix A: .
87
Derivation of Bernoullis Equation

Derivation of V-notch weir discharge equation
Appendix B .
92
Life and Works of Bernoulli

Life and Works of Froude
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Life and Works of Reynolds
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INTRODUCTION
There are two main classes of flow in fluid mechanics. The flow of fluids around bodies such as airfoils,
rockets, and marine vessels is called external flow. This becomes the case when the other boundaries
of the flow are comparatively distant from the body. One general type of this flow is open channel
flow, also called free surface flow, wherein the fluid stream has a free surface exposed to atmospheric
pressure, and gravity is the only component acting along the channel slope. This type of flow is
encountered in natural bodies of water such as rivers, streams, and oceans, as well as in man-made
hydraulic structures such as floodways, dams, and canals. On the other hand, flows that are enclosed
by boundaries are termed internal flows. Examples of this type of flow include the flow through pipes,
ducts, and nozzles.
This research paper focuses primarily on the latter class of flow, that is, the flow of fluids in closed
conduits such as pipes. Different topics under this type of flow were discussed in detail. These topics
include laminar and turbulent flow, circular and non-circular conduits, smooth and rough pipes, major
and minor losses in pipes, single-pipe flow problems, series and parallel pipes, and branching pipes.
Moreover, much attention is given to the detailed discussion of the different experimental apparatuses
used in the study of flow in pressure conduits. Such apparatuses include the oil pipe ass embly, air pipe
assembly, water pipe assembly, water tunnel, and hydraulic bench. Finally, different experiments that
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can be conducted using these facilities were also discussed thoroughly.
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INTRODUCTION
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Pipes are the most common tools used in the analysis of closed conduit flow. Usually, pipes used in
engineering practice are long hollow cylinders; however, cross sections of a different geometry are
used occasionally. Pipes can be smooth or rough, depending on the type of material from which they
were constructed. There are commercially available pipes made of cast iron, galvanized iron,
commercial steel, brass, lead, copper, glass, smooth plastic, and concrete, to name a few.
Figure 1. Type of commercial pipes
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INTRODUCTION
Moreover, the pipe system will not be complete without pipe fittings. Pipe fittings or connections are
used to join different pipes, such as, bends, junctions, tees, etc. They are also used to control or alter
the flow of the fluid through the pipe, this includes valves, gradual contraction and expansion, sudden
contraction and expansion, bell-mouthed entrance and more others.
Laminar and Turbulent

In 1883, Osborne Reynolds conducted an experiment on viscous flow. The results of his investigation
showed that there are two distinct types of fluid flow, namely, laminar flow and turbulent flow. In his
experiment, he allowed water to flow from a large tank to a long glass tubing (see Figure 1). An outlet
valve was placed at the end of the tube to allow him to have complete control over the fluid velocity by
varying the discharge out of the tube. At the entrance, he injected a very thin stream of colored liquid
having the same density (or specific weight) as the water in the tank.
a.) Laminar Flow
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Figure 2.
Reynolds Experiment
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INTRODUCTION
With the outlet valve only slightly opened, that is, when the velocity of the liquid in the tube is small,
he observed that the colored liquid moved in a straight line as illustrated in Figure 2a. As the valve was
progressively opened, the velocity of the liquid in the tube gradually increased, and a fluctuating
motion of the colored fluid was observed as it moved through the length of the tube (Figure 2b).
Finally, when the valve was further opened, it was observed that the colored liquid is already
completely dispersed at a short distance from the entrance of the tube such that no streamlines could
be distinguished (Figure 2c).
The type of flow illustrated in Figure 2a is known as laminar flow, also called streamline flow.
Reynolds described it as a well-ordered pattern whereby fluid layers are assumed to slide over one
another.. Figure 2b shows a transition flow from the previous laminar flow to an unstable type of flow.
Finally, Figure 2c demonstrates a completely irregular flow called turbulent flow.
c.) Turbulent Flow
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b.) Transition Flow
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INTRODUCTION
Energy Losses
Fluid in motion offers frictional resistance to flow; wherein some part of the energy of the system is
converted into thermal energy (heat). In fluid mechanics this converted energy is referred as energy
loss or head loss. This energy loss is due to fluid friction as well as to valves and fittings. The former
is more known as major losses; while, the latter as minor losses. The energy loss in long pipelines, with
length to diameter ratio exceeding 2000, is mainly due to major losses, while minor losses are
negligible. Otherwise, minor losses are dominant over minor losses in short pipelines.
Major Losses
These are the energy dissipated through the walls of the pipe in which the fluid is flowing. Moreover,
the magnitude of the energy loss is dependent on the properties of the fluid, the flow velocity, the pipe
size, and smoothness of the pipe wall, and the length of the pipe.
Rough and Smooth Pipes

As mentioned, major losses are dependent on the smoothness of the pipe wall. Pipe walls can either
be rough or smooth depending on its material composition. For example a galvanized iron pipe is a
type of a smooth walled pipe; while, a brass pipe is a rough walled pipe.
Minor Losses
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Elements that control the direction or flow rate of a fluid in a system typically set up local turbulence in
the fluid, causing energy to be dissipated as heat. Whenever, there is a restriction, a change in flow
velocity, or a change in the direction of flow, these energy losses occur. Moreover, in large systems the
magnitude of losses due to valves and fittings is usually small compared to frictional losses; hence, they
are referred as minor losses.
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EXPERIMENTS
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Objective:
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
To determine the range of Reynolds number for laminar, transition and turbulent flow.
To verify that the friction loss in laminar flow is equivalent to 64/Re.
To verify the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
To determine the measurement uncertainties, and compare the results with benchmark data.
Introduction:
Energy losses in closed conduits are classified into major and minor losses. Major losses result from the
resistance of the conduit walls to the flow and minor losses are due to pipe appurtenances that cause a
change in the magnitude and/or direction of the flow velocity. The determination of these losses is
important for the specification of a pipeline design.
Head losses mainly results from internal pipe friction when the ratio of the length of a pipeline to its
diameter exceeds 2000 and minor pipe appurtenances are not present in a pipe. In this experiment,
major losses are calculated and minor losses are assumed negligible.
Theoretical background:
The head loss for a pipe system is determined by the energy equation between two sections of the
pipe given by
P1/ + Z1 + V12/2g = P2/ + Z2 + V22/2g + HL
(1)
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Where P is the pressure at the centreline of the pipe, is the specific weight of the fluid, Z is the
elevation of the centreline of the pipe relative to an arbitrary datum, V is the average flow velocity, g is
the gravitational constant and H L is the total energy loss between section 1 and 2. When minor losses
are negligible, HL is mainly due to frictional losses only.
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EXPERIMENTS
The velocity is determined when the discharge is known, using the equation
Q = AV
(2)
Where Q is the discharge, A is the area of the pipe, and V is the velocity in the pipe.
If the pressures at section 1 and 2 are known, the energy equation can be used to determine the head
loss along the pipe.
The pipe head loss due to friction is obtained using the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
f = HL LV2 / 2Dg
(3)
Where f is the friction factor, L is the length of the pipe section, and D is the pipe diameter.
The Moody diagram shows the relationship between the friction factor, relative roughness of the pipe
and Reynolds Number. There are three zones of flow in the diagram, namely, laminar, transition and
turbulent.
Type of flow
Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Reynolds Number
Re<2000
2000<Re<10^5
Re>10^5
Friction Factor
f=64/Re
f=0.316/Re^0.25
1/ =2.0log(Re ) 0.8
The Reynolds Number is a dimensionless quantity used in the determination of the type flow. It is given
as,
Re=VD/
(4)
Where is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation is used to describe slow viscous incompressible flow through a constant
circular section. This equation can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equation given as,
(5)
Where P is the pressure drop and is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
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P = 128LQ/D4
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EXPERIMENTS
The energy grade line is a plot of the total head versus the length of the pipe. The total head is the sum
of the pressure head, velocity head and elevation head at a particular point. The plot of piezometric
head versus the length of the pipe is called the hydraulic grade line. The piezometric head is the sum of
the elevation head and pressure head at a particular point.
Figure 1. EGL and HGL

Apparatus:
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Oil Pipe Assembly
Figure 2. Oil Pipe Assembly
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EXPERIMENTS
The experiment is conducted in an oil pipe assembly. The oil is pumped from the reservoir by the
centrifugal pump. The gate valve controls the discharge from the upstream end of the section.
Pressure taps are provided throughout the length of the pipe and connected to a manometer bank for
head loss measurement. The pipe characteristics are provided below. The jet trajectory of the oil is
observed at the transparent housing at the end of the pipe. At the downstream end of the system, the
oil is collected in the weighing tank and the discharge is measured. The oil is then returned back into
the reservoir.
PARTS OF THE OIL PIPE ASSEMBLY
The test section of the oil pipe (Figure 3) assembly consists of

a brass pipe about 5.80 meters long with an inside diameter of
21 mm, a transparent plastic section of about 30 mm in length
with the same inside diameter, and a transparent housing at
one end of the pipe.
Figure 3. Test Section
Piezometer taps are provided throughout

the length of the pipe and connected to a
manometer bank (Figure 4) to measure the
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head loss.
Figure 4. Manometer Bank
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EXPERIMENTS
A stagnation tube (Figure 5) is installed in

the transparent section to measure the
velocity profile.
Figure 5. Stagnation Tube
The housing at the end of the pipe

