Digital Microwave Communication Principles-ZTE PDF

Securi
Securitty Level: internal use
MICROWAVE PRINCIPLE
ZTE CORPORATION
Learning Guide
Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the electromagnetic

field theory.
Therefore, before learning this course, you are supposed to have mastered
the following knowledge:
Network communications technology basics
Electromagnetic field basic theory
Objectives
After this course, you should know:
Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications
Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave

equipment
Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital

microwave equipment
Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and various

types of fading
Anti-fading technologies
Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission link
Contents
1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview
2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment
3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies
5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links
Transmission Methods
in Modern Communications Networks
Coaxial cable communication
Optical fiber communication
MUX/DEMUX
Microwave
communication
Satellite communication
MUX/DEMUX
Microwave Communication
vs. Optical Fiber Communication
Powerful space cross ability, little land
occupied, not limited by land privatization
Small investment, short construction
period, easy maintenance
Optical Fiber Communication

Optical fiber burying and land
occupation required
Large investment ,long construction period
Strong protection ability against natural

disaster and easy to be recover
Outdoor optical fiber maintenance required

and hard to recover from natural disaster
Limited frequency resources (frequency

license required)
Not limited by frequency, license not

required
Transmission quality greatly affected by

climate and landform
Stable and reliable transmission quality

and not affected by external factors
Limited transmission capacity
Large transmission capacity
Definition of Microwave
Microwave
Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad sense, the

microwave frequency range is from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. But In
microwave communication, the frequency range is generally from 3 GHz
to 30 GHz.
According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave

can be considered as plane wave.
The plane wave has no electric field and magnetic field longitudinal
components along the propagation direction. The electric field and
magnetic field components are vertical to the propagation direction.
Therefore, it is called transverse electromagnetic wave and TEM wave for
short.
Development of Microwave Communication

155M
Transmission
capacity
bit/s/ch)
SDH digital microwave

communication
system
34/140M
PDH digital microwave

communication
system
2/4/6/8M
480 voice
channels
Small and medium

capacity digital microwave
communication system
e 1990
s to now
Lat
Late
1990s
Analog microwave
communication system
1980s
1970s
1950s
Note:
Small capacity: < 10M
Medium capacity: 10M to 100M
Large capacity: > 100M
Concept of Digital
Digital microwave communication is a way of transmitting digital information in

atmosphere through microwave or radio frequency (RF).
Microwave communication refers to the communication that use microwave as carrier .
Digital microwave communication refers to the microwave communication that adopts the
digital modulation.
The baseband signal is modulated to intermediate frequency (IF) first . Then the intermediate
frequency is converted into the microwave frequency.
The baseband signal can also be modulated directly to microwave frequency, but only phase
shift keying (PSK) modulation method is applicable.
The electromagnetic field theory is the basis on which the microwave communication theory is
developed.
Microwave Frequency Band

Selection and RF Channel Configuration (1)
Generally-used frequency bands in digital microwave transmission:
7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G (defined by ITU-R Recommendations)
1.5 GHz
2.5 GHz
Regional network
3.3 GHz
Long haul
trunk network
11 GHz
Regional network, local network,

and boundary network
2/8/34
Mbit/s
34/140/155 Mbit/s
2/8/34/140/155 Mbit/s
GHz
1
10
20
30
40 50

In each frequency band, subband frequency ranges, transmitting/receiving spacing (T/R

spacing), and channel spacing are defined.
ency range
Frequ
Freque
Low frequency band
f0 (center frequency)
High frequency band
T/R spacing
Protection
spacing
T/R spacing
Channel
spacing
f1
Adjacent channel
T/R spacing
f2
fn
f1
Channel
spacing
f2
fn

Frequency range (7425M7725M)
f0 (7575M)
T/R spacing: 154M

28M
f1=7442
ency
7G Frequ
Freque
f2=7470
F0 (MHz)
Range
f1 =7596
f5
f2
f 5
T/R Spac
Spaciing
Channel Spacing
Primary and Non-
(MHz)
(MHz)
primary Stat
Statiions
Fn=f0-161+28n,
74257725
7575
154
28
Fn=f0- 7+28n,
(n: 15)
7575
161
7275
196
28
7597
196
28
72507550
7400
161
3.5
71107750
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (1)
Digital baseband signal is the unmodulated digital signal. The baseband signal cannot
be directly transmitted over microwave radio channels and must be converted into carrier
signal for microwave transmission.
Modula
Modulattion
Digital baseband signal
Service signal
transmitted
IF signal
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (2)
The following formula indicates a digital baseband signal being converted into a digital
frequency band signal.
+))
A*COS(Wc*t
A*COS(Wc*t+
Amplitude
Frequency
PSK and QAM are

