Sample Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(Basics, PDH, SDH and OTN)
MUX
MUX
E3
34.368 mbps
E3
34.368 mbps
MUX
E2
8.448 mbps
MUX
E4
139.264 mbps
MUX
E2
8.448 mbps
MUX
E1
2.048 mbps
EI
2.048 mbps
MUX
MUX
Other
Tributaries
30 channels
at 64 kbps
Transmitter
30 channels
at 64 kbps
Receiver
Rajesh Kumar Jain
Foreword
Dear Friends:I am an engineer by qualification, and a signalling and telecommunication

professional by occupation. I work in signalling and telecommunication
department of Indian Railways. Our job is to install and maintain various
signalling and telecommunication equipments required for railway operations.
We have a phenomenal variety of signalling equipments with us beginning
with the oldest "Semaphore Signalling" systems; to the latest "Electronic
Interlocking" systems, and multifarious varieties of: traffic control,
management, protection and data logging systems. On the telecommunication
front we are engaged in the installation, operation and maintenance of many
types of equipments in most of the segments of popular telecommunication
technologies. We have: telephone exchanges, omnibus control circuits,
microwave radio links, optical fibre cables carrying long distance SDH links,
data communication networks running critical applications, ISM band wireless
links including short distance DSSS and long distance OFDM links, and
GSM/R (GSM/R is a variation of GSM technology especially suited to railway
applications) for mobile communication between the running train and the
ground administration, etcetera.
There is no doubt that it is beyond the capabilities of a normal human being to
keep track of the fine details of all the signalling and telecommunication
technologies; prevailing and upcoming, in the current scenario of super fast
technological developments.
It was in the year 2002 in the month of November when the destiny threw me
to a posting in "Railtel Corporation of India Ltd" (RCIL), a public sector
company under the ministry of Railways of govt of India. Though RCIL was
engaged in many types of telecom businesses, its main revenue stream was
the business of telecom bandwidth across the country. Their network was built
on railway's optical fibre cable by deploying SDH/WDM systems. It was a
sudden jolt to my ego of technical competence when I could not tackle the
nuts and bolts of the SDH technology. Till then I had been engaged in the
installation, operations and maintenance of many types of signalling and
telecom systems, and the telecom systems mainly included: electronic
exchanges, microwave radio links and data communication networks, besides
other minor varieties. Though I had little exposure to the OFC systems and
carrier technologies, but what was expected of me was a thorough knowledge
of the SDH technology and associated systems, to be able to manage the
systems and services effectively. Despite striving hard to understand the
subject, I found myself to be nowhere near the competence level that I would
generally like to have. I continued to discharge my duties and did it quite well,
somehow managing with the make shift knowledge of the SDH systems,
which I gathered from various training programmes and through whatever
literature I could get hold of from the book shops or the internet. However in
spite of my best efforts, I could not get a good literature on the subject; which
i
could explain the concepts besides providing the functional details. The many
training programmes proved inadequate either, as the trainers themselves
were not very competent.
It was a boon to my desire to learn when in 2004 November I was sent on
forced leave for a period of seven months because of my promotion without a
post being available in the higher grade. After wasting initial few months in
reading the fictions which I always wanted to read but could never read
because I was always hard pressed for time throughout my carrier, the idea of
strengthening my understanding of SDH struck me. Once again I started
searching for good literature on SDH which could explain the principles
besides providing the functional details of the systems. Yet again I could not
find any book worth its name whatsoever on the subject which could impart
the necessary understanding. I needed some support on the fundamentals of
telecommunication technologies too, as after years of being away from fine
details of many technologies; a kind of refresher course was required besides
the knowledge of fundamentals of new technologies. I started gathering all the
training material on the subject, visited book shops on all available
opportunities and bought many books, and gathered as much of related
information as I could. Referring to the books on fundamentals side by side,
with the training material; and white papers and tutorials available on the
internet, the concepts started taking shape in my mind. Encouraged, I started
taking a deeper dip in the subject, till I finally found myself at a level which
was far beyond that of my colleagues, including those who were directly
involved in the installation and maintenance of the SDH systems (Naturally,
as they were all like me, but I had put in a huge effort in learning; which they
had no time for).
Thus I decided to properly organize my learning and put it in the form of
notes, which could be used by our training institutes to impart the knowledge
to the desiring people. While preparing the notes I was reminded of the
difficulties that I had to face in understanding the particular subject being
dealt. This led me to include the fundaments of the underlying technology to
enable the reader to understand the subject, without carrying a doubt in his
mind about these fundamentals. The process went on with every subject and I
found that the volume of the notes was growing with every topic. This was the
time when the idea of converting the whole text into a book struck me. I
started working towards it and found that I had to include many more details
on the fundamentals of underlying telecommunication technologies to make it
a self contained text on the subject of SDH, for telecom professionals.
The first lesson I learnt, was that it was impossible to understand SDH if your
fundamentals about PDH are weak. Thus I included a detailed chapter on
PDH in my work. The scope of the work thus changed from "SDH" to "Digital
Multiplexing", and then to do justice to this scope, I had to include a chapter
on OTN (Optical Transport Networks), the latest transport platform. To
understand PDH one has to know what is HDB-3, what is clock, what is time
division multiplexing, what is pulse code modulation etcetera? Hence I
included chapters on line coding, clock, PCM, and TDM to facilitate ready
reference to the fundamentals. Bit errors are a measure of the quality of digital
ii
signal. To appreciate what are bit errors and their causes one has to know the
properties of the transmission media and their effect on the quality of digital
signal. One chapter has therefore been dedicated to the signal impairments
caused by the transmission media. Though it is expected that the telecom
professionals would never really forget the concepts of analog to digital
conversion and vice versa, a chapter has been included to provide a quick
refresher. The subject of digital multiplexing can not be appreciated well in the
absence of the concepts of the first multiplexing techniques which was analog
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing); hence the introductory chapter is
dedicated to the need of multiplexing and analog multiplexing basics. How
and why the digital technology established itself completely wiping out the
analog technology, has also been dealt in brief to help maintain the flow of
concepts. Operations and maintenance features are one of the most
important features of digital communication systems. These features of PDH
and SDH have been dealt with in separate chapters. In fact the O&M features
of the PDH systems are the foundation stones of those of SDH. SDH is in fact
far ahead of its predecessors in capacity, flexibility and management. Many
types of topologies are possible in SDH, which have been explained in brief
besides the protection switching features. The protection switching feature of
SDH facilitates automatic and instantaneous traffic restoration in case of a
breakdown.
The phenomenal growth of data traffic in the recent years has forced the SDH
to develop features for efficient transport of data communication traffic. One
chapter each has been devoted to the data carrying capabilities of SDH and
these new improvements. The transmission media too deserved a little
discussion for refreshing the fundamentals and to get a glimpse of the new
technologies. Accordingly one chapter has been devoted to it.
The unexpected growth of my responsibilities threw the task of finalization of
the work completely out of schedule, and I could complete it only in May 2010,
making use of intermittent periods of long leave besides consistently pursuing
it.
I have thus attempted to present these notes as a comprehensive learning
tool to the professionals in the field of telecommunication transport
technologies. A telecommunication engineer; who left his college years back,
should not need any reference other than this, to develop a strong
understanding of the digital multiplexing and transport technologies.
The effort throughout the work has been to present the material in a very
simple language, through simple to understand illustrations. In fact at many
instances the illustrations appear to be too simple and repetitive which may
not appeal to a learned reader. However my appeal to such readers is to bear
with me in the interest of the persons who do not have equally strong
foundation. In any case the repetitive illustrations will only make your
concepts deeper.
iii
Though the work is primarily meant for the professionals like me, my research
shows that the subject is taught as an elective in degree courses and as a
compulsory subject in PG courses, in many universities across the world.
I have taken utmost care that all the material and the facts presented are
correct and authentic and the editing and typing mistakes are eliminated,
however any lapse on this is highly regretted. I will be grateful to you if you
can give me a feed back on this.
Wish you a happy reading.
Rajesh Kumar Jain

rajeshjain2001@indiatimes.com
iv
Contents
Foreword i - iv
Contents v - xv
Chapter I
Introduction
1.1 You and Me 1

1.2 Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you 2
1.3 The technology of telephone 2
1.3.1 The Transmitter 3
1.3.2 The Receiver 4
1.3.3 The Metallic wires 5
1.4 Telephone Exchanges 7
1.4.1 Manual Exchange 7
1.4.2 Automatic Exchange 9
1.5 Long Distance Communication 10
1.6 The Need for Multiplexing 11
1.7 The Techniques of Multiplexing 11
1.8 Multiplexing Structure of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
1.9 Capacities of Various Analog (FDM) Multiplexing Systems 16
1.9.1 Copper Wire Pairs 16
1.9.2 Coaxial Cables 16
1.9.3 Microwave Systems 17
1.10 Digital Multiplexing 17
1.10.1 PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy) 18
1.10.2 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) 18
1.10.3 CWDM (Course Wavelength Division Multiplexing) 19
1.10.4 DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) 19
1.10.5 OTN (Optical Transport Network) 20
References
14
20
Chapter II
Advent of Digital Technology
2.1 Analog Communication Systems 22
2.2 Problems in Analog Communication Systems
2.2.1 Attenuation 24
2.2.2 Noise and Interference 25
2.2.2.1 Sources of Noise 27
22
23
2.2.2.2 Relevance of Type of Noise 28

2.2.3 Distortion 28
2.2.3.1 Amplitude Distortion 29
2.2.3.2 Phase Distortion or Delay Distortion
2.2.3.3 Harmonic Distortion 32
2.2.4 Cross Talk Echoes and Singing 34
2.3 What is done about these problems? 35
2.4 The Digital Advantage 36
2.5 The Digital Signal 36
2.6 Processing of Digital Signal 37
2.7 Channel Capacity in Digital Technology 39
2.8 Advantages of Digital Technology 41
2.9 Disadvantages of Digital Technology 43
References
31
43
Chapter III
Analog to Digital Conversion and TDM principles
45
3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 45