(Figure 6) enables the observation of
the
characteristics
of
the
jet
trajectory as the oil flow leaves the
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pipe.
Figure 6. Housing at the end of the pipe
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EXPERIMENTS
The centrifugal pump (Figure 7), which

draws the
oil from the
reservoir,
provides the flow of the oil in the test

section is provided.
Figure 7. Supply pump
The gate valve (Figure 8) which is located just

after the pump adjusts the flow in the test
section. In order to ensure the smooth entry of oil
into the pipe, a bell shaped transition is fitted at
the upstream end of the test section.
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Figure 8. Gate valve
Figure 9. Weighing Tank
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EXPERIMENTS
The weighing tank (Figure 9) is used to measure the discharge by noting the
time it takes to collect a certain amount of oil as it leaves the test section into
the weighing tank at the downstream end. Oil which has accumulated in the
weighing tank may be returned to the reservoir by means of the overflow
conduit or by a quick-acting gate valve (Figure 10). This valve is linked to
another quick acting valve in the supply line that would interrupt the flow into
the test section while the weighing tank is being emptied.
Figure 10. Quick Acting gate valve
The reservoir (Figure 11) is a place

where oil is being stored. The oil
used in the oil pipe assembly is
transformer oil.
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Figure 11. Oil Reservoir
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EXPERIMENTS
Figure 12. Piezometer taps in the oil pipe assembly
Piezometer taps are provided for measuring the head loss either by an oil manometer or a mercury
manometer depending on the magnitude of the pressures. The location of these taps is provided in
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Figure 12.
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EXPERIMENTS
Procedure:
1. Determine the pipe diameter, dimensions of the pipe assembly, distance between taps and the
type of fluid to be used.
2. Determine the density of the fluid by using a beam balance and graduated cylinder. The density is
calculated using the following equation.
(6)
3. Turn on the pump and check that the flow is following the correct path.
4. For each trial, set the flow rate to the desired flow of either laminar, transition, and
type of flow is determined by observations of the jet trajectory.
(a)Laminar
(b)Transition
turbulent. The
(c)Turbulent
Figure 13. Jet trajectory for a) laminar, b) transition, and c) turbulent flow
5. Once the flow has stabilized, determine the discharge by getting the change in weight in the
weighing scale over the time interval. Record the head loss across pipe length using the
piezometer readings and the corresponding discharge. Record two readings of the piezometer for
every discharge and get the average.
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5. The discharge, velocity and Reynolds Number are calculated using the following equations.
Q=
(7)
Velocity =
(8)
(9)
6. Perform several trials.
EXPERIMENTS
Results:
1. Calculate the Reynolds number and then the friction factor. What type of flow is occurring within the
pipe?
2. Using the results from (1) and the Darcy-Weisbach equation, compute the theoretical head loss for
each flow rate. Quantitatively compare the theoretical values to your measured head loss data
obtained using the differential manometer. Discuss your results.
3. Draw the energy and hydraulic grade lines for the different discharges. Qualitatively indicate
elevation and pressure heads, but numerically identify the velocity head component of total energy
and the head loss over the length of pipe.
4. Compute the discharge using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and compare with the actual discharge.
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5. Verify that for a laminar flow, the friction loss is equivalent to 64/Re.
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EXPERIMENTS
Table 1.Data Sheet:
Discharge Trial No.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (mm)

1
LAMINAR
10
reading 1
reading 2
Average
reading 1
reading 2
Average
TRANSITION
reading 1
reading 2
Average
reading 1
reading 2
Average
TURBULENT
reading 1
reading 2
Average
reading 1
Average
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reading 2
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EXPERIMENTS
Table 2.Discharge and Reynolds Number Computation

Discharge
No.
Weight
(lbs)
Weight Volume Time Discharge Velocity

Re
3
3
(kg)
(mm )
(s)
(mm /s) (mm/s) DV/
Reading 1
1
Reading 2
Average
Reading 1
Reading 2
Average
Reading 1
Reading 2
Average
Reading 1
Reading 2
Average
Reading 1
Reading 2
Average
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Reading 1
Reading 2
Average
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EXPERIMENTS
Sample data and Calculation:

Table 3. Properties of the fluid and pipe
diameter of pipe
(mm)
area of pipe
(mm2)
e (mm)
26.8
0.001524
e/d
(mm2/s)
(kg/mm-s)
5.69E-05
16.5
1.42E-05
564.1
Table 4.Computation for the fluid density

Trial 1
Wt. of graduated cylinder (g)
Wt. of Oil + graduated
cylinder(g)
Volume (mL)
Wt. of Oil (g)
(kg/mL)
(kg/m3)
(kg/mm3)
Trial 2
Average
115
179.5
170.9
75
64.5
0.00086
860
8.6E-07
65
55.9
0.00086
860
8.6E-07
0.00086
860
8.6E-07
Table 5.Sample data for discharge trial 1

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (mm)
Discharge Trial No.
Reading 1
Reading 2
Average
2
580
600
590
3
555
555
555
4
430
420
425
5
340
340
340
6
225
225
225
7
-
8
90
80
85
9
-
10
-
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LAMINAR
1
680
670
675
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EXPERIMENTS
Table 6.Sample Calculation for discharge trial 1

Discharge
No.
Weight
(lbs)
reading 1
reading 2
average
Weight Volume
(kg)
(mm3)
220
224
4
1.814
2109302
Time
(s)
Discharge Velocity
Re
3
(mm /s) (mm/s) DV/
8
7.5
7.75
272168
482
784
Table 7.Sample Calculation for discharge trial 1 using Hagen-Poiseuille equation
D4 /128 =
879027684.3 kg5 /mms
p/L
p/L
0.1405
0.001184
Q from
HP
equation
(mm3/s)
572488
Qexpt
(mm3/s)
Deviation
(%)
272168
52%
Extension Experiment
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Experiments on velocity distribution for laminar flow maybe conducted on the oil pipe assembly where
a stagnation tube is provided in the transparent test section. The experimental programs should
consider of such parameters as the location where the velocity is measured and the Reynolds number.
The position of the stagnation tube may be may moved vertically along the diameter of the pipe and its
location is measured by the vernier attached. Stagnation pressure may be measured by an oil
manometer or by a mercury manometer depending on the magnitude of the pressure. The static
pressure may be determined from the values of the pressures upstream of the stagnation tube. The
velocity and Reynolds number may be varied by changing the discharge.
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EXPERIMENTS
For laminar flow, the velocity distribution may be determined using the equations of motions on a
free-body diagram of a fluid element where the shearing stresses are formulated in accordance with
Newtons Law of Viscosity. The result is a parabolic distribution, which for a horizontal pipe is as
follows,
u= (ro2-r2/4)(dp/dx)
(10)
Where u is the velocity at a distance r from the centerline, ro is the radius of the pipe, is
the dynamic viscosity, and dp/dx is the rate of pressure drop.
In terms of maximum velocity (umax) at which r=ro, the velocity distribution may be written as follows:
u = umax (r2/4)(dp/dx)
(11)
Figure 14.Velocity distribution for fully developed laminar flow
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Analysis of the experimental values may be correlated with the analytical values. One way of plotting
the experimental results is shown below.
Figure 15.Velocity distribution on pipes for laminar flow
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EXPERIMENTS
Smooth and Rough Pipes
Objective
1. To develop velocity distribution, to calculate head losses (frictional losses), and to prove the validity
of Reynolds Number in smooth and rough pipes using the air pipe assembly.
2.To compute actual friction factors and to compare these values from the theoretical values found in
the moody diagram.
3. To verify the Nikuradse equation.
4. To aim to plot the energy and hydraulic grade lines along the length of the pipe.
Introduction
Pipes are closed conduits used to convey fluids. Usually, pipes used in engineering practice are long
hollow cylinders; however, cross sections of a different geometry are used occasionally. Pipes can be
smooth or rough, depending on the type of material from which they were constructed. Commercially
available pipes are made of cast iron, galvanized iron, commercial steel, brass, lead, copper, glass,
smooth plastic, and concrete, to name a few.
For a simple pipe without a pump or turbine, the increase in the total mechanical energy of the fluid,
between any two selected sections of the pipe, is equal to the energy dissipated in head loss. The head
loss, in this case, can be subdivided into two categories: major losses and minor losses. Major losses
are those caused by pipe or wall friction; while minor losses include those losses due to changes in pipe
cross section, and the presence of pipe fittings, bends and elbows along the pipe length.
hf = f (L/D) (V2 / 2g)
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If the pipe is of constant cross section throughout its length, and if there are no pipe fittings, bends, or
elbows, then the friction losses become the total head loss in the pipe. From several experiments, it
was proven that the friction inside the pipe does not only depend on the shape and size of the
projections on the internal pipe wall, but also on their distribution. The friction loss can be determined
using the formula
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EXPERIMENTS
All the variables in the previous formula, except for the friction factor f, can be easily determined
experimentally. Many people have tried to developed different approximations and expressions to
compute for the friction factor of a pipe. The knowledge of the friction factors of pipes is essential to
the design of water projects such as drainage systems, and other pipe network projects. The fluid
friction can dissipate energy, thus reducing extra turbulence of the fluid.
The main purpose of this experiment is to be able to compute the friction factor of a smooth pipe
(made of brass) and a rough pipe (made of galvanized iron), and to compare these experimental values
to their theoretical values. Moreover, the plot of the hydraulic and energy grade lines of the pipe is to
be obtained.
With the use of the Air Pipe Assembly, essential quantities such as fluid discharge and pressures shall
be measured. With the concepts of fluid flow, basics of fluid statics, energy equations for steady flow,
and the fundamentals of steady incompressible flow in pressure conduits, all the other important but
unknown quantities shall be calculated, including the friction factor. Finally, it shall be realized that the
friction factor for rough pipes is larger compared to that for smooth pipes.
Theoretical background
If the head loss in the pipe is mainly due to friction, another expression for the head loss will be
hL = f (L/D) (V2 / 2g)
= friction factor of the pipe

L
= length of the pipe
D
= diameter of the pipe
V
= velocity of the fluid inside the pipe
g
= acceleration due to gravity, equal to 9.81m/s 2
Equation (1) is called the Darcy Weisbach Equation, and is derived using dimensional analysis.
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where, f
(1)
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EXPERIMENTS
The friction factor f is a dimensionless number, and is a function of the Reynolds number and relative
roughness, defined as the absolute roughness divided by the pipe diameter, of the pipe. The friction
factor can be determined by rearranging equation (1) to obtain an expression for f in terms of the
other variables. Thus we have,
f = hL D (2g) / L V2
(2)
The head loss hL can be calculated using (P/); the fluid velocity V, using the continuity equation ; and
the pipe diameter D and the pipe length L are readily available.
To determine the theoretical value of the friction factor, the equation derived by Haaland can be used,
that is,
1/sqrt (f) = -1.8 log {[(/D) / 3.7]1.11 + 6.9 / Re}
(3)
Equation (4) is valid for turbulent flow in all pipes, and is applicable for fluids having a Reynolds
number greater than or equal to 4000 but less than or equal to 108.
Other equations that can be used to calculate the friction factor of pipes are as follows:
For smooth pipes
1/sqrt (f) = 0.869 ln [Re sqrt (f)] 0.80
(4)
For rough pipes