most frequently used
in digital microwave.
Phase
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier
amplitude (A). Wc and remain unchanged.
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier
frequency (Wc). A and remain unchanged.
PSK: Phase Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier phase ().
Wc and A remain unchanged.
QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. ). Use the digital baseband signal to change the
carrier phase () and amplitude (A). Wc remains unchanged.
Microwave Frame Structure (1)
RFCOH
171.072 Mbit/s
15.552 Mbit/s
RFCOH
STM-1
Mbit/s
SOH
155.52
Payload
MLCM
DMY
XPIC
ATPC
WS
RSC
INI
11.84 Mbit/s 64 kbit/s 16 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 2.24 Mbit/s 864 kbit/ s144 kbit/s
RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead
RSC: Radio Service Channel
MLCM: Multi-Level Coding Modulation
INI: N:1 switching command
DMY: Dummy
ID: Identifier
XPIC: Cross-polarization Interference Cancellation
FA: Frame Alignment
ATPC: Automatic Transmit Power Control
WS: Wayside Service
ID
FA
32 kbit/s 288 kbit/s
Microwave Frame Structure (2)
RFCOH is multiplexed into the STM-1 data and a block multiframe is formed. Each
multiframe has six rows and each row has 3564 bits. One multiframe is composed of
two basic frames. Each basic frame has 1776 bits. The remaining 12 bits are used for
frame alignment.
6 bits
Multiframe 3564 bits
FS
Basic frame 1
FS
Basic frame 2
6 bits
1776 bits148 words
6 bits
1776 bits (148 words)
C2
C2
C1
C1
C1
C1
C1
C1
C1
C1
12 bits (the 1st word)

I: STM-1 information bit
C1/C2: Two-level correction coding monitoring bits
FS: Frame synchronization
a/b: Other complementary overheads
12 bits (the 148th word)
Questions
What is microwave?
What is digital microwave communication?
What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?
What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?
What are the frequently used modulation schemes? Which are the most
frequently used modulation schemes?
Contents
Microwave Equipment Category

System
Digital microwave
Analog microwave
MUX/DEMUX
Mode
PDH
SDH
Capacity
Small and medium

capacity (216E1, 34M)
Large capacity
(STM-0, STM-1, 2xSTM-1)
(Discontinued)
Trunk radio
Structure
Split-mount radio
All outdoor radio
Trunk Microwave Equipment

BRU: Branch RF Unit
High cost, large

transmission capacity,
more stable performance,
applicable to long haul
and trunk transmission
RF, IF, signal processing,
and MUX/DEMUX units
are all indoor. Only the
antenna system is
outdoor.
MSTU: Main Signal

Transmission Unit
(transceiver, modem, SDH
electrical interface, hitless
switching)
M1
M2
SCSU: Supervision, Control

and Switching Unit
BBIU: Baseband Interface

Unit (option) (STM-1
optical interface, C4 PDH
interface)
SDH microwave equipment
All Outdoor Microwave Equipment

All the units are
outdoor.
RF processing unit
IF cable
Installation is easy.
IF and baseband
processing unit
The equipment room

can be saved.
Service and power cable
All outdoor microwave equipment
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (1)
The RF unit is an outdoor unit (ODU).

The IF, signal processing, and
MUX/DEMUX units are
Antenna
integrated in the
IF cable
indoor unit (IDU). The ODU and IDU are

connected through an IF cable.
The ODU can either be directly mounted
ODU
(Outdoor Unit )
onto the antenna or connected to the

antenna through a short soft waveguide.
Although the
IDU
(Indoor Unit)
capacity is smaller
than the trunk, due to the easy

installation and maintenance, fast
network
construction,
its the most widely used
microwave
equipment.
Split-mount microwave
equipment
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (2)
Unit Functions
Antenna: Focuses the RF signals transmitted by ODUs and increases the signal gain.
ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.
IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply of ODU.
IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and modulation/demodulation for

services.
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment

Installation
arate Mount
Sep
Sepa
Direct Mount
antenna
(direct mount)
antenna (separate
mount)
ODU
Soft waveguide
IF cable
IF cable
ODU
IDU
IDU
IF port
IF port
Microwave Antenna (1)
Parabolic antenna
Cassegrainian antenna
Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.

Parabolic antennas and cassegrainian antennas are two common types of microwave antennas.
Microwave antenna diameters includes: 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, 1.8m,2.0m, 2.4m, 3.0m, 3.2metc.
Microwave Antenna (2)
Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one antenna.
Channel
Tx
Rx
Tx
Rx
Channel
Antenna Adjustment (1)

Side lobe
Side view
Half-power angle
Main lobe
Tail lobe
Side lobe
Top view
Half-power angle
Main lobe
Tail lobe

During antenna adjustment, change the direction vertically or
horizontally. Meanwhile, use a multimeter to test the RSSI at
the receiving end. Usually, the voltage wave will be displayed
as shown in the lower right corner. The peak point of the
voltage wave indicates the main lobe position in the vertical or
horizontal direction. Large-scope adjustment is unnecessary.
Perform fine adjustment on the antenna to the peak voltage
point.
When antennas are poorly aligned, a small voltage may be

detected in one direction. In this case, perform coarse
adjustment on the antennas at both ends, so that the antennas
are roughly aligned.
The antennas at both ends that are well aligned face a little
bit upward. Though 12 dB is lost, reflection interference will
be avoided.
AGC
Voltage
detection point
VAGC
Angle
Side lobe position
Main lobe position
During antenna adjustment, the two
wrong adjustment cases are show here.