3.1.1 Continuous Time Analog Signals 45
3.1.2 Discrete Time Analog Signals 46
3.1.3 Digital Signal 47
3.1.4 Digital Signal Processing 49
3.2 Sampling Theorem 50
3.3 (Analog) Pulse Modulation 52
3.3.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) 52
3.3.2 Pulse Width Modulation 53
3.3.3 Pulse Position Modulation 54
3.4 Digital Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) 55
3.4.1 Sampling 55
3.4.2 Quantization 56
3.4.3 Quantization Noise 60
3.4.4 Companding 62
3.5 Other Digital Modulations 64
3.5.1 Differential PCM 65
3.5.2 Delta Modulation 65
3.5.3 Adaptive Differential PCM (ADPCM) 65
3.5.4 Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) 66
3.6 Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog Converters 66
3.6.1 Analog to Digital Converter 66
3.6.2 Digital to Analog Converter 68
3.6.3 The accuracy of A/D and D/A converters 69
3.7 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 71
3.7.1 TDM/PCM 73
References
76
vi
Chapter IV
Line Coding and Digital Modulation
77
4.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Line Codes 78

4.1.1 Timing content 79
4.1.2 DC Wander 82
4.1.3 Bandwidth Requirement 83
4.1.4 Power Consumption 85
4.1.5 Performance monitoring features 87
4.1.6 Error probability 88
4.1.7 Cost 90
4.2 Types of Line Codes 90
4.2.1 Unipolar (RZ) code [On Off] 90
4.2.2 Polar (NRZ) Code 91
4.2.3 Alternate Mark Inversion Code (AMI) [Bipolar code] 92
4.2.4 High Density Bipolar 3 (HDB-3) Code 93
4.2.5 Coded Mark Inversion (CMI) Code 94
4.2.6 Manchester code 95
4.2.7 Multi-Level Line Codes 97
4.3 Digital modulation Techniques 98
4.3.1 Amplitude modulation (ASK) 98
4.3.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) 99
4.3.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 101
4.3.4 Multiple Phase Shift Keying (M-PSK) 103
4.3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 105
4.3.6 Digital Modulations for Optical Fiber Transmission 106
4.4 Other means of improving the timing content 106
4.4.1 Using Block Coding 107
4.4.2 Using Scrambler 108
4.4.3 Adding Redundant Bits 114
References
115
Chapter V
Clock
116
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
What is Clock 116

Significance of Clock 117
Clock Waveform 119
Types of Clocks 121
5.4.1 Multi-vibrator Clock 121
5.4.2 Crystal oscillator Clock 122
5.4.3 Atomic Clock 123
5.5 Clock Accuracies Required in Communication Systems
References
124
126
vii
Chapter VI
Signal Impairments, Error Detection; and Correction
128
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Types of Signal Impairments 129

Attenuation 129
Distortion 130
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) 131
6.4.1 Effect of Pulse Shape on ISI 132
6.5 Jitter and Wander 135
6.5.1 Control of Jitter and Wander 139
6.5.1.1 Phase Locked Loop 141
6.5.1.2 Elastic Store 144
6.6 Eye Diagram 145
6.7 Error Detection 147
6.8 Error Correction 151
6.9 Link Performance154
6.10 Required Link Performance 158
References
160
Chapter VII
Synchronization
7.1 Synchronization Process 164
7.1.1 Correct Detection of Symbols 164
7.1.2 Timing Recovery and Clock Synchronization 169
7.1.3 Framing 171
7.1.4 Use of Multi-Frames 173
7.2 Synchronous versus Asynchronous Systems 174
7.2.1 Asynchronous systems 175
7.2.2 Synchronous systems 177
7.3 Synchronous Networks 177
7.4 Plesiochronous networks 178
7.5 Slips 181
7.6 Elastic Store and Controlled Slips 182
7.7 Line Synchronization vs Network Synchronization 184
7.8 Types of Network Synchronization 186
7.8.1 Master Slave Synchronization 187
7.8.1.1 By using Primary and Secondary reference
clocks
7.8.1.2 By Timing distribution through GPS 187
7.8.2 Mutual synchronization 188
7.9 Pseudo-synchronization 189
162
187
viii
7.9.1 Permitted number of Slips in Pseudo-Synchronous 190

Network
7.9.2 Slip Rate Calculations 191
7.10 Synchronization Network Engineering 192
7.10.1 Network Synchronization Areas 193
7.10.2 Synchronization Chain 193
7.10.3 Master Clock, SSUs and SECs 194
7.10.3.1 Master Clock (PRC) 194
7.10.3.2 SSUSynchronization Supply Unit 195
7.10.3.3 SECSDH Equipment Slave Clock 197
7.10.4 Typical Synchronous Network 198
7.10.5 Synchronization Principles and Timing Loops 200
7.10.5.1 Timing Loops 201
7.10.6 Synchronization Status Message 204
References
205
Chapter VIII
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
8.1 PCM 208
8.1.1 The Multiplexer 209
8.1.2 PCM/E1/2MB Multiplexing Structure 211
8.1.3 Time Slot 0 212
8.1.4 Multi-frame 213
8.1.5 Time slot 16 215
8.2 Higher order Multiplexing/Hierarchical Multiplexing 217
8.2.1 E2 Multiplexing 219
8.2.2 E1 Bit Rate Variation 221
8.2.3 Justification or Bit Stuffing 221
8.2.4 Number of Justification Bits 224
8.2.5 Justification Control 225
8.2.6 E2 Frame Structure 227
8.2.7 E2 Bit Rate and Bit Rate Adaptation of E1s 232
8.2.8 Bit Rate Adaptation 234
8.2.9 Positive/Negative Justification 234
8.2.10 Variable data rates of E2 235
8.3 E3 Multiplexing 236
8.3.2 Bit Rate Adaptation in E3 238
8.4 E4 multiplexing 239
8.4.2 Bit Rate Adaptation in E4 245
8.5 Higher Bit Rates 246
8.6 Framing Stages and Tributary Data, Overhead and Payload Bits
8.7 North American PDH Hierarchy 247
8.8 Types of Line Codes used in PDH 248
8.9 Synchronization in PDH 249
8.9.1 Using Master-Slave Synchronization 250
207
246
ix
8.9.2 Using High Accuracy Clocks 251

8.9.3 Clock Accuracy and number of Slips in PDH Systems 254
8.9.4 Current Trends 255
8.9.5 E1 Synchronization through Plesiochronous Network 255
8.10 Asynchronous Vs Synchronous Multiplexing 256
8.11 Skip Multiplexers 258
References
260
Chapter IX
PDH Alarms and Maintenance
262
9.1 Types of Alarms 262

9.1.1 Loss of Signal (LOS) 264
9.1.2 Loss of Framing (LOF) 264
9.1.3 Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) 266
9.1.4 Remote Defect Indication (RDI) 268
9.1.5 Determination of Fault Location 269
9.1.6 Loss of Multi-Frame Alignment (LOMF) 270
9.1.7 Multi-Frame Alignment AIS (MFAIS) 271
9.1.8 Multi-Frame Alignment RDI (MFRDI) 271
9.1.9 Remote End Block Error (REBE) 273
References
278
Chapter X
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) Principles
280
10.1 Evolution of SDH 280

10.2 Advantages of SDH 284
10.3 The Price to be paid for the Advantages 287
10.4 Synchronous Transport Module (STM) 288
10.5 Formation of STM-1 290
10.5.1 Justification of E1 Tributaries 291
10.5.1.1 Frame Rate of STM-1 292
10.6 Container 296
10.7 Mapping 298
10.8 Virtual Containers 300
10.8.1 Data Rates 302
10.9 Path and Section 302
10.10 SDH Layers 306
10.11 Tributary Unit 307
10.12 Further Multiplexing 309
10.13 Multiplexing Higher order PDH Tributaries 316
10.14 Complete SDH Multiplexing Structure 320
10.15 Frame Structure of STM-1 324
10.16 Pointer 327
x
10.16.1 AU pointer 327

10.16.2 TU pointer 336
10.16.3 Summary of Pointer Advantages 339
10.16.4 Disadvantages of Pointer 340
10.16.5 AU-4 Pointer Details 340
10.16.6 Bit Rate Adjustment Range of Pointer 348
10.16.7 AU-3 Pointer 349
10.16.8 Details of TU-Pointer 350
10.17 Formation of Higher Order STMs 353
10.17.1 AUG level Multiplexing 353
10.17.2 STM-1 Level Multiplexing 354
10.18 Frame Structure of Higher Order STMs 355
References
357
Chapter XI
Operations and Maintenance in SDH
359
11.1 Performance Monitoring 360

11.1.1 System out of Service Performance Monitoring 361
11.1.2 In-Circuit Performance Monitoring 361
11.1.2.1 Parity Check 364
11.1.2.2 Indications Generated by Parity Bytes 369
11.2 Fault Diagnostics and Restoration 371
11.2.1 Loss of Signal (LOS) 371
11.2.2 Loss of Framing (LOF) 372
11.2.3 Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) 373
11.2.4 Remote Defect Indication (RDI) 374
11.2.4.1 Higher Order Path Remote Defect Indication (HP-RDI) 375
11.2.5 Further Transmission of AIS to AU+TU Levels 375
11.2.6 Multiplex Section Excessive Error (MS-EXC) 378
11.2.7 Loss of Pointer (AU-LOP & TU-LOP) 378
11.2.8 Higher Order Path Unequipped (HP-UNEQ) and Lower Order Path
Unequipped (LP-UNEQ) 379
11.2.9 Trace Identifier Mismatch (RS-TIM, HP-TIM & LP-TIM) 379
11.2.10 Signal Label Mismatch (HP-SLM, LP-SLM) 380
11.2.11 Tributary Unit Loss of Multi-frame (TU-LOM or HP-LOM) 381
11.3 Summary of SDH Alarms and Indications 381
11.3.1 SDH Performance Indicators 384
11.4 Performance Monitoring Parameters 386
11.4.1 Error Performance Objectives 388
11.5 Roles of Other Overhead Bytes 389
11.5.1 SOH Bytes 390
11.5.1.1 Bytes E1 (RSOH) and E2 (MSOH) 390
11.5.1.2 Byte F1 (User Channel RSOH) 391
11.5.1.3 Bytes K1 and K2 (MSOH) 391
11.5.1.4 Byte S1 (Synchronization Status Message) 392
11.5.1.5 Bytes (RSOH) Media Dependent Bytes 392
xi
11.5.1.6 Bytes X (Reserved for National Use) 392