1/sqrt (f) = 1.14 + 0.869 ln (e/D)
(5)
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Equations 4 and 5 are Nikuradse equations for smooth and rough pipes, respectively.
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EXPERIMENTS
The Moody Diagram
The Moody diagram is named after L.F. Moody, who worked with C.F. Colebrook to correlate the
correlate the original data of Nikuradse in terms of the relative roughness.
Based on the Moody Diagram (in a fully developed pipe flow), the friction factor, f, depends on
Reynolds number, Re, the roughness, , the pipe diameter D, and thus, on relative roughness, /D of
the pipe
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Figure 1. Moody Diagram

Source: http://web.deu.edu.tr/atiksu/toprak/muabak.gif
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EXPERIMENTS
Table 1. Absolute roughness of different pipe materials

Pipe Material
Absolute Roughness,
x 10-6 feet
micron
(unless noted)
drawn brass
5
1.5
drawn copper
5
1.5
commercial steel
150
45
wrought iron
150
45
asphalted cast iron
400
120
galvanized iron
500
150
cast iron
850
260
wood stave
600 to 3000
0.2 to 0.9 mm
concrete
1000 to 10,000 0.3 to 3 mm
riveted steel
3000 to 30,000 0.9 to 9 mm
*Page 476, Fundament als of Fluid Mechanics 4th Edition - Munson - John Wiley and Sons
Relative pipe roughness is computed by dividing the absolute roughness e by the pipe diameter D,
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It can be inferred from the Moody chart that for laminar flow, f=64/R e . For moderate values of
Reynolds number (2,100 < Re < 4000), the flow may be considered as laminar or turbulent, based on
the actual situations. The friction factor in this case is a function of the relative roughness and Reynolds
number, that is, f= (R e , /D). However, for large enough Re, the friction factor is solely dependent on
the relative roughness. Thus, f= (/D). Such flows are called completely turbulent or wholly turbulent
flow. For pipes which are very smooth (=0), due to microscopic surface roughness, there is still head
loss in the pipe. Hence, the friction factor in a very smooth pipe is not zero.
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EXPERIMENTS
Apparatus
An Air Pipe assembly is an instructional apparatus with a system of smooth and rough pipes with
pressure taps along its length to facilitate pressure drop measurement.
Brass Pipe
Galvanized Iron Pipe
Piezometer
Taps
Valves
Manometer
Bank
Venturi Meters
Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of the Air Pipe Assembly
In an experiment that will use an Air Pipe facility, there will be three different test pipes that can be
investigated, where all pipes are approximately 8.94m in length. This portion of the equipment consists
of a 125mm and a 500mm diameter Galvanized Iron (GI) pipe, and a 500mm diameter brass pipe.
The relative roughness for the brass pipe and galvanized iron are 0.0015mm and 0.15mm, respectively.
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In this set-up, pressure built in a large reservoir forces air to flow through a chosen straight
experimental pipe. The blast gate set between the compressor and the tank regulates the discharge
through the system. Discharge through the experimental pipes is measured by the Venturi meters
installed between the fluid source and the pipes. There are six gate valves that may be used to direct
fluid flow. The three upper valves manage flow through the experimental pipes, the other three valves
on the lower portion of the apparatus is used to select which Venturi meter will be appropriate to use.
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EXPERIMENTS
Figure 3. (a) the Control Valves for the system, (b) the Venturi Meter,
(c) the reservoir, control knob, and blower
A number of piezometer taps are installed in the pipes to allow head measurement, specifically,
pressure drops along the pipe length. These taps are connected to a manometer bank where readings
are obtained. The first 12 manometers (Numbered 1-12) are for readings for the brass pipe, the
following 12 (Numbered 13-24) are for the galvanized iron pipe. Venturi readings are taken from
manometers numbered as 26-31.
(a)
brass pipe
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Figure 4. Distance between taps
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EXPERIMENTS
(b)
GI pipe
Figure 5. Manometer Bank
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In a typical experiment, different discharges per trial will be considered. It must be assumed that
discharge is constant throughout the system.
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EXPERIMENTS
Procedure
Experimental Procedure:
1. For one trial, consider a constant discharge by selecting a fraction of the total opening using the
control valve.
2. Choose which Venturi meter is appropriate to use. Once one is chosen, open fully the gate valve
controlling the flow through that Venturi meter and tightly close the valves of the other two.
3. Open fully the gate valve controlling flow in the brass pipe. Make sure that the valve for controlling
flow in the galvanized iron pipe is tightly closed.
4. Obtain manometer readings of the brass pipe from those labelled 1-12.
5. Open fully the gate valve controlling flow in the galvanized iron pipe. Make sure that the valve for
controlling flow in the brass iron pipe is tightly closed.
6. Obtain manometer readings of the galvanized pipe from those labelled 13-24.
7. Obtain the manometer readings corresponding to the Venturi meter being used from those labelled
26-31.
8. Perform the same procedure above using 10 trials of different discharges.
Computational Procedure:
Experimental (Actual) Data:
1. For each trial, apply the Energy Equation between each tap of the pipes to solve for the head loss
along the pipe, considering only frictional losses and neglecting minor losses.
2. Solve for the actual friction factors of the pipes using the Darcy Weisbach Equation, given the
diameter and length of the pipe, and the velocity obtained through the Continuity Equation.
Page
32
3. Obtain the average value of the friction factors.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Theoretical Data:
1. Compute Reynolds Number for the pipe flow
2. Given the relative roughness of the brass and galvanized iron pipe, obtain the theoretical friction
factors of the pipes using the Moody diagram.
3. Compare these theoretical values with the actual friction factor values.
4. For flow with Reynolds number greater than or equal to 4000 but less than or equal to 10 8, check
whether or not the Haaland Equation is verified.
5. Alternatively, check whether or not the Nikuradse Equations for smooth and rough pipes are
verified.
Page
33
6. Plot the Energy and Hydraulic Grade lines for each pipe.
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EXPERIMENTS
Table 2.Data sheet
Manometer Readings for the Pipes
Discharge
Venturi Readings
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
Trial 6
Trial 7
Trial 8
Trial 10
Page
34
Trial 9
*Manometer corresponding to the chosen Venturi meter
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Sample Data and Calculation

Table A.1 Experiment Data Sheet: Smooth and Rough Pipes
Trial
Valve
Opening
1/16
Pipe
Brass
GI
Brass
Pipe
GI
Pipe
1
19
Piezometer Reading (mm)

2
3
4
5
6
20
21 22 23 24
358
378
391
407
423
438
352
372
386
389
405
427
7
25
Venturi Meter
Readings
Inlet Throat
198
362
Discharge (cms)
0.025622725
Table B.1 Brass Pipe

Trial
Taps
Length(m)
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
2-6
2.058
1.982
1.982
1.982
8.003
Headloss
(m)
10.759
13.241
13.241
12.414
49.655
Velocity
(m/s)
13.057
13.057
13.057
13.057
13.057
Frictio
n
0.030
0.038
0.038
0.036
0.036
Reynolds
number
43524.692
43524.692
43524.692
43524.692
43524.692
1/SQRT(F)
5.766
5.100
5.100
5.267
5.293
0.869ln(R*sqrt(f))
-0.80
6.959
7.066
7.066
7.038
7.034
%difference
17.15
27.82
27.82
25.16
24.76
Questions
1. Explain why the valve controlling the pipe where readings are obtained should be fully opened while
the valve of the other pipe should be fully closed.
2. Enumerate the possible sources of errors in the experiment
Page
35
Extension experiments
Using set-ups such as like the one described above tends to be error-prone at times. A common source
of error may be described as a situation wherein pipes increase their actual friction factors due to
imperfections inside the pipe such as dirt and other particulates. Aged pipes typically exhibit rise in
apparent roughness. Leakage in the manometer bank also greatly affects the readings.
Modern Air Pipe Facilities have now refrained from taking measurements manually. Instead, they use
the Automated Data Acquisition System (ADAS).
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EXPERIMENTS
Source: http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/~fluids/Lab-documents/EFD/EFD%20Lab2/lab2.pdf
Page
36
Automated Data Acquisition System (ADAS) Configuration

The ADAS is used to acquire pressure measurements electronically. The system is generally composed
of a computer connected to an analogue to digital converter and a pressure sensor (transducer). The
current experimental setup has two data acquisition systems. ADAS 1 is connected to the smooth pipe
and ADAS 2 is connected to rough pipe.
The LabView, developed by the American company National Instruments (NI), is the program used to
facilitate sequential data collection in a uniform manner.
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EXPERIMENTS
1
2
3
4
5
Fixed
Metal
Plate
Low
Pressure
LabView
Program
Capacitanceto-Voltage
Conversion
Capacitor,
C
To Pressure
Transducer
Display
E
Data
Store
Analog to
Digital (A/D)
Board
Flexible Metal
Diaphragm
High
(Deflects Under
Pressure
Pressure
6
Difference)
7
8
Figure 5. Schematic Diagram of ADAS

General ADAS software commands or window labels:
Page
37
DPD menu measures the discharges

DPF measures the pressure drop along the pipe length
DPV measures the pipe velocity profiles
A/D interface allows specifying the operation parameters.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Objectives:
1. To comprehend the principle behind the energy equation
2. To recognize the sources of minor losses
3. To be able to determine head losses and also to establish the friction coefficients of the
corresponding and the pipe fittings
Introduction:
The first law of thermodynamics, the law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither
created nor destroyed, it can only transform from one guise to the other. Universal as it is, the
hydraulic system is of no exemption. Wherein given a hydraulic system, the total energy at one section
is equal to the total energy at some other section within the system. In other words, the sum of the
energies in the system is a constant. More often, it seems that energy is reduced or lost after
undergoing a process; on the other hand, the apparent lost energy is actually converted into heat and
released to the environment. This energy conversion is mainly caused by friction.
Application:
Understanding this principle is useful in constructing optimum water system designs. Some of which
are as follow,
Page
38
It enables accurate selection of appropriate size and required number of pumps to be used in a
municipal water distribution system.
It can serve as a guide in selecting conduit sizes for a gravity-flow urban drainage project.
It can help identify the optimum size of valves and the radius of curvature of elbows to fit the
specifications of a pipeline designs.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Theoretical Background:
In hydrodynamics, fluids are assumed to be subjected to certain laws of physics; wherein one of which
is the law of conservation of energy. This was first recognized by Daniel Bernoulli (Switzerland, 17001782), and formed the basis for the Bernoullis equation
.
Bernoullis equation:
p 2A2
p 1 v 12
p 2 v 22
z1
z2 H
2g
2g
1g
2g
( 1)
L
Where,
P Pressure
Fluid density
g Acceleration due to gravity
9.81 m/s 2 (S.I.)
32.2 ft/s2 (English system)
v Average velocity
H Total hydraulic energy
z2
p 1A1
z1
Da tum
Illustration 1. Control volume
Moreover, all the constituent parts of the equation have units of length; hence, each term may be
regarded as head. Specifically,
p
Pressure head
g
v2
Kinetic or velocity head
2g
Z
Potential or elevation head
Page
39
The Bernoullis equation assumes that the fluid flowing is incompressible and no energy is supplied nor
extracted during the passage from entry to exit. Hence,
energy entering = energy leaving
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EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Moreover, it also implies that the fluid is frictionless. If this were not so, frictional forces would
transform some of the energy into heat. Thus, there would be loss between 1 and 2 (refer to
Illustration 1). To account for this energy loss, the Bernoulli equation is transformed into the energy
equation,
v 12
z1
2g
p1
1g
p2
2g
v 22
z 2 hL
2g
(2)
Where, hL is the head loss due to friction.