One antenna is aligned to another antenna
through the side lobe. As a result, the RSSI
cannot meet the requirements.
Wrong
Wrong
Correct

Antenna (1)
Ant
enna gain
Ante
Definition: Ratio of the input power of an isotropic antenna Pio to the input power of a parabolic
antenna Pi when the electric field at a point is the same for the isotropic antenna and the
parabolic antenna.
Calculating formula of antenna gain:
G=
P io
Pi
D
*
=2

Half-power ang
anglle
Usually, the given antenna specifications contain the gain in the largest radiation (main lobe)
direction, denoted by dBi. The half-power point, or the 3 dB point is the point which is deviated
from the central line of the main lobe and where the power is decreased by half. The angle
between the two half-power points is called the half-power angle.
Calculating formula of half-power angle:
0.5 = (65 0 ~ 70 0 )
D
Half-power angle

Antenna (2)
Cross polarization discrimination

Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually, larger than 30 dB.
XdB10lgPo/Px
Po: Receiving power of normal polarized wave
Px: Receiving power of abnormal polarized wave
Antenna protection ratio
Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an antenna compared with that
in the main lobe direction. An antenna protection ratio of 180 is called front-to-back ratio.

ODU (1)
ODU system architecture
Uplink IF/RF conversion
IF
amplificat
ion
Frequency
mixing
Sideband
filtering
Local
oscillation
(Tx)
ATPC
Local
oscillation
(Rx)
Supervi
sion and
control
signal
IF
amplification
Filtering
Frequency
mixing
RF
attenuation
Power
amplification
Power
detection
RF loop
Low-noise
amplification
Downlink RF/IF conversion

Alarm and control
Bandpass
filtering

ODU (2)
Specifications of Transmitter
Working
frequency band
Generally, trunk radios use 6, 7, and 8 GHz frequency bands. 11, 13 GHz and
higher frequency bands are used in the access layer (e.g. BTS access).
put
Out
Outp
power
The power at the output port of a transmitter. Generally, the output power is 15 to
30 dBm.

ODU (3)
Local
frequency stability
If the working frequency of the transmitter is unstable, the demodulated effectived

signal ratio will be decreased and the bit error ratio will be increased. The value
range of the local frequency stability is 3 to 10 ppm.
Transm
Transmiit
ame
Frequency Spectrum Fr
Fra
The frequency spectrum of the transmitted signal must meet specified

requirements, to avoid occupying too much bandwidth and thus causing too much
interference to adjacent channels. The limitations to frequency spectrum is
called transmit frequency spectrum frame.
Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
Page 35

ODU (4)
Specifications of Receiver
Working frequency band
Receivers work together with transmitters. The receiving frequency on the local
station is the transmitting frequency of the same channel on the opposite station.
Local frequency stability
The same as that of transmitters: 3 to 10 ppm
Noise figure
The noise figure of digital microwave receivers is 2.5 dB to 5 dB.

ODU (5)
Passband
To effectively suppress interference and achieve the best transmission quality, the
passband and amplitude frequency characteristics should be properly chosen. The
receiver passband characteristics depend on the IF filter.
Selectivity
Ability of receivers of suppressing the various interferences outside the passband,

especially the interference from adjacent channels, image interference and the
interference between transmitted and received signals.
Automatic gain control (AGC) range
Automatic control of receiver gain. With this function, input RF signals change within a
certain range and the IF signal level remains unchanges.

ODU (6)
Frequency range (7425M7725M)
T/R spacing: 154M
Subband A
7442
Subband B
f0(7575M)
Subband C
Subband A
Subband B
Subband C
ODUs are of rich

types and small
volume. Usually,
ODUs are produced
by small
manufacturers and
integrated by big
manufacturers.
7498
Non-primary station
ODU specifications are related to radio frequencies.
As one ODU cannot cover an entire frequency band,
usually, a frequency band will be divided into several
subbands and each subband corresponds to one
ODU.
Different T/R spacing corresponds to different
ODUs.
Primary and non-primary stations have different
ODUs.
Primary station
Types of ODUs = Number of

frequency bands x Number of
T/R spacing x Number of
subbands x 2
(ODUs of some manufacturers
are also classified by capacity.

IDU
Service
channel
IF unit
Tributary
unit
Crossconnec
tion
Microwave
frame
multiplexing
Microwave
frame
demultiplexing
Line unit
O&M
interface
Power
interface
Service
channel
Supervision and control
DC/DC conversion
Modulat
ion
Demodu
lation
Tx IF
Rx IF
From/to ODU
Questions
What types are microwave equipment classified into?
What units do the split-mount microwave equipment have? And what

are their functions??
How to adjust antennas?
What are the key specifications of antennas?
What are the key specifications of ODU transmitters and receivers?
Can you describe the entire signal flow of microwave transmission?
Summary
Classification of digital microwave equipment
Components of split-mount microwave equipment and their

functions
Antenna installation and key specifications of antennas
Functional modules and key performance indexes of ODU
Functional modules of IDU
Signal flow of microwave transmission
Contents
Common Networking Modes of

Digital Microwave
Ring network
Chain network
Add/Drop
network
Hub network
Types of Digital Microwave Stations

Digital microwave stations are classified into Pivotal stations, add/drop relay stations,
relay stations and terminal stations.
Add/Drop
relay station
Relay
station
Terminal station
Pivotal station
Terminal
station
Terminal
station
Types of Relay Stations
Passive
Back-to-back antenna
Plane reflector
Relay station
Active
Regenerative repeater
IF repeater
RF repeater
Active Relay Station
Radio Frequency relay station