11.5.1.7 Bytes D1 to D12 Data Communication (DCC) Bytes
11.5.1.8 Unmarked Bytes 392
11.6 Overhead Bytes Summary 393
11.6.1 RSOH 393
11.6.2 MSOH 394
11.6.3 HO-POH 395
11.6.4 LO-POH 397
11.7 Network Management in SDH 399
11.7.1 Network Management System 400
11.7.2 NMS Activities 403
11.7.2.1 Configuration 403
11.7.2.2 Provisioning 404
11.7.2.3 Performance Monitoring 406
11.7.2.4 Fault Diagnostics and Management Alarms 406
11.7.2.5 Security 407
11.7.2.6 Timing Management 408
11.7.2.7 Maintenance Operations 408
References
392
409
Chapter XII
SDH Architecture and Protection Mechanisms
411
12.1 SDH Network Elements 412

12.1.1 Terminal Multiplexer (TM) 412
12.1.2 Regenerator (REG) 413
12.1.3 Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM) 413
12.1.4 Digital Cross Connect (DXC) 414
12.2 SDH Network Topologies 416
12.3 Work and Protect Paths 419
12.4 The Advantage of a Ring 420
12.5 Protection Switching Schemes 421
12.5.1 The 1+1 (One Plus One) Protection Scheme 422
12.5.2 The 1:1 (One is to One) Protection Scheme 423
12.5.3 The 1:N (One is to N) Protection Scheme 425
12.6 Self Healing Rings 426
12.7 Types of Automatic Protection Switching 426
12.8 MS Dedicated Ring Protection 427
12.9 MS Shared Ring Protection 429
12.9.1: (A) Principles of Working 430
12.9.1: (B) Switching Mechanism 434
12.9.2 Commands on Protection Switching 440
12.10 Other Important Features of Protection Switching 444
12.10.1 Switching Time 445
12.10.2 Switching Initiation Time 445
12.10.3 Switching Type 445
12.10.4 Operation Mode 445
xii
12.10.5 Switching Protocol 445

12.10.6 Manual Controls 446
12.10.7 Misconnection 446
12.10.8 Squelching 447
12.10.9 Non Pre-emptible Unprotected Traffic (NUT)
12.10.10 DCC Bytes Commands 448
12.11 Sub Network Connection Protection 448
12.11.1 Principles of Working 449
12.11.2 Switching Mechanism 451
12.11.3 Other Important Features 452
12.12 Comparison of Various Protection Schemes 453
12.13 Deployment of Protection in a Network 453
References
447
455
Chapter XIII
Data over SDH
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
Problems of Interfacing Data and SDH 458

Data as Payload 460
Concatenation 461
Contiguous Concatenation 464
Mapping of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) frames
Mapping of HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, IP, LAPS 470
Shortcomings of Data over SDH 472
References
456
467
473
Chapter XIV
Emerging Systems and future of SDH
475
14.1 The case for Ethernet Backbone 476

14.2 The SDHs Fight 478
14.3 Next Generation SDH 479
14.3.1 V-CAT (Virtual Concatenation) 479
14.3.1.1 V-CAT Procedure 480
14.3.1.2 Mapping of 10 Mbps Ethernet 481
14.3.1.3 Efficiencies of Other Services 482
14.3.1.4 Resilience through V-CAT 485
14.3.1.5 Payload Identification and Realignment 485
14.3.2 LCAS (Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme) 491
14.3.2.1 Improving the Link Reliability (Resilience) 492
14.3.2.2 Automatic removal of Failed Members 493
14.3.2.3 In-Service Resizing of Bandwidth 493
14.3.2.4 Provisioning of Asymmetric Bandwidth 494
14.3.2.5 Working with NON-LCAS Nodes 494
xiii
14.3.2.6 LCAS Operation (Higher Order) 494

14.3.2.7 Lower Order LCAS 497
14.3.3 Generic Framing Procedure 498
14.3.3.1 What GFP is ? 498
14.3.3.2 Advantages of GFP 499
14.3.3.3 GFP Frame Structure 502
14.3.3.4 GFP Mapping 503
14.3.3.5 Frame Mapped GFP 504
14.3.3.6 Transparent Mapped GFP 505
14.3.3.7 Comparison of GFP(F) and GFP(T) 506
14.4 Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) 507
14.5 New Generation Network Elements 510
14.5.1 Multi Services Provisioning Platform (MSPP) 511
14.5.2 Multi Services Switching Platform (MSSP) 511
14.5.3 MSTN (Multi Services Transport Node) 511
14.5.4 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) 511
14.5.5 OTN (Optical Transport Network) 511
14.6 What is future ? SDH or Packet networks 512
References
513
Chapter XV
Transmission media for PDH/SDH,
And Optical Fiber Technology
15.1 Types of media for the transmission of PDH and SDH signals
15.1.1 Copper Wire Pairs 516
15.1.2 Coaxial Cables 517
15.1.3 Microwave Radios 518
15.1.4 Free Space Optics (Air Fiber) 519
15.1.5 Optical Fiber Cables 520
15.2 Optical Fiber Communication Technology 521
15.2.1 Principles of OFC 521
15.2.2 The Optical Frequency/Wavelength used 523
15.2.3 Types of Optical Fibers 526
15.2.3.1 Plastic Fibers 526
15.2.3.2 Glass Fibers 527
15.2.3.3 Multimode Fibers 527
15.2.3.4 Single Mode Fibers 528
15.2.3.5 Dispersion Shifted Fibers 529
15.2.3.6 Step Index Fibers 529
15.2.3.7 Graded Index Fibers 530
15.2.4 OFC System Components 530
15.2.4.1 Optical Source 531
15.2.4.2 Photo Detector 533
15.3 All Optical Networks 534
15.3.1 Optical Amplifiers 535
15.3.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) 536
515
515
xiv
15.3.3 Optical Cross Connect (OXC) 538

15.3.4 Optical Add Drop Multiplexer (OADM)
15.4 OFC Link Budget 539
15.4.1 Loss Margin 541
15.4.2 Dispersion Limit 542
References
538
542
Chapter XVI
Introduction to Optical Transport Networks [OTN]
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
OTH (Optical Transport Hierarchy) Principles

Multiplexing Structure of OTN 546
Multiplexing Hierarchy of OTN (OTH ) 549
OTN Layers 552
OTN Domain Interfaces 554
Advantages of OTN 555
Frame Structure of OTN 557
Forward Error Correction (FEC) 567
16.9 Operations & Maintenance in OTN

16.10 Future of OTN
References
544
546
569
570
572
Alphabetical Index
xvi - xxii
*******************************
xv
Chapter II
Advent of Digital Technology
In the previous chapter; that is the first chapter of this text, we have seen how
the telecommunication started and what are the basic components of a
telecommunication system? How the need for proliferation of telecom services
drove the world to develop manual and automatic exchanges and how they
worked? Further proliferation of services lead to the development of long
distance telephony for: intercity, inter-state and finally international calls.
Various media used for long distance communication, the need for
multiplexing, analog multiplexing principles and applications, and finally we
had an introduction of the modern digital multiplexing technologies.
In this chapter, we are going to learn about the problems and limitations
associated with analog systems. What lead to the development of digital
technology? How the problems of analog systems are overcome by digital
technology? What are the other advantages of digital technology and what are
the limitations and disadvantages of digital technology?
2.1: Analog Communication Systems:-
Analog communication system is the natural communication system. We

perform all our actions in analog form i.e. continuous form. Like our speech
continuously varies in intensity (except the pauses), our vision is continuous,
our hearing is continuous. On the other hand the functions like switching ON
or OFF of an electrical switch which has only two states; can be treated as a
discrete (or digital) function, and the device; the electrical switch, can be
regarded as a digital device.
If we look at the process of development of telecommunication, it was quite
obvious to use the voice signal as it was, and establish a communication
between two interested parties using suitable devices like: microphone,
telephone line, receiver, and amplifier if required. The early communication
systems were established this way, and they worked well for decades.
However with increased demand and need for longer distances to be covered,
22
the quality of received speech became a serious issue and started getting
more and more attention, which made the telephone engineers strive hard to
overcome the shortcomings, which were affecting the quality.
The major factors leading to speech quality deterioration were noise,
distortion, attenuation (reduction in signal strength with distance), cross talk
(one call getting partially coupled to another call in progress in another pair of
the cable), and interference etcetera. Majority of these factors were
contributed by the equipments like: amplifies, filters, transducers etcetera, and
by the transmission media. A number of techniques were developed to
overcome the adverse effects of these factors on the quality of speech.
Besides the quality issues, the capacity of analog communication systems too;
started showing the signs of saturation.
Let us have a look at all these issues in brief.
2.2: Problems in Analog Communication Systems:-
To appreciate and understand the problems and issues related with analog
systems, let us consider the very basic analog system consisting of a
microphone, an amplifier, a channel consisting of copper pair, and a receiver.
Though the systems developed for multi-channel capacities and long distance
capabilities were much more complex, involving many types of media like
coaxial cables, microwave etcetera, and complex multiplexing technologies
including sophisticated repeaters, the problems and their effects can be best
understood by this basic model. (In fact the only part of the transmission
network, which remains without an amplifier is the one between the
subscribers telephone and the local exchange).
Transmission Line
Copper pair
Microphone
Amplifier
Receiver
Loud speaker
Or
Ear phone
Fig: 2.2-1:- The basic analog communication model using base-band (audio
frequency) transmission on a copper wire pair
23
A basic analog communication model using base-band i.e. 0.3 to 3.4 kHz
audio frequency transmission on a copper pair is shown in fig 2.2-1. Only one
way communication has been shown for the purpose of simplicity. The
microphone gives the voice input to the amplifier, which is transmitted on the
transmission line after amplification. The receiver tries to filter out the
corruptions of the signal caused by the amplifier and the channel.
Now let us examine the various sources of corruption of the signal; while it
makes its journey from the microphone at one station to the loudspeaker at
the other station, with reference to fig 2.2-1.
2.2.1: Attenuation:As the voice signal traverses the channel (transmission line), it experiences
loss in its strength due to ohmic loss in the channel owing to the resistance of
the copper wire. This is the reason for deployment of an amplifier at the
transmitting end, i.e. to boost the signal sufficiently; such that the received
signal; after suffering losses due to attenuation, is still within the receive
threshold limit of the receiver. The amplifier solves one problem but adds
many more like: distortion and noise, which is the cost to be paid for the gain.
Nevertheless the use of the amplifier is a must (we will see about the
problems added by the amplifier, later in this chapter). Fig 2.2.1-1 illustrates
the attenuation phenomenon.
Transmitted Signal
Medium/Transmission
line
Received Signal
Station A
Station B
Fig: 2.2.1-1:- Signal attenuation due to losses in the channel