Moreover, energy losses consist of major losses and minor losses. Major losses result from the
resistance of the conduit walls; while, minor losses or local losses result from pipe appurtenances, such
as bends, junctions, and valves, which cause the flow velocity to be changed in magnitude and/or
direction. Also, these losses are due to eddy formation generated in the fluid at the fittings. In case of
long pipelines the minor losses may be negligible, but for short pipelines, they may be greater than the
major frictional losses.
Minor losses are expressed in the simple equation,
hl k L
v2
2g
(3)
Where, hl is the minor head loss and kL is the constant dimensionless head loss coefficient of pipe
fittings. The actual value of kL is strongly dependent on the geometry of the fixtures being considered.
As for cases of sudden enlargement or sudden contraction, kL may be derived from the expression of
the area of the pipe. While, for all other cases, such as bends, valves, and junctions, the values of kL are
derived experimentally.
hl
8k L
Q2
2 4
g D
(4)
Page
40
Another way to express the minor loss equation in terms of the discharge,
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Where, Q is the discharge and D is the diameter of the pipe. Moreover, minor losses can also be
converted into equivalent lengths of pipe having the same effect.
k LD
L equivalent
f
(5)
Where, f is the friction factor determined for the pipe flow.
Apparatus:
Water Pipe Assembly
Page
41
Figure 1. Water Pipe Assembly

(Left side view)
Figure 2. Water Pipe Assembly

(Right side view)
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EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Water circulates from the laboratorys constant head tank

to the pipe system and back to the main reservoir.
Moreover, desired flow rates are attainable by adjusting
the appropriate valves, such as, the main valve, the head
tank valve as well as the valves forming part of the pipe
fittings.
Figure 3. Main valve
Figure 7. Valves as pipe fitting
Page
42
Figure 4. Head tank valve
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EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Page
43
Figure 8. Test section
Moreover, the water pipe assemblys test section

consists of two parallel pipe lines of varying
diameter and interconnected by various types of
pipe fittings.
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EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Pipe Line #1
Illustration 2. Pipe line #1

* Piezometer taps a re indica ted by enci rcled numbers
*Di mensions a re gi ven in centimeters
Pipe Line #1 consists of the following pipe fittings:

A Bell mouthed entrance
E Long radius elbow
B Gradual enlargement
F Long radius double tee
C Gradual contraction
G 5 cm diameter gate valve
Page
44
D 5 x 4 Venturi meter
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EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Pipe Line #2
Illustration 3. Pipe line #2
* Piezometer taps a re indica ted by enci rcled numbers

*Di mensions a re gi ven in centimeters
Pipe Line #2 consists of the following pipe fittings:

H Sharp edged entrance
L Standard 90 elbow
I Sudden enlargement
M Standard tee
J Sudden contraction
N 2 Globe valve
Page
45
K Orifice between flanges (1 diameter)
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Pipe fittings
Gradual enlargement (upper pipe)

Sudden enlargement (lo wer pipe)
Gradual contraction (upper pipe)

Sudden contraction (lower pipe)
5 x 4 Venturi meter (upper pip e)

Orifice between flanges (lower pipe)
Long radius elbow (right pipe)

Standard 90 elbow (lower pipe)
Standard tee
Long radius double tee
Gate valve (right pipe)

Globe valve (left pipe)
Page
46
Bell mouthed entrance (upper pipe)

Sharped edged entrance (lower pipe)
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Piezometer taps are also provided

upstream and downstream of the pipe
fittings to measure the head loss. These
piezometer taps are brought in pairs to a
manometer board containing differential
manometer with Carbon Tetrachloride as
fluid.
Figure 9. Manometer board
Figure 10. Manometer pairs
For analysis, the connections of the piezometer taps

from the test section to the manometer pairs can
be simplified into Illustration 4. Whereby, points A
and B are the piezometric taps located at the
upstream and downstream of the pipe fitting,
respectively.
Page
47
Using the differential manometer
Illustration 4. Sample section
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Solving for the pressures at point A and B,
pA
1 1
2 2
( h1 h2 )
pB
(6)
Simplifying the equation,
pA
pB
h2 (
(7)
Where, pA and pB are the pressures at point A and point B, respectively; while, 1 and 2 are the specific
weights of the flowing fluid and the gage fluid. In this experiment, the flowing fluid is water and its
specific weight is 9810 N/m3. Also, the gage fluid is carbon tetrachloride and its specific weight at room
temperature (25C) is 15542.87 N/m3. Moreover, h2 is the difference between the manometer reading
of point A and B and it is denoted by h. Hence,
pA
p
pB
h( 5732 .87 )
h( 5732.87 )
(8)
(9)
Moreover, when the pipe lies on the same elevation, z 1 = z2; hence, the elevation head of the
Bernoullis equation cancels out.
p1
g
v12
2g
v22
2g
p2
g
hL
(10)
Arranging the terms, the equation for the head loss is

hL
Page
48
hL
p1
p2
v12
v12
v 22
2g
g
h
v 22
2g
(11)
Using the continuity equation, the mean velocity can be derived by using the equation, V=Q/A or
V=4Q/ D4, where D is the diameter of the pipe. Also, if the diameter of the pipe is constant, the
velocity head is equal to zero.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
hL
(12)
Furthermore, the water pipe assembly also has two identical 60 triangular weir to measure the
discharge. Also a calibrated point gauge (stilling well) is attached to each tank to measure water
elevations in the tank.
The crest elevation is measured by allowing the tank to drain to the level of the crest (vertex). Also, by
subtracting the crest elevation from that of the water surface gives the depth of the flow H in feet. The
equation for the discharge is expressed as,
5
1.434 H 2 (cfs)
(13)
Page
49
Figure 11. V-notch weirs
Figure 12. Stilling well
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Using the continuity equation (Illustration

5),
Qin
Qout
Qleft
Hence,
Qright
(14)
Procedure:
1. Open the main valve and the head tank valve
2. Let the water flow until it overflows the tanks containing the weir
3. Close the main valve, and let the water drain from the weir
4. Using the calibrated point gauge, measure and record the bottom of the stilling well and also
the height of the water contained for each of the weirs
5. Open the main valve
6. Once the water is flowing, fully open the valves in pipeline #1
7. Wait for the flow to be stable, then measure and record the height of the water surface flowing
from each weir
8. Record the readings on the manometer board (47 even numbers).
9. Close all the valves of pipeline #1
10. Fully open all the valves in pipeline #2
11. Repeat step 7
12. Repeat step 8 (47 odd numbers)
13. Adjust the appropriate valves to select and change discharge
14. Repeat step 6 to 12
Page
50
Illustration 5. Discharge in tee

connection
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
WORKSHEET
Left Weir
Right Weir
Left weir
Right weir
Bottom of the stilling well (ft)

Height of the crest (ft)
Pipeline #1
Height of the water (ft)
H (ft)
Discharge (cfs)
Sum of the discharges (cfs)
Taps#
Manometer
Reading (in)
Head Drops
Pressure
Head (in)
Velocity
Head (in)
Elevation
Head (in)
Head
Loss
(in)
v2
2g
kL
47
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Page
51
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Minor Losses
Pipeline #2
Left weir
Right weir
Height of the water (ft)

H (ft)
Discharge (cfs)
Sum of the discharges (cfs)
Taps#
Manometer
Reading (in)
Head Drops
Pressure
Head (in)
Velocity
Head (in)
Elevation
Head (in)
Head
Loss
(in)
v2
2g
kL
Page
52
47
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPARATUS
The Hydraulic Bench
Page
53
The hydraulic bench (see Figure 1) is a simple apparatus designed to provide a clear demonstration of
some of the more common fluid flow phenomena. With this device, a number of experiments on
closed conduit flow can be conducted. These include determining the head losses in pipe transitions,
establishing the pressure distribution along the pipe, calculating the changes in the fluid pressure due
to varying pipe cross section, calibrating flow meters, and a lot more.
Figure 1.
The Hydraulic Bench
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPARATUS
The Hydraulic Bench
A pump (see Figure 2) from the reservoir to the head
tank of the experimental units provides the flow of the
fluid in the hydraulic bench. The rubber tubing shown
in figure N connects the reservoir to the tank.
Figure 2. The pump
A butterfly valve located inside the supply line/tube

controls the flow of the liquid from the reservoir to the
head tank of the experimental unit being used. The
handle (shown in figure 3) shows the position of the
valve.
Figure 3. The butterfly valve
Page
54
Figure 4 shows a closed valve. To allow the liquid to

pass through, turn the handle in a clockwise
direction. The discharge of the liquid is maximum
when the handle is vertical.
Figure 4. The valve handle
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPARATUS
The Hydraulic Bench
Figure 5. The volumetric tank
The discharge of the fluid may be measured