An active, bi-directional radio repeater system without frequency shift. The RF
relay station directly amplifies the signal over radio frequency.
Regenerator relay station
A high-frequency repeater of high performance. The regenerator relay station is
used to extend the transmission distance of microwave communication systems, or
to deflect the transmission direction of the signal to avoid obstructions and ensure
the signal quality is not degraded. After complete regeneration and amplification, the
received signal is forwarded.
Passive Relay Station
Parabolic reflector passive relay station
The parabolic reflector passive relay station is composed of two parabolic
antennas connected by a soft waveguide back to back.
The two-parabolic passive relay station often uses large-diameter antennas.
Meters are necessary to adjust antennas, which is time consuming.
The near end is less than 5 km away.
Plane Reflector Passive Relay Station

Plane reflector passive relay station: A metal board which has smooth surface,
proper effective area, proper angle and distance with the two communication points.
It is also a passive relay microwave station.
Full-distance free space loss:
(km)
Ls = 142.1 + 20log d1d2 20log a
d 2(km)
a = A co 2
a is the effective area (m2) of the flat reflector.
Passive Relay Station (Photos)
Passive relay station

(plane reflector)
Passive relay station

(parabolic reflectors)
Application of Digital Microwave

Complementary
networks to optical
networks (access the
services from the last 1
km)
Special transmission
conditions (rivers, lakes,
islands, etc.)
BTS backhaul
transmission
Microwave
application
Emergency
communications
(conventions, activities,
danger elimination,
disaster relief, etc.)
Redundancy backup
of important links
VIP customer access
Questions
What are the networking modes frequently used for digital microwave?
What are the types of digital microwave stations?
What are the types of relay stations?
What is the major application of digital microwave?
Contents
Contents
4.1 Factors Affecting Ele

Elecctric Wave Propagation
4.2 Various Fading in Microwave Propagation
4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Key Parameters in
Microwave Propagation (1)
Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Zone Radius
Fresnel zone: The sum of the distance from P to T and the distance from P to R
complies with the formula, TP+PR-TR= n/2 (n=1,2,3, ). The elliptical region encircled
by the trail of P is called the Fresnel zone.
R
F1
P
d1
d2
Fresnel zone radius: The vertical distance from P to the TR line in the Fresnel zone. The
first Fresnel zone radius is represented by F1 (n=1).
Key Parameters in
Formula of the first Fresnel zone radius:
F1 = 17.32
d (1km) d 2 (km)
f (GHz ) d (km)
The first Fresnel zone is the region where the microwave transmission energy is the
most concentrated. The obstruction in the Fresnel zone should be as little as possible.
With the increase of the Fresnel zone serial numbers, the field strength of the receiving
point reduces as per arithmetic series.
Key Parameters in
ance
Clear
Cleara
M
h3
h1
hc
hp
h5
hs
h4
h6
d1
h2
d2
d
Along the microwave propagation trail, the obstruction from buildings, trees, and mountain
peaks is sometimes inevitable. If the height of the obstacle enters the first Fresnel zone,
additional loss might be caused. As a result, the received level is decreased and the transmission
quality is affected. Clearance is used to avoid the case described previously.
The vertical distance from the obstacle to AB line segment is called the clearance of the
obstacle on the trail. For convenience, the vertical distance hc from the obstacle to the ground
surface is used to represent the clearance. In practice, the error is not big because the line
segment AB is approximately parallel to the ground surface. If the first Fresnel zone radius of the
obstacle is F1, then hc/ F1 is the relative clearance.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation

Te
Terrra
raiin
The reflected wave from the ground surface is the major factor that affects the received level.
Straight line
Reflection
Straight line
Reflection
Smooth ground or water surface can reflect the part of the signal energy transmitted by the antenna to
the receiving antenna and cause interference to the main wave (direct wave).
The vector sum of the
reflected wave and main wave increases or decreases the composite wave. As a result, the transmission
becomes unstable. Therefore, when doing microwave link design, avoid reflected waves as much as
possible. If reflection is inevitable, make use of the terrain ups and downs to block the reflected waves.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation

Te
Terrra
raiin
Different reflection conditions of different terrains have different effects on electric wave
propagation. Terrains are classified into the following four types:
Type A: mountains (or cities with dense buildings)
Type B: hills (gently wavy ground surface)
Type C: plain
Type D: large-area water surface
The reflection coefficient of mountains is the smallest, and thus the mountain terrain is
most suitable for microwave transmission. The hill terrain is less suitable. When designing
circuits, try to avoid smooth plane such as water surface.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave

Propagation Atmosphere
Troposphere indicates the low altitude atmosphere within 10 km from the ground.
Microwave antennas will not be higher than troposphere, so the electric wave
propagation in aerosphere can be narrowed down to that in troposphere. Main effects of
troposphere on electric wave propagation are listed below:
Absorption caused by gas resonance. This type of absorption can affect the
microwave at 12 GHz or higher.
Absorption and scattering caused by rain, fog, and snow. This type of absorption
can affect the microwave at 10 GHz or higher.
Refraction, absorption, reflection and scattering caused by inhomogeneity of
atmosphere. Refraction is the most significant impact to the microwave propagation.
Contents
4.1 Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Fading in Microwave Propagation