The signal shown in fig 2.2.1-1 is a sinusoidal signal. In actual practice the
speech signal; or any other natural signal for that matter, is never a perfect
sinusoid. However the sinusoidal representation of signals facilitates an easy
understanding, and modelling done on it is perfectly applicable on actual
24
natural signals of speech/video etcetera. The actual voice signal may look
something like what is shown in fig 2.2.1-2.
Amplitude
Time
Fig: 2.2.1-2:- Actual speech signal representation

The attenuation is measured in db (db is a short form of decibel which is a
measurement unit universally adopted for attenuation. For a detailed
discussion of db, please see section 6.9) per km. With the use of amplifier, the
attenuation permitted depends upon the signal to noise ratio required by the
receiver along with the sensitivity threshold of the receiver. Without the use of
an amplifier, a loss of up to nearly 8 db is permissible in the speech signal in
the medium; between the talker and the listener, to have a good quality of
audibility.
Attenuation would have been lesser of a problem if the amplifier did not add
any problems like distortion and noise etcetera, which get multiplied many
folds with a large number of repeaters (each repeater has an amplifier) in a
long communication link. We will examine this aspect in detail in subsequent
sections.
2.2.2: Noise and Interference:Noise is perhaps the single most bothersome factor of the telecommunication
systems, which has troubled the design and maintenance engineers of
telecommunication system; ever since its inception, and which continues to
hog them till today.
Noise is defined as unwanted
telecommunication signal.
electrical
interference
with
the
25
Referring to fig 2.2-1 again, in our basic communication model (the terms
telecommunication and communication are used synonymously in this text),
the noise is generated in each and every part of the link: be it Microphone,
Channel, Receiver (receiver too has an amplifier in addition to other
processing circuitry), or the Loud speaker. Let us see the effect of noise on
the signal.
Noise Signal being generated

By the device
Output Signal
(Noisy)
Input Signal
(Clean)
Device
Any device like resistor,
Transistor etcetera
Fig: 2.2.2-1:- Corruption of an analog signal caused by the noise generated in

a device
Fig 2.2.2-1 above stows the input output relationship of a device with respect
to an analog signal. The input analog signal is absolutely clean (assumed to
be a sine wave for simplicity of expression) but the output signal is corrupted
by the noise generated by the device.
Now imagine a situation where an equipment; like amplifier or receiver, is
made up of a large number of such devices. The noise generated by all such
devices gets added up at the output of each such equipment. The trouble
increases many folds in case of a long communication link where a large
number of such equipments come into play. At every stage i.e.: the amplifier,
the channel, the receiver and the repeater amplifier, the noise generated by
individual equipments continues to add. Moreover all the amplifiers keep on
amplifying the noise along with the signal amplification. Fig 2.2.2-2 depicts the
situation.
26
Output signal
after amplifier
Input Signal
(Clean)
Amplifier
Receiver
and
Transmitter
Repeater 1
Output signal
after n
repeaters
Receiver
Repeater n
Fig: 2.2.2-2:- The noise multiplication effect in a long communication link with
n repeaters
Fig 2.2.2-2 depicts a long communication link, having a large number of
repeaters [Repeater is an equipment where the signal strength is boosted by
amplification. The signal strength goes down with distance due to attenuation,
as explained in the previous section.] At each stage of equipment and channel,
the noise gets added, and finally the noise becomes so much that the link can
not be extended any further, depending upon the acceptable quality of the
audio. Thus a practical limit is reached in the length of the communication link.
Naturally a lot of effort went into noise reduction measures in the devices,
equipments and channel media. All those measures extended the limit, but a
'limit' as such stayed; though it was much higher than what it was in the
absence of these noise reduction measures.
2.2.2.1: Sources of Noise:The type of noise we have just seen in fig 2.2.2-1 is generated by each and
every: device, equipment or channel through their resistive components. It is
generated by the random motion of electrons and atoms inside the
components, due to heat. More the temperature more is the noise, less the
temperature less is the noise. This type of noise is called Thermal Noise.
Since ohmic resistance is present in all devices and in metallic wire channels,
or so to say; everywhere, this noise is generated by every component of the
link. This type of noise is completely random in nature, and no correlation can
be established in the noise values at any two instants of time. This thermal
noise is evenly distributed throughout the frequency band beginning with a
few hertz to several Gega-hertz. Due to this more or less constant amplitude
throughout the frequency spectrum, it is also called White Noise. The white
light is composed of all the frequencies of visible light spectrum, which gives
this White Noise its name.
27
Other sources of noise include almost everything that can generate

electromagnetic waves. Noise is created by atmospheric activities like
lightening discharges and thunderstorms. Solar and cosmic radiations too
create noise. However the second biggest source of noise after thermal noise
is the industrial activities. The industrial activities may include the ignitions of
automobiles and air crafts, switching surges of motors and power
transmission grids, and leakages from high voltage lines etcetera.
2.2.2.2: Relevance of Type of Noise:As mentioned above, white noise and industrial noise are the major
contributors to the noise activities as far as communication systems are
concerned. While the noise generated by the electronic devices is generally a
white noise which is of low power but high band width; and is always present,
the industrial noise is generally of impulse type; inducing impulses of various
magnitudes and durations; occasionally into the communication signal.
The white noise is the one which is of prime importance in analog
communication, as the impulses if any occur for very short duration during
speech, which can be easily tolerated without any significant loss of
information and without much of discomfort to the conversing parties.
However in case of data communication whether it is purely digital signal; or
data over analog lines through modems, the impulse noise is of prime
importance as it can change the very meaning of the data by simply altering a
few bits.
Noise implications are generally quantified in terms of signal to noise ratio.
The signal to noise ratio S/N is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise
power.
Signal to noise ratio SNR = Signal Power/Noise power = S/N
A signal to noise ratio of 40 to 45 db is generally acceptable for speech
circuits.
However in pure speech circuits, the signal to noise ratio may not actually
represent the actual annoyance level of the listener because the same level of
noise which may be just tolerated during conversation when the speech levels
are high, may become very annoying during low speech levels and during
pauses when the speech level is very low or zero. Thus many a times the
actual noise assessment in speech circuits is done by Test Tone to noise
ratio at a particular frequency with constant amplitude of test tone.
2.2.3: Distortion:As the meaning of the word goes, the shape of the signal gets changed with
respect to the original signal during transmission, and since this change is not
a welcome change, it is called distortion.
28
The distortion is caused by the amplifier as well as by the channel and by the
receiver equipment, in fact by all of them. If an equipment or a channel
introduces a change in amplitude and a constant delay, there is no distortion.
Distortion comes when along with the amplitude change (or without it) the
shape of the signal changes; and the delay is not constant for all frequencies.
The distortion can be mainly put into two categories: amplitude distortion
and phase or delay distortion. Let us look at them in a little more detail.
2.2.3.1: Amplitude Distortion:Amplitude distortion is encountered by a signal when the frequency response
of the system components (e.g. transmitter equipment or channel) is not
constant for all the frequencies.
In case of an amplifier, the inductance and capacitance associated with the
active components or the ones otherwise used discretely in the circuit, make
the response (amplification or gain) sensitive to frequency (because the
impedance of inductors and capacitors is highly dependent on frequency. The
impedance of an inductor is proportional to the frequency and that of the
capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency). Different frequencies get
amplified to different magnitudes. Fig 2.2.3.1-1 shows the typical frequency
response of an audio amplifier and the amplitude distortion of the signal.
Medium freq component
High freq component

Freq = A
Frequency A
Input Signal
Amplifier
gain
(b)
High freq component
Freq = A
Frequency
(a)
x-
Output Signal
(c)
Fig: 2.2.3.1-1:- Amplitude distortion in an amplifier