using the 35cm x 30cm x 34cm volumetric tank, shown
in Figure 5, located on top of the reservoir. This is
accomplished by noting the change in the volume of
the fluid in the tank for a certain time interval.
Figure 6. The piezometric tube
The cross section of the tank is constant

along its height; thus, discharge measurement can
also be done by simply considering the change in the
water level in the tank for a certain time interval. The
change in water level can be read from a piezometric
tube on one side of the tank (refer to Figure 6).
Figure 7. The drain orifice
Page
55
The liquid flows from the test section to the

volumetric tank via the orifice shown in Figure 7.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPARATUS
The Hydraulic Bench
The liquid is directed to or away from the tank by a

swing-type inflow valve that is operated using the built
in T-shaped control shaft, shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. The swing-type inflow valve
Figure 9 shows the crankshaft mechanism of the

swingtype valve. With this configuration, the
liquid is directed towards the volumetric tank.
Figure 9. Water flowing to the tank
Page
56
On the other hand, Figure 10 shows the valve with

the liquid directed away from the volumetric tank.
The tank is drained by means of an orifice at the
bottom, which is automatically activated when the
flow is directed away from it.
Figure 10. Water flowing away form the tank
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPARATUS
Experimental Units
There are three experimental units that may be
used with the hydraulic bench. One of these is
shown in Figure 11. It consists of two head tanks, a
set of piezometer tubes, and a glass tube with a
venturi meter slot. The primary function of this
unit is for the calibration of venturi meters. With
the measured discharge of the liquid using the
volumetric tank, and the theoretical equation for
the discharge through a venturi meter, the
coefficient of discharge for any venturi meter size
can be obtained.
Figure 11.
Another unit is shown in Figure 12, consisting of a constant head tank and a circular opening on the
lateral area of the tank. This is used in the analysis of the behavior of free jets. Moreover, it can also be
used to calibrate orifices. With the Bernoulli equation, the theoretical velocity of a fluid particle can be
calculated. Applying the principles of projectile motion, the actual velocity of the liquid can be
obtained. With these two values, a coefficient of velocity for a certain orifice can be determined. The
theoretical discharge can also be calculated by multiplying the theoretical velocity with the area of the
orifice. With the actual
discharge
measured
using the volumetric
tank, the coefficient of
discharge can also be
calculated.
Page
57
The third experimental

unit is shown in Figure
13. This is used in the
study of impact jets.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Calibrating a Venturi Meter
Objectives:
1. To calculate the coefficient of discharge of a venturi meter
2. To plot the discharge vs. pressure drop (Q vs. H) curve for a venturi meter
3. To plot the coefficient of discharge vs. Reynolds number (C d vs. Re) curve for different actual
discharges
Introduction:
Flow meters are devices used for measuring fluid flow rate, whether it is in closed conduits or in open
channels. There are two basic types of flow meters: those that measure quantity, and those that
measure rate. Measurements of quantity are obtained by counting successive isolated portions of flow.
On the other hand, measurements of rate are determined f rom the observed effects on a measured
physical property of the flow.
Rate meters are devices used to measure the fluid flow rate as either volume per unit time or as mass
per unit time. One type of rate meter, placed directly in the flow line of closed conduits, introduces a
flow constriction that causes a decrease in pressure that is dependent on the rate of flow on the
constriction. This device is first known as the venturi tube, named after Giovanni B. Venturi, an Italian
Physicist who investigated its principles during the early 18th century.
Page
58
The venturi tube consists of an upstream section attached to the pipeline, and a converging section
that leads to a restriction or a smaller diameter pipe. This convergent zone is efficient in converting
pressure head to velocity head. Then, a divergent section is connected downstream to the pipeline,
converting the velocity head back to pressure head with slight friction loss. Piezometer tubes or static
pressure taps are attached at the upstream section and at the throat of the venturi tube. These are
then attached to the two sides of a differential manometer to easily measure the pressure difference
between the two points. Since there is a definite relation between the pressure drop and the discharge
of the fluid, the tube may be made to serve as a metering device called the venturi meter.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
The main purpose of this experiment is to calibrate a venturi meter by determining its coefficient of
discharge. This can be done by constructing the calibration curve, that is, the discharge versus pressure
drop curve, for the venturi meter. Moreover, a plot of the coefficient of discharge versus the Reynol ds
number is to be obtained. At the end of the experiment, it shall be realized from the graphs that the
venturi meter is most accurate for large discharges.
Figure 14 shows a cross section of the venturi meter with a differential manometer attached to it. The
zone enclosed by polygon abcd is the control volume since it contains the points of interest, point 1
and point 2, where the pressure difference is measured.
Figure 14.
The venturi meter
Considering the fluid to be incompressible, the continuity equation applied to the control volume gives
(1)
From Figure 14, A1 is larger than A2; thus, equation (1) implies that V 1 should be less than V2.
Page
59
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Consequently, the flow velocity must increase at the throat. Assuming no friction losses through the
venturi meter, the Bernoulli equation applied from point 1 to point 2 yields
( P1/ ) + z1 + ( V12 / 2g ) = ( P2 / ) + z2 + ( V22 / 2g )
Where,
(2)
P1 and P2 = pressures at area points 1 and 2, respectively

z1 and z2 = elevation heads of points 1 and 2, respectively
V1 and V2 = velocities of points 1 and 2, respectively
= unit weight of the fluid in the venturi meter
g = acceleration due to gravity
Theoretically, the pressure in a fluid decreases with increasing velocity. As a result, there must be a
pressure drop existing in the venturi meter from point 1 to point 2. Rearranging equation (2) in such a
way that velocities are separated from the other quantities, we get
(3a)
Using equation (1), equation (3a) can be modified to
3b)
A2 / A1 = D24 / D14
(4)
Page
60
Solving for the volumetric flow rate Q in terms of the other variables, and noting that
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Equation (5) is the theoretical equation for the discharge through the venturi meter for frictionless
incompressible flow.
The manometer reading provides the pressure drop ( P 1 P2 )/ required in equation (5). From the
differential manometer in figure N, we see that the fluids at points 1 and 2 are the same; thus, they
have the same density. From hydrostatics, proceeding from point 1 through the manometer tubing to
point 2 gives
P1 1h1 2H + 1h2 = P2
(6)
Where
P1 and P2 =
pressures at points 1 and 2, respectively
1 =
unit weight of the fluid in the venturi meter
2 =
unit weight of the fluid in the differential manometer
Rearranging equation (6), and considering the geometry of figure N, we obtain

P1 P2 = H ( 2 1 )
(7)
Since points 1 and 2 are of the same elevation, z1 z2 = 0. Substituting equation (7) to equation (5), the
final expression for the theoretical discharge will be obtained as
Page
61
(8)
The curve of the theoretical discharge Q versus the pressure drop H can be plotted using equation (8).
Using an apparatus such as the hydraulic bench, the actual discharge can be determined, and the Qactual
versus H can be plotted on the same graph. For any pressure drop H, there correspond two values for
the flow rate. The ratio of these values is called the venturi coefficient of discharge C v.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
C v = Q actual / Q theoretical
for any given H
(9)
The actual discharge is different from the theoretical discharge because the effects of friction are not
accounted for in the Bernoulli equation from which the entire derivation of Theoretical was based. For
every C v obtained, there corresponds an upstream Reynolds number which can be calculated using the
formula
Re = 4 Qactual / D
(10)
Where
= kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the venturi meter

D = diameter of the pipe
Page
62
Figure 15. Calibration Curve
Figure 16. Cv versus Re plot
With the obtained values, a plot of the discharge coefficient C v versus Reynolds number Re can now be
constructed semi-logarithmic coordinate plane.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
The data series 1 of Figure 15 represents the plot of the Q actual versus H; while, data series 2 represents
the Theoretical versus H curve. Figure 16 shows the graph of the coefficient of discharge versus the
Reynolds number. By inspection, it can be realized from this graph that the coefficient of discharge of a
venturi meter approaches unity as the Reynolds number increases.
Materials and Apparatus:
Figure 17.
The Experimental Set-up
(Front view)
Figure 18.
(Left side view)
Page
63
Water from the reservoir below enters the tank through a plastic tube inserted on its base section
(refer to Figure 18). Before the actual flow measurements were done, the water level in the tank was
first allowed to stabilize.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
The height of the water level can be checked and
measured using the piezometer tube on the lateral area
of the tank (see Figure 19).
Figure 19.
Piezometer tube
Figure 20 shows the venturi meter attached to the pipe

connecting the two tanks. The tube is made of plastic; thus,
the flow of the water can be clearly seen. Venturi meters of a
different geometry and even material can also be used.
Figure 20.
Venturi meter
The piezometer tubes are shown in Figure 21. There

are a total of 10 piezometer taps.
Page
64
Figure 21.
Piezometer taps
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EXPERIMENTS
Page
65
Figure 22.
Dimensions
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Procedure:
1. Check all the apparatus and materials to be used in the experiment. Establish the arrangement
shown in Figure 17.
2. Only the pressure drop between the inlet and the throat of the venturi meter needs to be
calculated. Using a rubber tubing (or any possible type of closed conduit boundary), conne ct
the piezometer tubes for the inlet and the throat in such a way to form a differential
manometer. Make sure that the piezometer tubes are properly connected.
3. Switch the hydraulic bench on, and then open the butterfly valve to allow the water to pass
through the entire experimental unit. Choose a small discharge first.
4. Wait for the flow to become steady. A steady flow is one in which all conditions at any point in
a stream remain constant with respect to time.
5. After the establishment of a steady flow, measure the difference in the piezometric heads, H, in
the differential manometer. Calculate the theoretical discharge through the venturi meter using
equation (8). The dimensions of the meter are shown in figure N.
6. Measure the actual discharge using the volumetric tank. This can be done by measuring the
change in the volume of the water in side the tank per unit time
7. Calculate the coefficient of discharge using equation (9). Then, adjust the butterfly valve to
slightly increase the discharge.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 until the maximum discharge is reached.
Page
66
9. Plot the Q versus H curve for the venturi meter. Obtain two curves, one for the theoretical
discharge and another for the actual discharge, in just one graphing plane (see Figure 15).
10. Calculate the Reynolds number for every coefficient of discharge using equation (10). Plot the
coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number curve.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Worksheet:
Diameter of Pipe: _________
Diameter of Throat:________
Trial
Dimensions of volumetric tank