Fading: Random variation of the received level. The variation is irregular and the
reasons for this are various.
Fading
mechanism
Fading time
Received
level
Influence of
fading on signal
Free Space Transmission Loss
Free space loss: A = 92.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f

(d:
d: km, f: GHz). If d or f is doubled, the loss will increase by 6 dB.
d
GTX
PTX = Transmit power
GRX
PRX = Receive power

G = Antenna gain
Power level
A0 = Free space loss

M = Fading margin
G
A0
PTX
PRX
G
M
Receiving threshold
Distance
Absorption Fading
Molecules of all substances are composed of charged particles. These particles have their
own electromagnetic resonant frequencies. When the microwave frequencies of these

substances are close to their resonance frequencies, resonance absorption occurs to the
microwave.
Statistic shows that absorption to the microwave frequency lower than 12 GHz is smaller
than 0.1 dB/km. Compared with free space loss, the absorption loss can be ignored.
10dB
1dB
0.1dB
0.01dB
60GHz
23GHz
12GHz
7.5GHz
Atmosphere absorption curve (dB/km)
1GHz
Rain Fading
For frequencies lower than 10 GHz, rain loss can be ignored. Only a few db may be
added to a relay section.
For frequencies higher than 10 GHz, repeater spacing is mainly affected by rain loss.
For example, for the 13 GHz frequency or higher, 100 mm/h rainfall causes a loss of 5
dB/km. Hence, for the 13 GHz and 15 GHz frequencies, the maximum relay distance is
about 10 km. For the 20 GHz frequency and higher, the relay distance is limited in few
kilometres due to rain loss.
High frequency bands can be used for user-level transmission. The higher the
frequency band is, the more severe the rain fading.
K-Type Fading (1)
Atmosphere refraction
As a result of atmosphere refraction, the microwave propagation trail is bent. It is
considered that the electromagnetic wave is propagated along a straight line above the
earth with an equivalent earth radius of Re ,
Re= KR (R: actual earth radius.)
The average measured K value is about 4/3. However, the K value of a specific
section is related to the meteorological phenomena of the section. The K value may
change within a comparatively large range. This can affect line-of-sight propagation.
Re
K-Type Fading (2)
Microwave propagation
k > 1: Positive refraction
k = 1: No refraction
k < 1: Negative refraction
K-Type Fading (3)
Equivalent earth radius

In temperate zones, the refraction when the K value is 4/3 is regarded as
the standard refraction, where the atmosphere is the standard atmosphere and
Re which is 4R/3 is the standard equivalent earth radius.
k=
4/3
1
2/3
Ground surface
Actual earth radius (r)
2/3
1
4/3
k=
Ground surface
Equivalent earth radius (rk)
Multipath Fading (1)

Multipath fading: Due to multipath propagation of refracted waves, reflected
waves, and scattered waves, multiple electric waves are received at the receiving
end. The composition of these electric waves will result in severe interference fading.
Reasons for multipath fading: reflections due to non-uniform atmosphere, water

surface and smooth ground surface.
Down fading: fading where the composite wave level is lower than the free
space received level. Up fading: fading where the composite wave level is higher
than the free space received level.
Non-uniform atmosphere
Water surface
Smooth ground surface.
Ground surface
Multipath Fading (2)
Multipath fading is a type of interference fading caused by multipath transmission.
Multipath fading is caused by mutual interference between the direct wave and reflected
wave (or diffracted wave on some conditions) with different phases.
Multipath fading grows more severe when the wave passes water surface or smooth
ground surface. Therefore, when designing the route, try to avoid smooth water and
ground surface. When these terrains are inevitable, use the high and low antenna
technologies to bring the reflection point closer to one end so as to reduce the impact of
the reflected wave, or use the high and low antennas and space diversity technologies or
the antennas that are against reflected waves to overcome multipath fading.
Multi
Multi--path Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Flat
Selective fading
Normal
Frequency (MHz)
Multi
Multi--path Fading Flat Fading
Up fading
Received level
in free space
Threshold level
(-30 dB)
1h
Signal
interruption
Duct Type Fading

Due to the effects of the meteorological conditions such as ground cooling in the night,
burnt warm by the sun in the morning, smooth sea surface, and anticyclone, a nonuniform structure is formed in atmosphere. This phenomenon is called atmospheric duct.
If microwave beams pass through the atmospheric duct while the receiving point is
outside the duct layer, the field strength at the receiving point is from not only the direct
wave and ground reflected wave, but also the reflected wave from the edge of the duct
layer. As a result, severe interference fading occurs and causes interruption to the
communications.
Duct type fading
Scintillation Fading
When the dielectric constant of local atmosphere is different from the ambient due to the
particle clusters formed under different pressure, temperature, and humidity conditions,
scattering occurs to the electric wave. This is called scintillation fading. The amplitude and
phase of different scattered waves vary with the atmosphere. As a result, the composite field
strength at the receiving point changes randomly.
Scintillation fading is a type of fast fading which lasts a short time. The level changes little
and the main wave is barely affected. Scintillation fading will not cause communications
interruption.
Scintillation
fading