29
As can be seen in fig 2.2.3.1-1 (a), the gain of the amplifier is more at central
frequencies and less at low and high frequencies. Fig (b) shows the input
signal having medium and high frequency components. The high frequency in
this case is falling at the knee (A) of the frequency response curve. The gain
starts falling on these frequencies, with the result that the output signal is
distorted in shape as shown in fig (c), having lower amplitude at higher
frequencies.
In the case of a channel too the phenomenon is almost the same, except that
instead of gain, the channel introduces losses or attenuation. The attenuation
varies with frequency to give rise to the amplitude distortion, similar to the one
shown in fig 2.2.3.1-1. The inductive and capacitive reactance are in fact
much more predominant in case of a channel (particularly the metallic media
like copper wire pair or co-axial cable etcetera) as compared to those in the
amplifier. Fig 2.2.3.1-2 below shows that a channel of copper wire pair has
resistance and inductance all along its length due to the presence of wire. It
has capacitance and leakage conductance because of parallelism with the
second conductor. All these components are uniformly distributed all along
the line.
jwL
jwL
jwC
jwL
jwL
jwL
jwC
jwC
jwL
Fig: 2.2.3.1-2:- A channel or transmission line can be modelled as constituting

of very small elements of resistance, inductance, leakage conductance and
capacitance.
Since the resistance, inductance and capacitance are distributed continuously

on the channel, the channel can be modelled as being made up of very small
segments consisting of resistance, inductance, capacitance and leakage
conductance elements all through its length.
Such a channel, full of reactive elements gives rise to amplitude distortion
similar to the one shown in fig 2.2.3.1-1, by causing different magnitudes of
attenuation at different frequencies of the signal.
30
2.2.3.2: Phase Distortion or Delay Distortion:The transmission line or channel consists of various components as shown in
fig 2.2.3.1-2. Out of these components the inductance and capacitance are
sensitive to frequency. The inductance value is jwL and the capacitance
value is 1/jwC, both of which have w i.e. 2f (f is the frequency) in their
reactance values. Owing to these frequency sensitive components, the
velocity of propagation of the signal in the transmission line becomes a
complex issue. All the frequencies do not travel at the same velocity through
the medium of the transmission line, giving rise to a change in the shape of
the received waveform, as compared to the transmitted waveform at the
sending end. This change of waveform is called Phase Distortion or Delay
Distortion.
In case of a twisted pair telephone cable, the velocity of propagation can be
given approximately by the following equation:
V = 2w/CR
Where the terms w, C and R have similar meaning as brought out in fig
2.2.3.1-2 and V is the velocity of propagation of the input signal wave in the
transmission line.
It can be clearly seen that the velocity is directly proportional to the square
root of the frequency. Thus higher frequencies travel faster than the lower
frequencies, giving rise to distortion in the received waveform, called Phase
Distortion or Delay Distortion.
It is important to note that some amount of propagation delay will always be
there for all frequencies. As long as this delay is constant, there is no delay
distortion, and only when the delay is non uniform over the range of
transmitted frequencies, the delay distortion occurs.
At times one more cause which adds to the delay distortion is the reflection of
the propagating wave inside the channel due to impedance inaccuracies. This
leads to multiple waves arriving at the receiver causing distortion of the phase.
The effect of phase or delay distortion is negligible on speech circuits,
because the human ear can not diagnose such a minute difference. However
in case of a video transmission, the effect becomes very significant as it
causes different time delays to each picture element causing the picture to
appear smeared.
31
Low freq component
High freq component
(a)
Common delay
assumed zero
Delay distortion
(b)
Fig: 2.2.3.2-1:- Phase or Delay distortion in the received signal

The phase or delay distortion is illustrated in fig 2.2.3.2-1. The delay distortion
shown is only the one caused by high frequency components travelling faster.
The common delay to all frequencies has not been shown to facilitate easy
understanding of the concept.
All these distortions that we have seen so far are also called linear distortions,
as none of them is caused by the non-linear characteristics of the system. In
the next section we will be see about the non-linear distortion.
Whole of the above discussion about phase or delay distortion applies equally
to the amplifier or other equipments too, except that its value is very less in
these equipments as compared to that in the channel.
Fortunately distortion has a good feature; that it is deterministic, unlike noise;
which is random. This leads to deployment of equalizers for overcoming the
adverse effect of distortion in the received signal. The equalizers have an
opposite characteristic as compared to that of the transmitter equipment and
channel, as far as the distortion is concerned, and are thus able to minimise
distortion to a great extant.
2.2.3.3: Harmonic Distortion:When the range of the input signal is such that it occupies the non-linear
portion of the transfer characteristic of the system (i.e. transmitter or the
channel), harmonics are generated. The situation is illustrated in fig 2.2.3.3-1.
32
Transfer characteristic
Of transmitter/channel
Non Linear Region
Input wave
Linear Region
Output wave
Without Distortion
(a)
Transfer characteristic
Of transmitter/channel
Non Linear Region
Linear Region
Input wave
Non Linear Region
Flattened tops of the wave
Output wave with

Harmonic distortion
(b)
Fig: 2.2.3.3-1:- The harmonic distortion caused by the non-linear

characteristic of the system (Transmitter or channel)
Fig (a) shows the input and output waveforms when the signal operates within
the linear region of the transfer characteristic, of the transmitter or the channel,
causing no distortion to the output. Fig (b) shows the input and output
waveform when the range of the input signal goes beyond the linear region of
the transfer characteristic. The resulting output waveform in the second case
is distorted.
33
This type of distortion is called harmonic distortion. The non-linear operation

results in generation of: 2nd, 3rd, 4th and so on; orders of harmonic wave
components. If all these components are added up, they will give rise to the
shape of the distorted waveform obtained at the output as shown in fig
2.2.3.3-1 (b).
[A detailed discussion about the harmonics etcetera is beyond the scope of
this text. The interested readers can find good details in any text containing
Fourier series analysis of signals and systems]
The second order harmonic signal is of frequency 2f, if the original signal is
of frequency f, and similarly third order 3f, fourth order 4f etcetera.
Since the original speech (etcetera) signal consists of many frequencies, the,
harmonics that are generated are also of many-many frequencies. These
harmonics interact with each other and produce what is called Intermodulation Distortion.
Over all it becomes a very complex theoretical phenomenon. But, take a deep
breadth, the solution is simple. All these harmonic components can be
brought within acceptable limits by using Low Pass or Band Limiting filters.
The limits of harmonic distortion are a measure of the quality of the system.
Many of us who have ever tried to bye a HI-Fi sound system, must have come
across this factor where the unwanted higher frequencies (basically
harmonics) are filtered out with the use of such filters.
2.2.4: Cross Talk, Echoes and Singing:Cross talk, echoes and singing are a few more impairments that hamper the
quality of communication, particularly in a speech circuit.
Cross talk takes place when the signal of one speech channel gets coupled to
its adjacent channel; lets say in a multi-pair telephone cable; or in a
multiplexed carrier system. We are able to hear some other conversation
while talking on our telephone. This happens due to unwanted coupling of
signal between two pairs of wires of the cable due to: poor insulation between
pairs, inadequate carrier suppression in multiplexed environment, or due to
defective components permitting overlapping frequency bands.
Echo is produced when the transmitted signal gets coupled back partially to
the receiving pair of the channel. This coupling back of signal is called
reflection. Reflection takes place due to impedance mismatch amongst
various components of the system like: the transmitter, the hybrid and the
transmission line (Hybrid is a circuit used for converting the two wire
telephone circuit to a four wire channel having separate pairs for transmitting
and receiving of the signal or vice versa).
34
Singing takes place when the echo is continuously coupled.
2.3: What is done about these problems:The obvious question in your mind must be that if there are so many problems
with the analog communication, why the engineers did not do anything to
overcome them?
In fact a phenomenal amount of effort had been made by the
telecommunication engineers to eliminate or at least minimise these problems.
Though the problems could not be completely eliminated, quite a sizable
success was achieved in minimizing them; to a varying degree in each case.
Attenuation is the impairment where the efforts have not met with much
success. The improvements in cable parameters could not achieve much
reduction in the attenuation per unit length of the cable. Further reduction
needed the diameter of the copper conductor to be increased, which involved
higher costs. A sizable improvement was achieved in the cables optimized for
the voice frequency circuits through the use of lumped inductances in series
with the conductors at fixed intervals. These inductors were called Loading
Coils and provided compensation to the cable capacitance, reducing the
attenuation in the higher frequency area of the voice frequencies.
On the noise and interference front, commendable improvements were
achieved. The development of low noise amplifiers and receivers, and various
techniques to reduce the EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference) helped in
reducing this menace to a great extent. Installing telecom equipments away
from the heavy machinery or electrical switching installations also helped.
Distortion, as mentioned earlier was compensated to a great extent by the use
of equalizers. Band pass filters minimized the harmonic distortion.
Cross talk, echo and singing are almost completely manageable if the
equipments are properly designed and properly maintained. Echo
suppressors had been successfully developed and deployed.
In all, the impairments/problems continued to stay, and so did the fight against
them. But the ultimate effect was that the length and capacity of an analog
communication link were limited severely because of these problems. Every
time the signal was required to be amplified, noise got added to it, and every
time it was again transmitted on the channel, it gathered more noise,
distortion and other impairments. Fig 2.3-1 depicts an analog communication
link to illustrate the point.
35
Channel, adding: Noise,