Length:________
Width: ________
Height: _______
Theoretical
Actual
h1
h2
hinitial
hfinal
[cm]
[cm]
[cm]
[cm]
[s]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Trial
Theoretical
H
[m]
D2 / D1
Actual
Cv
A2
[m2 ]
[m3 /s]
[m]
[m3 /s]
Re
1
2
3
4
5
6
Page
67
7
8
9
10
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Questions:
1. What would happen if piezometers were used (instead of the differential manometer) in
measuring the pressure drop between the inlet and the throat of the venturi meter?
2. What would happen to the coefficient of discharge if the venturi meter is positively inclined?
negatively inclined? vertical?
3. What are the factors that may reduce the coefficient of discharge of a venturi meter? Is the
coefficient of discharge dependent on the geometry of the venturi tube?
4. What is the effect of a smaller ratio of D 2 / D1? of a higher ratio?
6. What can you conclude from the coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number curve?
Page
68
5. In some cases, precise calibration of the venturi tube gives a value for the coefficient of
discharge greater than 1. What could be the reason for such abnormal result?
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EXPERIMENTS
Extension Experiments:
1. Repeat the experiment using a fluid of a different viscosity.
Is the coefficient of discharge dependent on the type of fluid used?
What can you conclude from the coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number
curve?
2. Repeat the experiment using a fluid with suspended particles.
Is there a change in the coefficient of discharge?
What is the advantage of using the venturi meter in measuring the flow rate of this type
of fluid?
3. Repeat the experiment using a venturi meter having a different inlet and throat diameters. Use
water as the confined fluid.
What is the effect of varying inlet and throat dimensions on the coefficient of discharge?
Page
69
4. The venturi tube gives a relationship between the pressure drop and the flow rate of the fluid
using a convergent and a divergent tube. If a new flow meter is constructed such that the
diverging tube comes first before the converging tube, would this be an acceptable flow meter?
Repeat the experiment using this new apparatus.
Use different fluids.
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EXPERIMENTS
Calibrating a Flow Nozzle
Objectives:
1. To calculate the coefficient of discharge of a flow nozzle
2. To plot the discharge vs. pressure drop (Q vs. H) curve for a flow nozzle
discharges
Introduction:
Another type of discharge-measuring device is the flow nozzle. This instrument consisits of a gradual
contraction of its cross section, followed by a short, straight cylindrical portion (see Figure 1). In other
words, it looks almost the same as a venturi meter without the diverging discharge cone. It can be
installed along the pipeline by simply cutting the pipe, attaching flanges, and inserting the nozzle. As
the liquid passes through the device, a region of flow separation and reversal exists in the downstream
portion; thus, increasing the friction losses in the pipe.
The primary aim of this experiment is to calibrate a flow nozzle by calulating its coefficient of
discharge. This can be accomplished by plotting the calibration curve (Q vs H) for the nozzle.
Furthermore, a graph of the coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number is to be obtained. It shall
be observed at the end of the experiment that the coefficient of discharge of a flow nozzle increases
with increasing Reynolds number.
Page
70
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to the flow nozzle as was done for the venturi meter in the
previous experiment.. The results are identical for the theoretical flow rate.
(1)
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EXPERIMENTS
Where
A2
D1
D2
H
1
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
cross-sectional area of the downstream tube (nozzle)

diameter of the inlet pipe
diameter of the nozzle
difference in elevation in the differential manometer
unit weight of the fluid in the flow nozzle
Equation (1) gives the theoretical flow rate through the flow nozzle.
In this case, the elevation differences are considered negligible because the flow nozzle is relatively
short. Moreover, the distance between the two static pressure taps (see Figure 1) is also small. In
practice, it is desirable an upstream approach length equivalent to about ten pipe diameters to ensure
uniform flow at the meter.
Page
71
Figure 1.
The Flow Nozzle
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EXPERIMENTS
Again, the actual flow rate through the meter is less compared to the theoretical flow rate. This is due
to the friction losses that were not accounted for in the Berrnoulli equation, where the derivation of
equation 1 was based. Thus, we introduce a discharge coefficient for the nozzle defined as
C n = Q actual / Q theoretical
(2)
For every value of the coefficient of discharge, there correponds one pressure drop and an upstream
Reynolds number.
Re = 4 Qactual / D
(3)
Where,
= kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the flow nozzle
Page
72
Using equation (3), the plot of the discharge coefficient versus Reynolds number can now be obtained.
At a high Reynolds number, the discharge coefficient is above 0.99. On the other hand, lower Reynolds
number gives a lower value for the coefficient of discharge. This is thecase because at relati vely low
Reynolds number, the sudden expansion outside the nozzle throat causes greater energy loss; thus, a
lower value for C n.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Apparatus:
The hydraulic bench and the experimental unit 1 are the main apparatuses to be used in this
experiment. The venturi meter attached to the unit must be replaced with a flow nozzle. Fifure 2
shows the complete experimental set-up. Figure 3 shows the flow nozzle to be used in this experiment.
Figure 2.
Page
73
Figure 2.
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EXPERIMENTS
Procedure:
shown in Figure 2, with the flow nozzle (see Figure 3) attached to the test section.
2. Only the pressure drop between the inlet and the nozzle needs to be calculated. Using a rubber
tubing (or any possible type of closed conduit boundary), connect the piezometer tubes for the
inlet and the nozzle in such a way to form a differential manometer. Make sure that the
piezometer tubes are properly connected.
the differential manometer. Calculate the theoretical discharge through the venturi meter using
equation (1).
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 until the maximum discharge is attained.
Page
74
9. Plot the Q versus H curve for the venturi meter. Obtain two curves, one fo r the theoretical
discharge and another for the actual discharge, in just one graphing plane.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Worksheet:
Diameter of Pipe, D1:
Diameter of Nozzle, D 2:
Trial

Length:
Width:
Height:
Theoretical
Actual
h1
h2
hinitial
hfinal
[cm]
[cm]
[cm]
[cm]
[s]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Trial
Theoretical
H
[m]
D2 / D1
Actual
Cv
A2
[m2 ]
[m3 /s]
[m]
[m3 /s]
Re
1
2
3
4
5
6
Page
75
7
8
9
10
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Questions:
measuring the pressure drop between the inlet and the nozzle of the flow meter?
2. What would happen to the coefficient of discharge if the venturi meter is positively inclined?
negatively inclined? vertical?
3. What are the factors that may reduce the coefficient of discharge of a flow nozzle? Is the
coefficient of discharge dependent on the geometry of the device?
Page
76
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using flow nozzles over any other dischargemeasuring device?
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Extension Experiments:
curve?
2. Repeat the experiment using a fluid with suspended particles .
Is the flow nozzle efficient for all types of fluids?
Page
77
3. Repeat the experiment using a flow nozzle having a different i nlet and nozzle diameters. Use
water as the confined fluid.
What is the effect of varying inlet and nozzle dimensions on the coefficient of discharge?
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Calibrating an Orifice Meter
Objectives:
1. To calculate the coefficient of discharge of an orifice meter
2. To plot the discharge vs. pressure drop (Q vs. H) curve for an orifice meter
discharges
Introduction:
Another type of constriction meter is the so called orifice meter. This instrument is basically a flat
circular plate with a hole on its center. (see Figure 1). In other words, it looks almost the same as a ring.
It can be installed along a pipeline by simply cutting the pipe, attaching flanges, and inserting the
orifice meter. The hole can either be square-edged or sharp-edged. As the fluid stream goes through
the plate, it follows a streamline pattern similar to that shown in Figure 1. Downstream of the plate,
the flow reaches a point of minimum area called the vena contracta. At this section, the streamlines
are uniform and parallel.
The main objective of this experiment is to calibrate an orifice meter by calulating its coefficient of
discharge. This can be accomplished by plotting the calibration curve (Q vs H) for the orifice meter..
Furthermore, a graph of the coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number is to be obtained. It shall
be observed at the end of the experiment that the coefficient of discharge of an orifice meter
increases with increasing Reynolds number.
Page
78
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to the orifice meter (Figure 1) as was done for the venturi meter
in the previous experiment.. From point 1 to point 2, the theoretical flow rate is found to be
(1)
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Where
A2
D1
D2
H
1
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
cross-sectional area of the vena contracta

diameter of the orifice
diameter of the vena contracta
difference in elevation in the differential manometer
unit weight of the fluid through the orifice meter
Equation (1) gives the theoretical flow rate through the orifice meter. The area of the vena contracta is
very difficult to measure in the laboratory. However, it can be expressed in terms of the orifice area.
The resulting area is given by
A2 = C cA1
Where
A1
Cc
=
=
(2)
area of the orifice

coefficient of contraction
Page
79
Figure 1.
The Orifice Meter
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
The calculated theoretical flow rate through the orifice meter is large as compared to the obtained
actual flow rate. Consequantly, a coefficient of discharge C 0 is introduced to account for the friction
losses through the orifice. The coefficient of discharge is defined as
C n = Q actual / Q theoretical
(3)
Tests on a series of orifice meters yield data that can be presented in the form of C 0 versus Re plot,
where Re is the Reynolds number given by
Re = 4 Qactual / D
Where
(4)
= kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the flow nozzle

Apparatus:
Page
80
The hydraulic bench and the experimental unit 1 are the main apparatuses to be used in this
experiment. The venturi meter attached to the unit must be replaced with an orifice meter. Figure 2
shows the complete experimental set-up. Figure 3 shows the orifice meter to be used in this
experiment.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
The Orifice Meter
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
The hole in the orifice meter can either be sharp-edged or square-edged, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Orifice meters:
Square-edged
Sharp-edged
Orifice Coefficient versus

Reynolds Number
Orifice Coefficient ( C0 )
0.65
0.64
0.63
0.62
0.61
0.6
0.59
0.58
1
100
10000
1000000 10000000
0
Page
81
Reynolds Number ( Re )
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Procedure:
shown in Figure 2, with the orifice meter (see Figure 3) attached to the test section.
2. Only the pressure drop between the orifice and the vena contracta needs to be calculated.
Using a rubber tubing (or any possible type of closed conduit boundary), connect the
piezometer tubes for the orifice and the vena contracta in such a way to form a differential
manometer. Make sure that the piezometer tubes are properly connected.
the differential manometer. Calculate the theoretical discharge through the orifice meter using
equation (1).
Page
82
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 until the maximum discharge is achieved.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
9. Plot the Q versus H curve for the orifice meter. Obtain two curves, one for the theoretical
discharge and another for the actual discharge, in just one graphing plane.
Worksheet:
Diameter of Hole, D1:
Trial