Summary
The higher the frequency is and the longer the hop distance is, the more severe the fading
is.
Fading is more severe at night than in the daylight, in summer than in winter. In the
daylight, sunshine is good for air convection. In summer, weather changes frequently.
In sunny days without wind, atmosphere is non-uniform and atmosphere subdivision easily
forms and hardly clears. Multipath transmission often occurs in such conditions.
Fading is more severe along water route than land route, because both the reflection
coefficient of water surface and the atmosphere refraction coefficient above water surface
are bigger.
Fading is more severe along plain route than mountain route, because atmosphere
subdivision often occurs over plain and the ground reflection factor of the plain is bigger.
Rain and fog weather causes much influence on high-frequency microwave.
Contents
4.1 Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
crowave
4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Mi
Mic
Anti-fading Technologies
for Digital Microwave System (1)
Category
Equipment level
countermeasure
System level
countermeasure
Effect
Adaptive equalization
Waveform distortion
Automatic transmit power

control (ATPC)
Power reduction
Forward error correction (FEC)
Power reduction
Diversity receiving technology
Power reduction and

waveform distortion
Frequency domain equalization
Multipath fading
Signal frequency
spectrum
Slope equalization
Frequency spectrum after
equalization
The frequency domain equalization only equalizes the amplitude frequency response
characteristics of the signal instead of the phase frequency spectrum characteristics.
The circuit is simple.
Time domain equalization

Time domain equalization directly counteracts the intersymbol
interference.
T
C-n
C0
T
Cn
After
-2Ts
-Ts
Ts
-2Ts
-Ts
Ts
For Digital Microwave System (4)
Automatic transmit power control (ATPC)
Under normal propagation conditions, the output power of the transmitter is always at a
lower level, for example, 10 to 15 dB lower than the normal level. When propagation
fading occurs and the receiver detects that the propagation fading is lower than the
minimum received level specified by ATPC, the RFCOH is used to let the transmitter to
raise the transmit power.
Working principle of ATPC

Modulator
Transmitter
ATPC
Demodulator
Receiver
Receiver
Demodulator
ATPC
Transmitter
Modulator
ATPC: The output power of the transmitter automatically traces and changes with the
received level of the receiver within the control range of ATPC.
The time rate of severe propagation fading is usually small (<1%). After ATPC is
configured, the transmitter works at a power 10 to 15 dB lower than the nominal power
for over 99% of the time. In this way, adjacent channel interference and power
consumption can be reduced.
Effects of ATPC:
Reduces the interference to
adjacent systems and over-reach
interference
Reduces DC power consumption
Reduces up fading
BER
Improves residual
ent process (gradual change)

ATPC adjustm
adjustme
-25
High level
-35
31
-45
Low level
21
-55
ATPC dynamic range

-72
45
75
Link loss (dB)
85
102
Cross-polarization interference
cancellation (XPIC)
680MHz
30MHz
340 MHz
80MHz
60MHz
In microwave transmission, XPIC is
used to transmit two different signals
V (H)
over one frequency. The utilization ratio of

the frequency spectrum is doubled. To
H (V)
avoid severe interference between two

different polarized signals, the
interference compensation technology
680 MHz
30MHz
must be used.
340MHz
80MHz
1
1X
2X
3X
60MHz
7
V (H)
Horizontal polarization
H (V)
Vertical polarization
de interface
Shape of wavegui
waveguid
4X
5X 6X
7X
8X
1X
7X
2X
8X
3X'
4X
5X 6X
Frequency configuration of U6 GHz frequency band (ITU-R F.384-5)
Diversity technologies
For diversity, two or multiple transmission paths are used to transmit the same information and the
receiver output signals are selected or composed, to reduce the effect of fading.
Diversity has the following types, space diversity, frequency diversity, polarization diversity, and
angle diversity.
Space diversity and frequency diversity are more frequently used. Space diversity is economical and
has a good effect. Frequency diversity is often applied to multi-channel systems as it requires a wide
bandwidth. Usually, the system that has one standby channel is configured with frequency diversity.
f1
H
Space diversity (SD)
f2
Frequency diversity (FD)
Frequency diversity
Signals at different frequencies have different fading characteristics. Accordingly,
two or more microwave frequencies with certain frequency spacing to transmit and
receive the same information which is then selected or composed, to reduce the
influence of fading. This work mode is called frequency diversity.
Advantages: The effect is obvious. Only one antenna is required.
Disadvantages: The utilization ratio of frequency bands is low.

f1
f2
Space diversity
Signals have different multipath effect over different paths and thus have different fading
characteristics. Accordingly, two or more suites of antennas at different altitude levels to
receive the signals at the same frequency which are composed or selected. This work mode is
called space diversity. If there are n pairs of antennas, it is called n-fold diversity.
Advantages: The frequency resources are saved.
Disadvantages: The equipment is complicated, as two or more suites of antennas are

required.
Antenna distance: As per experience, the distance between the diversity antennas is 100 to
200 times the wavelength in frequently used frequency bands.
f1
Rx
Dh calculation in space diversity
Tx
Dh
h1
Approximately, Dh can be calculated according to this formula:
Dh =
(nll/2)d
l: wavelength
d: path distance
h1: height of the antenna at the transmit end
2h1
Apart from the anti-fading technologies introduced previously, here are two frequently
used tips:
Method I: Make use of some terrain and ground objects to block reflected waves.
Method II: high and low antennas
Protection Modes of
Digital Microwave Equipment (1)
Hybrid coupler
With one hybrid coupler added between two