Distortion, Attenuation
10
Input Signal
Output Signal
Trans
receiver
Noise/Distortion
added
Trans
receiver
Repeater required
to boost signal.
Noise/Distortion added.
Trans
receiver
Trans
receiver
Noise/Distortion build up
Prevents further repeaters, limiting
the length of the link.
Fig: 2.3-1:- A long link with many repeaters is finally limited in length by the
noise and distortion build up.
The capacity of the analog link was increased to a few thousand channels by
the use of coaxial cable in place of twisted pair copper cable. But the repeater
spacing was always a trade off with the number of channels. More the number
of channels, less was the repeater spacing, lesser the repeater spacing; more
was the requirement of number of repeaters for a given length, and hence
lesser was the ultimate length of the link. Thus, very long distance links could
not have very high number of channels. Very high density links could be built
only for shorter distances.
2.4: The Digital Advantage:-
The digital technology overcomes almost all the above problems with ease.
So, what is the magic by which all the impairments discussed in the previous
sections do not affect the digital signal? There is no magic whatsoever, all the
impairments affect the digital signal as much as they do an analog signal, and
in fact the effect of each of the impairments on digital signal is more as
compared to that on an analog signal.
The digital signal does not fight much to overcome the effect of all those
impairments, but it simply tolerates them. Let us see how.
2.5: The Digital Signal:-
36
No natural signal is digital. Our speech or motions, everything is analog or

continuous. To make use of digital technology, we have to convert the analog
signal to a digital signal, then process and transmit it as per the requirement
of the application, and finally convert it back to analog signal, to make it fit for
human interaction. The analog to digital and digital to analog conversion is
dealt with in detail in the next chapter. For the time being, if you are not
familiar with digital technology at all, please assume a square pulse as a
digital signal. This will be enough for our present explanation of the digital
advantage. Fig 2.5-1 depicts a simple digital signal in the form of a square
pulse.
Fig: 2.5-1:- A digital signal represented as a square pulse
2.6: Processing of Digital Signal:-
When the digital signal of fig 2.5-1 is processed i.e.: filtered, amplified,
transmitted and received; over the telecommunication link, it suffers from the
same impairments as those for the analog signal. The worsening effects are
more in case of digital signal because of square shape of the pulse. The
sharp edges are much less likely to be maintained as they are, as compared
to the sinusoidal shape of our assumed analog signal.
[According to Fourier analysis, a square wave consists of a fundamental sine wave
and infinite number of harmonics of the fundamental sine wave. In fact if we work it
back, i.e. if we take a sine wave and add to it its entire set of harmonics in proper
proportions, we will get a square wave. Because of these high frequency
components, the shape of the pulse suffers more impairment].
Fig 2.6-1 shows a typical transmitted and received digital signal.
37
Station
A
Input signal
square wave
Station
B
Trans
-
Output signal
Attenuated and
De-shaped
Receive
Channel
Fig: 2.6-1:- Transmission and reception of a digital square wave signal

We can see from fig 2.6-1 that the square wave pulse, when received at
station B has completely lost its shape, besides being heavily attenuated.
Then what is the advantage of digital signal?
Here comes to our rescue, the Digital Processing; which plays wonders.
The received signal is processed digitally, to simply establish whether it was a
pulse or not. The receiver acknowledges the incoming signal as a pulse if its
level is above a certain value. Let us say the detection threshold of the
receiver is x volts. Now if the received signal is above x volts, it will be
recognized as a pulse. Moreover the square shape of the pulse is not required
to be maintained in its original shape, as the triggering by the receiving
circuitry is done if the amplitude of the received signal is above the threshold
level of the receiver; without concerning its shape.
Received pulse
Receiver
Threshold
x
volts
Fig: 2.6-2:- Recognition of a received signal as a pulse
Thus all that the receiver is required to do is, generate a square pulse locally
(exactly as per the defined and mutually agreed norms between the
transmitter and receiver), and pass it on to the digital to analog converter or to
38
the user directly as the case may be. The digital to analog converter or the
user gets a clean pulse, which is an exact replica of the transmitted pulse.
Thus even though all the impairing factors were present, we are able to
transmit and receive a square pulse without any degradation at all in its
quality.
In digital technology only two types of signals are processed: a One and a
Zero. What we have seen just now can be considered as a One or 1, and
a negative pulse or an absence of a pulse may be considered as a Zero, or
vice versa (there are many variations to this philosophy, the details of which
can be seen in chapter IV).
Now if there is a long communication link with a large number of repeaters, at
every repeater; the digital signal will get generated afresh or it will be
Regenerated. In fact the repeaters in digital communication link are called
Regenerators for this reason. This regeneration approach permits an
unlimited chain of repeaters without affecting the signal quality at all.
Whatever may be the length of the digital link, you get a crystal clear sound
on your telephone and a very clear picture on your TV. All the problematic
factors can have their effect only in between the regenerators; the multiplying
effects of impairments at every repeater are simply driven away. As long as
the regenerator spacing is maintained within acceptable limits for correct
reception, the signal does not deteriorate at all, no matter how many times it is
regenerated. The concept is illustrated in fig 2.6-3.
Transmitted
signal
Transmitted
signal
Received
signal
Transmitted
signal
Received
signal 1
Received
signal n
Output Signal
Input
Input signal
square
Trans
receive
Trans
receive
Trans
receive
Trans
receive
Regenerators
Fig: 2.6-3:- Regeneration of digital signal at trans-receivers (repeaters)
2.7: Channel Capacity in Digital Technology:-
In the preceding section we have seen the most fundamental advantage of

digital signal i.e. unlimited link length without any signal quality degradation.
39
Now let us see how the digital technology helps in overcoming another most
important limitation of the analog systems, i.e. the limited line capacity.
The digital technology allows the use of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
For analog to digital conversion of signal for speech, one sample of the
analog signal is taken every 125 micro seconds (we will see the whys and
how's of this in detail in chapter III). Thus if the width of the digital signal
(pulse) is less than 125 s, then another similar signal can also be
accommodated in the same period of 125 s. Let us see fig 2.7-1.
Signal
1
Signal
2
Signal
3
125 s
Fig: 2.7-1:- Accommodating more than one signal in the time period of one
signal
Generally the width of the pulse of each signal is much less than 125 s.
Using this principle, initially a 24 channel system was developed by
multiplexing their corresponding pulses in a common time frame of 125 s.
[In actual practice eight bits (called one byte) are used for each signal. These details
will be clear as we read the chapter III. However for understanding of the concept it is
easier to visualize one pulse for each signal]
Further developments have led to more and more pulses being

accommodated in this time frame of 125 s. Today with the help of SDH
(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) technology and use of Optical Fibre, as many
as 4,83,840 multiplexed channels are possible in the time frame of 125 s, (in
case of SONET, the American system, the number of channels presently
possible are 5,16,096) which travel on a single pair of optical fibres. Moreover
there is no distance limitation for such high capacity links. Thus we can see
that the digital technology has revolutionized the system capacities too.
[TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) is theoretically possible in analog systems too, and
in fact it had been deployed also in a very small proportion before the advent of
digital technology. TDM of analog signals is done by taking samples of the signal at
frequent intervals, either the amplitudes of the pulses are proportional to the
amplitudes of the samples (PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation), or the width of the
pulses is made proportional to the amplitudes of the samples (PWM Pulse Width
40
Modulation). In either case the pulse had to be received and amplified/processed at

the receiver as it is; for further transmission or conversion to the user signal, thus it
suffered with the same problems as the continuous analog signal. The receiver
needed to reconstruct the exact shape of the transmitted pulses to faithfully
reproduce the signal. The repeaters did not generate clean pulses, but only
reconstructed the transmitted pulse to the extant possible. In contrast the digital
system only determines whether the signal is a 1 or a 0, and then regenerates a
clean signal. Thus the analog TDM never became very popular.]
2.8: Advantages of Digital Technology:Besides the features discussed in the previous section, there are hoards of
other advantages of digital technology, leading to a virtual uprooting the
analog technology in signal processing and transmission. What continues to
remain analog is the user interface; rest all has been changed to digital. Let
us have a look at some of the important advantages of the digital technology,
in addition to the revolutionary advantages like regeneration and TDM
(Time Division Multiplexing) we have seen in the preceding section.
i)
Universality of Components and Media:-
Whatever be the signal or application, the components of the digital

processing remain almost the same, in contrast with analog technology where
we needed separate set of electronics for dealing with speech, video and data.
Speed and capacity of the digital components is all that varies depending
upon the application.
For optimized voice transmission we needed cables to be loaded with loading
coils and capacitance balancing, for video we needed RF coaxial cables with
low loss characteristics. Wave-guides were required for microwave
transmission from radio equipment to the antenna. IN digital transmission a
common set of components say microprocessors, memories, digital integrated
circuits and embedded analog components, make up systems like SDH
(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) equipments; which can carry all these
services simultaneously; without any discrimination.
ii)
Cheap and Reliable Storage:-
It was next to impossible to store the analog data for a long time and retrieve
it correctly. The storage was mostly done on magnetic tapes. The same
storage medium provides much more reliable storage of the digital data, as
the reproduction requires only retrieval of levels 1 and 0.
A variety of devices like CD ROMs, DVDs, Blue ray disks etcetera are
available today, which provide vary high capacity storage at a very small
fraction of the cost as compared to the analog data, and of course the
reliability is very high. The storage densities are so high that electronic copies
41
of hundreds of books can be stored on a single disk; which can be easily

carried in your pocket.
iii)
Low Cost of the Equipments:-
The cost of the digital signal processing equipments is much less as

compared to their analog counterparts. For example the cost of analog FDM
(Frequency Division Multiplexing) equipments is many times higher as
compared digital TDM on a per channel basis.
Also the cost of digital components is reducing very fast, because economies
of scales achieved due to their high demand for variety of applications. So
much so, that the cost of the components of a particular capacity comes down
to half every two years or so.
iv)
Ease of Signalling:-
In telephony applications, the signalling information is required to be carried

separately in the analog systems. In digital systems the signalling information
is transmitted as a part of the whole data stream, in the same format as data.
At the receiving end, the signalling information is taken out through the
knowledge of their position in the data stream. The signalling in analog
systems had always been a problem area, giving rise to the development of
different types of signalling equipments for different types of signalling
techniques. In digital systems, signalling is just a protocol, which can be
changed any time without requiring modifications in any of the interface
hardware.
v)
Use of Micro-Processor:-
The digital technology permits the use of microprocessor for signal processing,
which provides tremendous flexibility, versatility and universality in the
equipment design. Besides the operational features, the microprocessor
greatly enhances the management features of the system, without adding
much to the cost, as the same set of hardware is able to take up both the jobs.
vi)
Less Precision Requirement:-
The precision required in digital components is much less as compared to the