Length:
Width:
Height:
Theoretical
Actual
h1
h2
hinitial
hfinal
[cm]
[cm]
[cm]
[cm]
[s]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Page
83
10
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
Trial
Theoretical
H
[m]
D2 / D1
Actual
A2
2
[m ]
Cv
[m]
[m3 /s]
[m /s]
Re
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Questions:
measuring the pressure drop between the orifice and the vena contracta?
3. What are the factors that may reduce the coefficient of discharge of an orifice meter? Is the
coefficient of discharge dependent on the geometry of the device?
Page
84
2. What would happen to the coefficient of discharge if the pipe with the orifice meter is
positively inclined? negatively inclined? vertical?
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

EXPERIMENTS
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using orifice meters over any other dischargemeasuring device?
Extension Experiment:
curve?
2. Repeat the experiment using a fluid with suspended particles.
Is the flow nozzle efficient for all types of fluids?
Page
85
3. Repeat the experiment using a flow nozzle having a different inlet and nozzle diameters.
Use water as the confined fluid.
What is the effect of varying inlet and nozzle dimensions on the coefficient of discharge?
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

REFERENCES
Chadwick, Andrew. Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering. 3rd edition. London and New
York: E & FNSPON, an imprint of Routledge, 1998.
Daniel Bernoulli.Online. Available URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli,
Daniel Bernoulli.Online. Available URL: http://www.rinnovamento.it/d/da/daniel_bernoulli.html
Finnemore, E.J., and J.B. Franzini. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications. 10th edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002.
Froude. Online. Available URL: http://etc.usf.edu/clipart/500/582/Froude_1.htm
James Anthony Froude. Online. Available URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Anthony_Froude/
Janna, W.S.. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. 2nd edition. Boston, Massachusetts: PWS Publishers,
Boston, Massac, 1987.
Mott, R.L.. Applied fluid Mechanics. 5th edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000.
Munson, Bruce Roy, Donald F. Young, and Theodore H. Okiishi. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. 3rd
edition. Philippines: Jemma, Inc, 1940.
Osborne Reynolds.Online. Available URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne_Reynolds/
Shames, I.H.. Mechanics of Fluids. 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.
Page
86
Simon, Andrew L., and Scott F. Korom. Hydraulics. 4th edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, Inc., Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company, 1997.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX A.
Bernoullis Equation
The Bernoullis equation is simply derived by considering the forms of energy available to the fluid. As shown in
the control volume in Illustration 1, when pressure p acts on an area A, the corresponding force is equal to pA.
Moreover, if the fluid is flowing or travelling through length L, consequently work is done. The flow work done
is equal to the product of the force and the distance travelled by the fluid.
Hence,
Flow work done = pAL
Considering the control volume in
illustration 1, the fluid entering the
system flows through the distance L
p2 A 2
during the time interval t. Hence, the
flow work done during this time
interval is
L
p 1 A 1L
(1)
z2
Furthermore, a body generally
p1 A 1
contains two major forms of energy,
the kinetic energy and potential
z1
energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of
2
motion. It is given by mv , where, m
and v are the objects mass and
velocity respectively. The mass
entering the system during the time interval t is
1A1L; hence, the equation for the kinetic energy of
the fluid entering the system is
KE
1 2
mv
2
1
2
A 1Lv 12
Datum
Illustration 1. Control Volume
(2)
On the other hand, potential energy is the stored energy in the body. It is equal to mgz, where, m is the mass of
the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and z is the height of the object from some arbitrary datum. The
equation for the potential energy of the fluid entering the system is
1
A 1Lgz1
(3)
Page
87
PE mgz
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX A.
Bernoullis Equation
The total energy of the fluid entering the system is the sum of the flow work done, kinetic energy, and the
potential energy of the fluid.
p1 A 1L
1
2
A 1Lv 12
A 1Lgz1
(4)
For convenience, Equation 4 is expressed in energy per unit weight of the fluid; where, the weight of the fluid
entering the system is 1gA1L.
p 1 A 1L
1
2
A 1Lv 12
1
A 1Lgz1
gA1L
p1
1g
v 12
2g
z1
(5)
Similarly, the total energy at the exit per unit weight of fluid leaving the system is
p2
2g
v 22
2g
z2
(6)
If the fluid flowing is incompressible, 1 must be equal to 2 , or (1 = 2 = ). Moreover, if during the passage
from the entry to the exit, no energy is supplied nor extracted, the sum of the energies is constant.
Bernoullis equation:
v 12
z1
2g
p2
2g
v 22
z2
2g
H
(7)
Page
88
p1
1g
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX A.
Bernoullis Equation
Dimensional check:
p
g
N m3 s2
m 2 kg m
ML L3 T 2
L2T 2 M L
v2
2g
L2 T 2
T2 L
m2 s 2
s2 m
z L
All the constituent parts of the equation have units of length; hence, each term may be regarded as head.
Specifically,
p
g
Pressure head
Kinetic or velocity head
Potential or elevation head
Page
89
v2
2g
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX A.
V-notch Weir
60
Page
90
A weir is an obstruction on a channel bottom over which the fluid

must flow. It provides a convenient method of determining the
flowrate in an open channel in terms of a single depth
measurement. Likewise, the water pipe assembly utilizes a two 60
triangular weir to measure the discharge flowing through the pipes.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX A.
V-notch Weir
Referring to the continuity equation, Q
h H
h H
dQ
VdA
h o
h o
h H
h H
dQ
h o
VA
The average velocity is equal to V

2gh , with g as the acceleration due to gravity
and h as the depth from the free surface of the water.
2gh 2 tan
h o
(H h)dh
8
tan
2gH2
15
2
This equation computes for theoretical flowrate or discharge when using a triangular weir.
However, a weir coefficient is added to the equation above to account for the real world effects neglected in the
analysis. Hence, forming the equation,
5 Where, Cd is the weir coefficient and it is derived through experiments

8
2
Cd tan
2gH
15
2
The equation for the discharge of 60 V-notch weir is,

(in cfs)
Page
91
Q 1.434H
5
2
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX B.
Daniel Bernoulli
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) was born on January 29th 1700. He came from
a long line of mathematicians. His father Johann was head of mathematics at
Groningen University in the Netherlands.
Merchant, Doctor, Mathematician
Page
92
Johann tried to map out Daniel's life, selected a wife for him and decided he should be a merchant. Strangely
enough, his own father had tried a similar strategy but Johann had resisted - so did Daniel. However, Daniel
spent considerable time with his father and learned much about the secrets of the Calculus which Johann had
exploited to gain his fame. By the time Daniel was 13, Johann was reconciled to the fact that his son would never
be a merchant but absolutely refused to allow him to take up mathematics as a profession as there was little or
no money in it. He decreed that Daniel would become a doctor. For the next few years Daniel studied medicine
but never gave up his mathematics.
In time it became apparent that Daniel's interest in Mathematics was no passing fancy, so his father relented
and tutored him. Among the many topics they talked about, one was to have a substantial influence on Daniel's
future discoveries. It was called the "Law of Vis Viva Conservation" which today we know as the "Law of
Conservation of Energy". The young Bernoulli found a kindred spirit in the English physician William Harvey who
wrote in his book On the Movement of Heat and Blood in Animals that the heart was like a pump which forced
blood to flow like a fluid through our arteries. Daniel was attracted to Harvey's work because it combined his
two loves of mathematics and fluids whilst earning the medical degree his father expected of him.
After completing his medical studies at the age of 21, he sought an academic position so that he could further
investigate the basic rules by which fluids move; something which had eluded his father and even the great Isaac
Newton. Daniel applied for two chairs at Basel in anatomy and botany. These posts were awarded by lot, and
unfortunately for Daniel, he lost out both times.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX B.
Daniel Bernoulli
Bernoulli discovers how to measure blood pressure
Together Bernoulli and Euler tried to discover more about the flow of
fluids. In particular, they wanted to know about the relationship between
the speed at which blood flows and its pressure. To investigate this, Daniel
experimented by puncturing the wall of a pipe with a small open ended
straw and noted that the height to which the fluid rose up the straw was
related to fluid's pressure in the pipe.
Soon physicians all over Europe were measuring patients blood pressure
by sticking point-ended glass tubes directly into their arteries. It was not
until about 170 years later, in 1896 that an Italian doctor discovered a less
painful method which is still in use today. However, Bernoulli's method of
measuring pressure is still used today in modern aircraft to measure the
speed of the air passing the plane; that is its air speed.
Bernoulli discovers the fluid equation
Taking his discoveries further, Daniel Bernoulli now returned to his earlier work on Conservation of Energy. It
was known that a moving body exchanges its kinetic energy for potential energy when it gains height. Daniel
realized that in a similar way, a moving fluid exchanges its kinetic energy for pressure. Mathematically this law is
now written:
1 2
u
2
p constant
Where p is pressure, rho is the density of the fluid and u is its velocity. A consequence of this law is that if the
velocity increases then the pressure falls. This is exploited by the wing of an aeroplane which is designed to
create an area of fast flowing air above its surface. The pressure of this area is lower and so the wing is sucked
upwards.
Page
93
Hydrodynamica
It took Daniel a further 3 years to complete his work on fluids. Daniel put in the
frontispiece "Hydrodynamica, by Daniel Bernoulli, Son of Johann". It is thought that he
identified himself in this humble fashion as an attempt to mend the feud between
himself and his father. But a year later his father published his own work called
Hydraulics which appeared to have a lot in common with that of his son and the talk was
of blatant plagiarism.
To some extent Daniel Bernoulli lost much of his drive in mathematics after these e vents
and turned more to medicine and physiology. He remained in Basel and died there on
March 17th, 1782 at the age of 82.
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