ODUs and the antenna, the 1+1 HSB can be
realized in the configuration of one antenna.
Moreover, the FD technology can also be adopted.
The 1+1 HSB can also be realized in the

configuration of two antennas. In this case,
the FD and SD technologies can both be
adopted, which improves the system
availability.
Protection Modes of
N+1 (N3, 7, 11) Protection

In the following figure, Mn stands for the active channel and P stands for the standby
channel. The active channel and the standby channel have their independent
modulation/demodulation unit and signal transmitting /receiving unit.
When the fault or fading occurs in the active channel, the signal is switched to the standby
channel. The channel backup is an inter-frequency backup. This protection mode (FD) is mainly
used in the all indoor microwave equipment.
ent vendors support different spec

Products of differ
differe
speciifica tions.
ch1
ch2
ch3
M1
M2
M1
M2
M3
M3
ch1
ch2
ch3
chP
chP
Switching
control unit
RFSOH
Switching
control unit
Protection Modes of
Configuration
ction Mode
Prote
Protec
marks
Re
Rem
Application
Terminal of the network
1+0
NP
Non-protection
1+1
FD
Channel protection
1+1
SD
Equipment protection and

channel protection
Intrafrequency
1+1
FD+SD

channel protection
Interfrequency
N+1
FD

channel protection
Interfrequency
Interfrequency
Select the proper mode

depending on the
geographical condition
and requirements of the
customer
Large-capacity backbone
network
Questions
What factors can affect the microwave propagation?
What types of fading exists in the microwave propagation?
What are the two categories is the anti-fading technology?
What protection modes are available for the microwave?
Summary
Importance parameters affecting microwave propagation
Various factors affecting microwave propagation
Various fading types in the microwave propagation (free space propagation fading,
atmospheric absorption fading, rain or fog scattering fading, K type fading, multipath
fading, duct type fading, and scintillation type fading)
Anti-fading technologies
Anti-fading measures adopted on the equipment: adaptive equalization, ATPC, and

XPIC
Anti-fading measures adopted in the system: FD and SD
Protection modes of the microwave equipment
Contents
Contents
on Line
5.1 Basis of Designing a Microwave Transmissi
Transmissio
5.2 Procedures for Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
Basis of Designing a Microwave

Transmission Line
Requirement on the point-to-point line-of-sight communication
Objective of designing a microwave transmission line
Transmission clearance
Meanings of K value in the microwave transmission planning
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
Because the microwave is a short wave and has weak ability of diffraction, the normal
communication can be realized in the line-of-sight transmission without obstacles.
Line propagation
Irradiated wave
Antenna
Requirement on a Microwave Transmission

Line
In the microwave transmission, the transmit power is very small, only the antenna in the
accurate direction can realize the communication. For the communication of long
distance, use the antenna of greater diameter or increase the transmit power.
Direction demonstration of the microwave antenna

Microwave antenna
Half power angle of the

microwave antenna
3 dB
Objective of Designing a Microwave

Transmission Line
In common geographical conditions, it is recommended that there be no

obstacles within the first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 4/3.
When the microwave transmission line passes the water surface or the desert
area, it is recommended that there are no obstacles within the first Fresnel zone
if K is equal to 1.
The first Fresnel zone
k = 4/3
Transmission Clearance (1)
The knife-edged obstacle blocks partial of the Fresnel zone. This also causes the
diffraction of the microwave. Influenced by the two reasons, the level at the actual
receive point must be lower than the free space level. The loss caused by the knifeedged obstacle is called additional loss.
When the peak of the obstacle is in the line
connecting the transmit end and the receive end, that is,
the HC is equal to 0, the additional loss is equal to 6 dB.
When the peak of the obstacle is above the line
8
6
4
2
connecting the transmit end and the receive end, the
0
-2
additional loss is increased greatly.
-4
When the peak of the obstacle is below the line
connecting the transmit end the receive end, the additional

loss fluctuates around 0 dB. The transmission loss in the
path and the signal receiving level approach
the values in the free space transmission.
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
-22
-24
-26
-28
-2.5-2.0-1.5-1.0-0.5
0 0.51.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 HC/F1
Loss caused by block of knife-edged obstacle
Clearance calculation
Calculation formula for path clearance
h1d2 + h2 d1
hc =
hb hs
d
The value of clearance is
required greater than that
of the first Fresnel Zones
radius.
hc
h2
h1
stands for the projecting

height
of the earth.
b
d1d2
hb = 0.0785
K
hs
K stands for the atmosphere refraction factor.
d1
hb
d2
To present the influence of various factors on microwave transmission, the field strength
fading factor V is introduced. The field strength fading factor V is defined as the ratio of the
combined field strength when the irradiated wave and the reflected wave arrive at the
receive point to the field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the receive point in
the free space transmission.
E
V=
= 1+
E0
h
cos ce
F1
: Combined field strength when the irradiated wave and reflected wave
arrive at the receive point

E0 : Field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the received point in
the free space transmission
: Equivalent ground reflection factor
The relation of the V and
can
represented by the curve in the

befigure on the
right.
In the case that is equal to 1, with the
VdB
10
5
influence of the earth considered, HC/F1 is equal

to 0.577 when the signal receiving level is equal
0
-5
to the free space level the first time.