analog components. In analog processing, preserving the exact shape of the
signal is very important, thus the precision of components directly affects the
output quality. However in case of digital components, only 1s and 0s are
required to be detected and processed. Since these two levels have large
amount of margins for detection, a very low precision is required in digital
components.
Some other advantages of digital signal processing are: the feasibility of linear
phase filters which eliminate the non-linear distortion, and the processing of
very low frequency signals like seismic and oceanographic signals which
42
becomes very economical in digital domain; as it requires very high capacity

inductors and capacitors in case of analog processing.
2.9: Disadvantages of Digital Technology:The biggest disadvantage of digital technology over analog technology is that
digital processing needs the analog signal to be first converted to digital, and
in the last the digital signal is again required to be converted to analog signal.
Thus the process requires additional components in the form of analog to
digital and digital to analog converters. But this is a very small price to be paid
for a much larger gain, and it is many more times compensated by the
reduced cost of digital components.
Another disadvantage of the digital technology is that the digital signal is
never an exact replica of an analog signal, it is only an approximation.
However the corruption of the signal caused by this approximation process
(called quantization) is many orders of magnitudes less, as compared to the
impairments suffered by the analog signal, particularly on long distance links.
This is more than evident to us if we know and compare; the unbearable
quality of the analog days to the present day digital quality of our long
distance telephone calls.
The overall scenario is that the digital technology has completely replaced the
analog technology in the processing and transmission. The analog technology
however continues to play its important role at the entry and exit points of the
systems, where the signals are required to interact with the human beings. In
short, we can say that today analog technology is acting as an interface
between humans and the digital technology.
**********************
References:
1. John G. Proakis, and Dimitris G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing
Principles, Algorithms, and Applications, Third Edition, Prentice Hall India
2005.
2. William Stalllings, Data and Computer Communications, Seventh Edition,
Prentice Hall of India 2003.
43
3. Pete Moulton and Jason Moulton, The Telecommunications Survival Guide,

Understanding and Applying Telecommunication Technologies to Save
Money and Develop New Business, Pearson Education Inc 2001.
4. George Kennedy and Barnard Davis, Electronic Communication Systems,
Fourth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Company Limited New Delhi 2005.
5. Herbert Taub and Donald L. Schilling, Principles of Communication
systems, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.2005.
6. B.P. Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Oxford
University Press, 1998.
7. B. Govindarajalu, Computer Architecture and Organization, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company Ltd.2006.
8. Douglas E. Comer, Computer Networks and Internets, Second Edition,
Pearson Education Asia Pvt Ltd 2000.
9. S.Salivahanan, Avallavaraj, and C.Gnanapriya, Digital Signal Processing,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.2000.
10. Thiagarajan Vishwanathan, Telecommunication Switching Systems and
Networks, Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd 2001.
11. NIIT, Introduction to Digital Communication Systems, Prentice Hall of
India Private Limited, New Delhi 2004.
12. L Rabiner and B.H. Juang, Fundamentals of Speech Recognition.
Prentice Hall 1993.
13. Frederick Emmons Terman, Electronic and Radio Engineering, Fourth
Edition, McGraw - Hill Kogakusha, Ltd.1955.
14. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Fourth Edition, Pearson
Education Inc 2003.
15. Simon Ramo, John R. Whinnery and Theodore Van Duzer, Fields and
Waves in Communication Electronics, John Wiley and Sons 1994.
16. J.L. Flanagan, Speech Analysis, Synthesis and Perception, SpringerVerlag 1972.
*****************************
44
Chapter IX
PDH Alarms and Maintenance

In any practical communication system, it is necessary to ensure that the
signal or data that is being transmitted by a transmitting station, is being
received correctly by the receiving station. The timely knowledge of the
problem is necessary to restore the services quickly in case of a disruption or
incorrect reception.
There could be several impediments to the proper and correct reception of the
signal/data. The following two situations can arise:i)
No signal/data being received. [Henceforth we will call it only data,

as in digital systems, the signals are always in the form of bits]
ii)
The signal being received is not the exact replication of the

transmitted signal.
The first situation can arise either due to a fault in the equipment or its
associated power plant etcetera, at the transmitting or receiving nodes, or due
to a break in the transmission media like: optical fibre or copper cable.
On the other hand, the incorrect reception of data could be due to various
impairing factors in the transmission media (mostly it is the media causing the
problem, very rarely we come across an incorrect reception problem due to an
equipment failure), as we have seen in detail in chapter VI.
The PDH standards cater for detection and reporting of both the above types
of faults in the system. While going through the previous chapter on PDH, we
have come across the description of the roles of various bits of the E1, E2, E3
and E4 frames. Besides bulk of the bits which carry the user data, there are
some bits dedicated for alarms, indication of national/international origin and
CRC (cyclic redundancy check) applications. These bits, in addition to some
more pattern recognition mechanisms built into the equipments, help us to
locate the fault and determine its nature.
Let us have a look at these features of PDH systems.
9.1: Types of Alarms:The following alarms are provided in the PDH systems:i)
Loss of Signal (LOS):-
262
This is a local alarm, activated when the signal is not received from a
transmitter due to any reason.
ii)
Loss of Frame (LOF):-
This too is a local alarm at node, which gets activated when the framing
sequence (FAS word) is not properly received.
iii)
Alarm Indication Signal (AIS):-
This is an alarm signal sent to the next station downstream when no signal
is being received from an upstream node, or if there is a loss of frame.
iv)
Remote Defect Indication (RDI):-
This is an alarm indication sent by a node, which receives AIS from the
previous node. This indication is sent back to the node which had sent AIS
to this node. RDI is also sent to the upstream node by a node having LOS
or LOF alarm.
v)
Loss of Multi-frame Alignment (LOMF):-
This signal is generated locally at a node where the multi-frame alignment

is lost due to equipment failure.
vi)
Multi-frame Alignment AIS (MFAIS):-
This alarm indication is sent to the next node downstream when the multiframe alignment is lost.
vii)
Multi-frame Alignment RDI (MFRDI):-
This is an alarm indication sent by a node which receives a multi-frame

alignment AIS from the previous node. This indication is sent back to the
node which had sent the multi-frame alignment AIS to it.
viii)
Remote End Block Error (REBE):-
This alarm indication is generated when the CRC check-sum mismatch

takes place, indicating bit errors in the received data. This indication is
sent back to the transmitter node.
All the above alarms and indications are as per the standards defined by
ITU-T in their recommendation G.704, which are complied by all the
manufacturers of the systems. The individual manufacturers however
usually offer some more indications by making use of the spare bits
available in the standard formats.
263
Now we will have a look at each of these alarms in little more detail.
9.1.1: Loss of Signal (LOS):A local alarm is generated at a receiving node, when it stops receiving any
data. The loss of signal may be due to a disruption in the transmitting
media like copper cable or OFC, or even due to a high amount of fading in
terrestrial microwave or satellite communication. The loss of signal may
also take place due to an equipment failure at the transmitting node.
Break
Alarm LOS
Tx
Rx
Node
A
Node B
Tx
Rx
Fig: 9.1.1-1:- Loss of signal (LOS) alarm
But how and when the equipment at node B decides to set the alarm? Or
how long it has to wait on a situation of no received signal before
activating the alarm? Fortunately there is no confusion on this account, as
the criterion has been clearly defined by ITU-T in their recommendation
number G.775. The criterion goes like this:If there are no transitions in the received signal for more than 10 and
less than 255 pulse intervals, a LOS is declared. A no transition is a
signal level which is less than or equal to 35 db below nominal signal level
[for all PDH levels from 2.048 Mbps to 139.264 Mbps]
The equipment also needs to know a criterion when it can Clear or stop
the alarm. This clearance criterion is to have transitions in the received
signal for more than 10 and less than 255 pulse intervals. A transition is
considered to be a signal level which is greater than or equal to 9 db below
the nominal signal level for 2.048 Mbps signal [for 34.368 Mbps and
139.264 Mbps it is 15 db].
9.1.2: Loss of Framing (LOF):-
264
Referring to fig 9.1.1-1 again, if the signal is being received by the node B
(there is no LOS), but if the framing sequence (or the FAS word) is not
being received properly; it will not be able to make any use of the received
data, leading to same consequences as LOS. This type of error is quite
common, when a temporary or permanent fault is there in the transmission
media or the transmitting equipment, or due to any other impairment to the
signal.
The criterion for equipment at node B to decide and generate the LOF
alarm is to not receive the framing sequence properly for three
consecutive frames or receive the bit no 2 of the time slot 0 of odd
frames incorrectly for three consecutive frames. To understand it clearly
let us redraw the bit allocation diagram of time slot zero in a 2048 kbps bit
stream of an E1.
Time Slot 0 Byte

Bits 4 to 8, Spare in odd frames
Bits
Bit 1 CRC/Origin
International = 1
Domestic
=0
Bit error indication
In 13th and 15th
Frame.
Bit 2
Frame marker
1 = Odd frame
0 = Even frame
Bit 3 Remote
alarm in
odd frames
Bits 2 to 8 used for Frame Alignment

Signal in Even Frames
[The FAS word is 0 0 1 1 0 1 1]
Fig: 9.1.2-1:- Assignment of various bits of Time Slot 0 in E1 frame
As can be seen in fig 9.1.2-1, the Frame Alignment Signal or FAS word is
defined in bits 2 to 8 of the time slot 0 of Even Numbered frames. The FAS
word is 0011011. If this sequence is not received correctly for three
consecutive frames, the LOF alarm is generated by the receiving equipment.
The bit number 2 which is a frame marker bit is always set to 1 in the odd
265
frames and to 0 in the even frames. The odd frames are not supposes to
carry the FAS word, thus if odd frames have a value of bit number 2 set to 0,
it is a signature of an erroneous framing information. Hence three consecutive
wrong values of bit 2 in odd frames will also entitle the equipment at the
receiving end to generate an LOF alarm. Fig 9.1.2-2 illustrates the principle.
Impairment
Tx
Incorrect FAS
reception
LOF generated
Rx
Node B
Node
A
Tx
Rx
Fig: 9.1.2-2:- Loss of Frame (LOF) alarm
[There were a lot of other criteria being used by various vendors for different
alarms, before the ITU-T recommendation G.775 was made. They are not being
explained here because the idea here is to impart an understanding of the
concept, rather than providing a detailed reference. The PDH by itself is obsolete
today. We are discussing the details in this text only to develop an understanding
of the prevailing SDH technology, for which the understanding of PDH is a
necessary stepping stone. In fact the alarms and management features of SDH
are a further development of PDH features only.]
9.1.3: Alarm Indication Signal (AIS):When an LOS or LOF is detected at a node in accordance with sections
9.1.1 and 9.1.2 above, the node generates an Alarm Indication Signal or
AIS, and sends it to the next node downstream. Fig 9.1.3-1 shows the AIS
generation and transmission.
266
AIS (all 1s unframed)