APPENDIX B.
James Anthony Froude
(April 23, 1818 October 20, 1894) was a

controversial English historian, novelist, biographer, and editor of Fraser's Magazine.
From his upbringing amidst the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Froude intended
to become a clergyman, but doubts about the doctrines of the Anglican church,
published in his scandalous 1849 novel The Nemesis of Faith, drove him to abandon
his religious career. Froude turned to writing history, becoming one of the best
known historians of his time for his History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the
Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Inspired by Thomas Carlyle, Froude's historical
writings were often fiercely polemical, earning him a number of outspoken
opponents. Froude continued to be controversial up until his death for his Life of
Carlyle, which he published along with personal writings of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. These publications
illuminated Carlyle's often selfish personality, and led to persistent gossip and discussion of the couple's marital
problems.
The son of R. H. Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, James Anthony was born at Dartington, Devon on April
23, 1818. He was the youngest of eight children, including engineer and naval architect William Froude
and Anglo-Catholic polemicist Richard Hurrell Froude, who was fifteen years his elder. By James' third
year his mother and five of his siblings had died of consumption, leaving James to what biographer
Herbert Paul describes as a "loveless, cheerless boyhood" with his cold, disciplinarian father and
brother Richard. He studied at Westminster School from age 11 until 15, where he was "persistently
bullied and tormented". Despite his unhappiness and his failure in formal education, Froude cherished
the classics and read widely in history and theology.
Early life and education (18181842)
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94
Beginning in 1836, he was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, then the centre of the ecclesiastical
revival now called the Oxford Movement. Here Froude began to thrive personally and intellectually,
motivated to succeed by a brief engagement in 1839 (although this was broken off by the lady's
father). He obtained a second class degree in 1840 and travelled to Delgany, Ireland as a private tutor.
He returned to Oxford in 1842, won the Chancellor's English essay prize for an essay on political
economy, and was elected a fellow of Exeter College.
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APPENDIX B.
Religious development and apostasy (18421849)
Froude's brother Richard Hurrell had been one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement, a group which
advocated a Catholic rather than a Protestant interpretation of the Anglican Church. Froude grew up
hearing the conversation and ideas of his brother with friends John Henry Newman and John Keble,
although his own reading provided him with some critical distance from the movement.
During his time at Oxford and Ireland, Froude became increasingly dissatisfied with the Movement.
Froude's experience living with an Evangelical clergyman in Ireland conflicted with the Movement's
characterization of Protestantism, and his observations of Catholic poverty repulsed him. He
increasingly turned to the unorthodox religious views of writers such as Spinoza, David Friedrich
Strauss, Emerson, Goethe, and especially Thomas Carlyle.
Froude retained a favorable impression of Newman, however, defending him in the controversy over
Tract 90 and later in his essay "The Oxford Counter-Reformation" (1881). Froude agreed to contribute
to Newman's Lives of the English Saints, choosing Saint Neot as his subject. However, he found himself
unable to credit the accounts of Neot or any other saint, ultimately considering them mythical rather
than historical, a discovery which further shook his religious faith.
Nevertheless, Froude was ordained deacon in 1845, initially intending to help reform the church from
within. However, he soon found his situation untenable; although he never lost his faith in God or
Christianity, he could no longer submit to the doctrines of the Church. He began publicly airing his
religious doubts through his semi-autobiographical works Shadows of the Clouds, published in 1847
under the pseudonym "Zeta", and The Nemesis of Faith, published under his own name in 1849. The
Nemesis of Faith in particular raised a storm of controversy, being publicly burned at Exeter College by
William Sewell and deemed "a manual of infidelity" by the Morning Herald. Froude was forced to
resign his fellowship, and officials at University College London withdrew the offer of a mastership at
Hobart Town, Australia where Froude had hoped to work while reconsidering his situation. Froude
took refuge from the popular outcry by residing with his friend Charles Kingsley at Ilfracombe.
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His plight won him the sympathy of kindred spirits, such as George Eliot, Elizabeth Gaskell, and later
Mrs. Humphrey Ward. Mrs. Ward's popular 1888 novel Robert Elsmere was largely inspired by this era
of Froude's life.
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APPENDIX B.
LATER LIFE
Following completion of the Life of Carlyle Froude turned to travel, particularly through the British
colonies, visiting South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and the West Indies. From
these travels, he produced two books, Oceana, or, England and Her Colonies (1886) and The English in
the West Indies (1888), which mixed personal anecdotes with Froude's thoughts on the British Empire.
Froude intended, with these writings, "to kindle in the public mind at home that imaginative
enthusiasm for the Colonial idea of which his own heart was full." During this time, Froude also wrote a
historical novel, The Two Chiefs of Dunboy, which was the least popular of his mature works.
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On the death of his adversary Freeman in 1892, Froude was appointed, on the recommendation of
Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford. The choice was
controversial, as Froude's predecessors had been amongst his harshest critics, and his works were
generally considered literary works rather than books suited for academia. Nevertheless, his lectures
were very popular, largely because of the depth and variety of Froude's experience and he soon
became a Fellow of Oriel. Froude lectured mainly on the English Reformation, "English Sea-Men in the
Sixteenth Century," and Erasmus. The demanding lecture schedule was too much for the aging Froude,
however, and in 1894 he retired to Devonshire. He died on October 20, 1894.
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APPENDIX B.
Osborne Reynolds
Osborne Reynolds
(23 August 184221 February 1912) was a prominent

innovator in the understanding of fluid dynamics. Separately, his studies of heat
transfer between solids and fluids brought improvements in boiler and
condenser design.
Osborne Reynolds was born in Belfast and moved with his parents soon
afterward to Dedham, Essex. His father worked as a school headmaster
and clergyman, but was also a very able mathematician with a keen
interest in mechanics. The father took out a number of patents for
improvements to agricultural equipment, and the son credits him with
being his chief teacher as a boy. Osborne Reynolds attended Cambridge
University and graduated in 1867 with high honours in mathematics. In
1868 he was appointed a professor of engineering at Owens College in Manchester, becoming in that
year one of the first professors in UK university history to hold the title of "Professor of Engineering".
This professorship had been newly created and financed by a group of manufacturing industrialists in
the Manchester area, and they also had a leading role in selecting the 25 year old Reynolds to fill the
position.
Reynolds showed an early aptitude and liking for the study of mechanics. In his late teens, for the year
before entering university, he went to work as an apprentice at the workshop of a well known inventor
and mechanical engineer near Essex, where he obtained practical experience in the manufac ture and
fitting out of coastal steamers (and thus gained an early appreciation of the practical value of
understanding fluid dynamics). For the year immediately following his graduation from Cambridge he
again took up a post with an engineering firm, this time as a practicing civil engineer in the London
(Croydon) sewage transport system. He had chosen to study mathematics at Cambridge because, in his
own words in his 1868 application for the professorship, "From my earliest recollection I have had an
irresistible liking for mechanics and the physical laws on which mechanics as a science is based.... my
attention drawn to various mechanical phenomena, for the explanation of which I discovered that a
knowledge of mathematics was essential."
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Reynolds remained at Owens College for the rest of his career in 1880 the college was renamed
University of Manchester. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1877 and awarded the Royal
Medal in 1888. He retired in 1905.
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APPENDIX B.
Osborne Reynolds
FLUID MECHANICS
Reynolds most famously studied the conditions in which the flow of fluid in pipes transitioned from
laminar flow to turbulent flow. From these experiments came the dimensionless Reynolds number for
dynamic similarity the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. Reynolds also proposed what is now
known as Reynolds-averaging of turbulent flows, where quantities such as velocity are expressed as
the sum of mean and fluctuating components. Such averaging allows for 'bulk' description of turbulent
flow, for example using the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations.
His publications in fluid dynamics began in the early 1870s. His final theoretical model published in the
mid 1890s is still the standard mathematical framework used today. Examples of titles from his more
groundbreaking reports:
Improvements in Apparatus for Obtaining Motive Power from Fluids and also for Raising or Forcing
Fluids. (1875)
An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water
in parallel channels shall be direct or sinuous and of the law of resistance in parallel channels. (1883)
On the dynamical theory of incompressible viscous fluids and the determination of the criterion.
(1895)
Reynolds' contributions to fluid mechanics were not lost on ship designers ("naval architects"). The
ability to make a small scale model of a ship, and extract useful predictive data with respect to a full
size ship, depends directly on the experimentalist applying Reynolds' turbulence principles to friction
drag computations, along with a proper application of William Froude's theories of gravity wave energy
and propagation. Reynolds himself had a number of papers concerning ship design published in
Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects.
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Reynolds published about seventy science and engineering research reports. When towards the end of his
career these were republished as a collection they filled three volumes. For a catalogue and short summaries of
them see and. Areas covered besides fluid dynamics included thermodynamics, kinetic theory of gases,
condensation of steam, screw-propeller-type ship propulsion, turbine-type ship propulsion, hydraulic brakes,
hydrodynamic lubrication, and laboratory apparatus for better measurement of Joule's mechanical equivalent of
heat.

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CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW

The wisest mind has something yet to learn.

The first great gift a teacher can bestow on his student

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Also, special thanks to Kuya Cesar, Cesar Catibayan, who

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Oil Pipe Assembly

Air Pipe Assembly

Water Pipe Assembly

Hydraulic Bench ................................................................................................

Experiment 4: Calibrating a Venturi Meter

Experiment 5: Calibrating a Flow Nozzle .

Experiment 6: Calibrating an Orifice Meter ..

Derivation of Bernoullis Equation

Life and Works of Bernoulli

Life and Works of Reynolds

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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can be conducted using these facilities were also discussed thoroughly.

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Figure 1. Type of commercial pipes

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Laminar and Turbulent

a.) Laminar Flow

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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c.) Turbulent Flow

b.) Transition Flow

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Rough and Smooth Pipes

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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Figure 1. EGL and HGL

Oil Pipe Assembly

Figure 2. Oil Pipe Assembly

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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The test section of the oil pipe (Figure 3) assembly consists of

Piezometer taps are provided throughout

Figure 4. Manometer Bank

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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A stagnation tube (Figure 5) is installed in

Figure 5. Stagnation Tube

The housing at the end of the pipe

trajectory as the oil flow leaves the

Figure 6. Housing at the end of the pipe

Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering II

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The centrifugal pump (Figure 7), which

oil from the

provides the flow of the oil in the test

The gate valve (Figure 8) which is located just

Figure 8. Gate valve