In the case that is smaller than 1, HC/F1 is
-10
approximately equal to 0.6 when the signal
-20
receiving level is equal to the free space level the
-25
first time.
-30
0.2
-15
When the HC/F1 is equal to 0.577, the
-35
clearance is called the free space clearance,
-40
0.5
0.8
represented by H0 and expressed in the following

formula:
H0 = 0.577F 1 = (d1d2/d)1/2
Relation curve of V and Hc/F1

HC/F1=N
Meaning of K Value in Microwave

Transmission Planning (1)
To make the clearance cost-effective and reasonable in the engineering, the height of
the antenna should be adjusted according to the following requirements.
In the case that is not greater than 0.5, that is, for the circuit that passes the area
of small ground reflection factor like the mountainous area, city, and hilly area, to
avoid over great diffraction, the height of the antenna should be adjusted according
to the following requirements:
When K = 2/3, HC 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC 0 (for knife-shaped obstacles)
The diffraction fading should not be greater than 8 dB in this case.
Meaning of K Value in Microwave

Transmission Planning (2)
In the case that is greater than 0.7, that is, for the circuit that passes the area of great
ground reflection factor like the plain area and water reticulation area, to avoid over great
reflection fading, the height of the antenna should be adjusted according to the following
requirements
When K = 2/3, HC 0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
HC 0 (for knife-edged obstacles)
When K = 4/3, HC F1
When K = , HC 1.35F1 (The deep fading occurs when HC = 21/2 F1.)
If these requirements cannot be met, change the height of the antenna or the route.
Procedure for Designing a Microwave

Transmission Line
Step 1 Determine the route according to the engineering map.
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.

Transmission Line (1)
Step 1
Determine the route according to engineering map.
We should select the area that rolls as much as possible, such as the hilly area.
We should avoid passing the water surface and the flat and wide area that is
not suitable for the transmission of the electric wave. In this way, the strong
reflection signal and the accordingly caused deep fading can be avoided.
The line should avoid crossing through or penetrating into the mountainous
area.
The line should go along with the railway, road and other areas with the
convenient transportation.

Step 2
Select the site of the microwave station.

The distance between two sites should not be too long. The distance between
two relay stations should be equal, and each relay section should have the
proper clearance.
Select the Z route to avoid the over-reach interference.
Avoid the interference from other radio services, such as the satellite
communication system, radar site, TV station, and broadcast station.
f1
f1
f1
f2
f2
f2
Over-reach
interference
The signal from the first

microwave station
interferes with the signal
of the same frequency
from the third microwave
station.

Step 3
Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain based on the data of each site.
Calculate the antenna height and transmission situation of each site. For the line
that has strong reflection, adjust the mounting height of the antenna to block
the reflected wave, or have the reflection point fall on the earth surface with
small reflection factor.
Consider the path clearance. The clearance in the plain area should not be over
great, and that in the mountainous area should not be over small.

Step 4
Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Calculate the terrain parameters when the route and the site are already
determined.
Calculate the azimuth and the elevation angles of the antenna, distance
between sites, free space transmission loss and receive level, rain fading
index, line interruption probability, and allocated values and margin of the
line index.
When the margin of the line index is eligible, plan the equipment and
frequencies, make the approximate budget, and deliver the construction
chart.
Input
There is special network

planning software, and the
commonly used is CTE
Pathloss.
Input
Questions
What are the requirements for microwave communication?
What is the goal of microwave design?
What extra factors should be taken into consideration for microwave planning?
Can you tell the procedure for designing a microwave transmission line?

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Securitty Level: internal use

Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the electromagnetic

Network communications technology basics

Electromagnetic field basic theory

After this course, you should know:

Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications

Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave

Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital

Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and various

Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission link

Optical fiber communication

Optical Fiber Communication

Strong protection ability against natural

Outdoor optical fiber maintenance required

Limited frequency resources (frequency

Not limited by frequency, license not

Transmission quality greatly affected by

Stable and reliable transmission quality

Limited transmission capacity

Large transmission capacity

Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad sense, the

According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave

Development of Microwave Communication

SDH digital microwave

PDH digital microwave

Small and medium

Digital microwave communication is a way of transmitting digital information in

Microwave communication refers to the communication that use microwave as carrier .

Microwave Frequency Band

7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G (defined by ITU-R Recommendations)

Regional network, local network,

Microwave Frequency Band

In each frequency band, subband frequency ranges, transmitting/receiving spacing (T/R

High frequency band

Microwave Frequency Band

T/R spacing: 154M

Primary and Non-

Digital baseband signal

PSK and QAM are

Microwave Frame Structure (1)

Microwave Frame Structure (2)

Multiframe 3564 bits

1776 bits148 words

1776 bits (148 words)

12 bits (the 1st word)

12 bits (the 148th word)

What is digital microwave communication?

What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?

What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?

Microwave Equipment Category

Small and medium

Trunk Microwave Equipment

High cost, large

MSTU: Main Signal

SCSU: Supervision, Control

BBIU: Baseband Interface

SDH microwave equipment

All Outdoor Microwave Equipment

The equipment room

Service and power cable

All outdoor microwave equipment