LOS or LOF
Detected
1 1
Framed 1s
No alarm
1
1
1 1
Break
Tx
Node
A
Rx
Tx
Node
B
Rx
Rx
Node
C
Tx
Fig: 9.1.3-1:- The Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) generation and transmission
The format of the AIS signal, sent to the downstream node (node C in this
case) is All 1s in an unframed format. The continuous transitions in the
1s bit stream helps in maintaining the timings in the node B.
The detection criterion for the alarm at node C is the detection of Less than
or equal to 2 zeros in the bit stream in each of the two consecutive double
frame periods (i.e. 512 bits). Naturally when all 1s are being transmitted by
node B, no zeros will be detected at node C; and thus AIS alarm will be
activated. The defect is cleared and the alarm is stopped when the node B
starts sending the normal signal containing data bits. The criteria for
clearance adopted by node C are: reception of 3 or more zeros in each of
the two consecutive double frame periods (which is very normal for any real
data), or on the detection of proper FAS (frame alignment signal).
When the node C receives an AIS signal from up stream, it does not have
any real data to send to the down stream node. It can pass on the same AIS
signal to the next node. However carrying the alarm to more nodes is neither
useful nor necessary, thus the node C sends a bit stream of all 1s to the
downstream nodes, so that the timing pulses at the downstream node can be
sustained in the absence of a real data signal, but this time this All 1s signal
is Framed, to make it different from the AIS signal. The framed 1s will have
a proper FAS word, thereby avoiding activation of AIS alarm, as per the
criteria mentioned in the above paragraph.
The detection criteria for higher PDH levels like E2, E3 and E4 are similar,
except the number of zeros to be detected in the bit stream for activation or
clearance, in two consecutive frames. The details are shown in the table in fig
9.1.3-2.
267
PDH level
Bit Rate Mbps
Number of 0s
in two
consecutive
frames, for
detection
Number of bits
in each frame
Number of 0s,
in two
consecutive
frames, for
clearance
E1
2.048
E2
E3
E4
8.448
34.368
139.264
4
4
5
512 (double
frame)
848
1536
2928
5
5
6
Fig: 9.1.3-2:- The detection and clearance criteria for various PDH levels
9.1.4: Remote Defect Indication (RDI):When AIS is detected at a node, it generates a local AIS alarm and sends an
alarm signal to the node from where it received the AIS signal. Let us consider
fig 9.1.4-1 for the discussion.
AIS (All 1s unframed)

LOS or LOF
Detected
1 1
Framed 1s
No alarm
1
1
1 1
Break
Rx
Tx
Node
B
Tx
Rx
Tx
Node
A
Rx
RDI (1 in alarm bit)
Rx
Node
C
Tx
RDI (1 in alarm bit)
Fig: 9.1.4-1:- Generation and Transmission of RDI alarm

Node C receives AIS (sequence of all unframed 1s) from node B, and
activates an AIS alarm locally. Generation of AIS alarm sets the position of
Remote Indication Alarm Bit to 0, which is otherwise set to 1. Let us recall
fig 9.1.2-1, redrawn here for better appreciation.
268
Time Slot 0 Byte

Bits 4 to 8, Spare in odd frames
Bits
Bit 1 CRC/Origin
International = 1
Domestic
=0
Bit error indication
In 13th and 15th
Frame.
Bit 2
Frame marker
1 = Odd frame
0 = Even frame
Bit 3 Remote
alarm in
odd frames
Bits 2 to 8 used for Frame Alignment

Signal in Even Frames
[The FAS word is 0 0 1 1 0 1 1]

Fig: 9.1.4-2: The alarm bit in TS 0 of odd frames of an E1 (2.048 Mbps)
frame
This bit number 3 of odd frames of TS 0 is reserved for the Remote
Indication Alarm or RDI. Thus all the frames being transmitted from node C
to node B after the generation of AIS alarm at node C, will contain 1 in this
bit. Node B will notice this change and will activate the RDI alarm.
The criterion for the detection of RDI alarm (In this case at node B) as per
ITU-T G.775 is the detection of a 1 in this alarm bit position for 2 to 5
consecutive double frames, in case of an E1 bit stream. The defect will be
cleared when a 0 is detected in 2 to 5 consecutive double frames. In case of
E2, E3 and E4 it is 3 to 5 consecutive frames. The alarm bit in case of E2 and
E3 is bit number 11 of set I, and in case of E4 it is bit number 13 of set I.
[please refer to the previous chapter for the details of these PDH levels]
The generation of LOS or LOF at node B, in addition to generating a signal
for transmission to node C, also generates the RDI indication for
transmission to node A. Thus RDI is received by node B and node A both.
9.1.5: Determination of Fault Location:Please refer to fig 9.1.4-1 again. From the position of alarms at various nodes
we can diagnose the faulty section.
269
In the depicted situation, node A is receiving an RDI alarm from nodes down
stream to node A, i.e. nodes B onwards. Node C is receiving an AIS signal
from an up stream node and also sending a RDI alarm, meaning that the fault
is beyond the up stream node. This establishes that the faulty section is
between node A and node B.
9.1.6: Loss of Multi-frame Alignment (LOMF):At times it may so happen that at a particular node, though the frames are
being received properly, the multi-frame alignment is lost. It means that the
multiplexer equipment does not know the frame number. This type of defect
may come up due to some problem in the node equipment. Let us recall our
study of chapter VII section 7.1.3, where we have seen the details of multiframing. Fig 9.1.6-1 is redrawn from this section for easy reference.
TS 16 Bit Nos
1
-MFAS-
---
---
---
Frame 0
Frame 1
Sig Bits for CH 16
Sig Bits for CH 2
Alarm
Sig Bits for CH 1
Sig Bits for CH 15
Frame 2
Sig Bits for CH 17
Frame 15
Sig Bits for CH 30
Fig: 9.1.6-1:- Time Slot 16 bit assignment of an E1
270
Time slot 16 carries the information about multi-frame alignment, and

signalling information about all the 30 voice channels. The first of the 16
frames of a multi-frame carries the multi-frame alignment signal as its first four
bits (0000). If there is a corruption of any or all of these four bits or there is a
problem in recognition, the multi-frame alignment will be lost, meaning that the
frame numbers will not be identifiable. This will result in the signalling
information being rendered useless.
The node then generates a loss of multi-frame alignment alarm locally.
The criterion for detecting the loss of multi-frame alignment as defined in ITUT; G.706 is, that the multi-frame alignment should be considered to be lost if it
does not accomplish within 8 milliseconds (for E1 bit stream).
9.1.7: Multi-frame Alignment AIS (MFAIS):When a local alarm is generated at a node about the loss of multi-frame, as
explained in section 9.1.6 above, an AIS signal is sent down the stream to the
next node. This AIS signal is sent using the complete 'Time Slot 16'. The
signalling information contained in the time slot 16 is rendered useless as
soon as the multi-frame alignment is lost. Thus TS-16 becomes free from its
normal duties and is used to send AIS, also called TS-16 AIS, to the next
node. The format of this TS-16 AIS signal is "setting all the bits of TS-16 to 1".
Fig 9.1.7-1 illustrates the situation.
Loss of multi-frame
Alignment
Tx
Node
A
Rx
TS-16 AIS
Rx
Tx
Node B
Rx
Node C
Tx
Tx
Rx
Fig: 9.1.7-1:- Detection of Loss of Multi-frame Alignment and transmission of

AIS
9.1.8: Multi-frame Alignment RDI (MFRDI):-
271
On receipt of the multi-frame alignment AIS in TS-16, node C sets the value
of the alarm bit of time slot 16 to 1, in the signal being transmitted to node B
(please refer to fig 9.1.7-1 above). We have already learnt in chapter VIII
section 8.1.5 (and also seen in fig 9.1.6-1 above) about the bit assignment of
TS-16 in an E1 bit stream. Fig 9.1.8-1 shows the bit assignment of TS-16 of
frame 1 of a multi-frame of 16 frames.
Spare Bits
Bit number
Bit Assignment
1
TS-16
Frame
1
Multi-frame
Alignment
Signal
Alarm Bit
Fig: 9.1.8-1:- The bit assignment of TS-16 of frame number 1 of a multiframe of E1
The bit number 6 used for alarm signal is shown in fig 9.1.8-1 above. The bit
is normally a 0 and is set to 1 in case of alarm, i.e. when the node C
receives a TS-16 AIS from node B. The alarm is again called RDI; let us call
it Multi-frame RDI (MFRDI) to differentiate it from the RDI defined earlier in
this chapter. The MFRDI is thus sent to the up stream node B (Fig 9.1.8-2).
TS-16 AIS
(All 1s in TS-16)
1
1 1
Loss of Multi-frame
Alignment
Rx
Tx
Node
A
Tx
Node B
Rx
Node C
Tx
Rx
Tx
Rx
MFRDI
(Bit 1 of TS-16
Set to1)
MFRDI
(Bit 1 of TS-16
Set to1)
272
Fig: 9.1.8-2:- Generation and transmission of MFRDI
9.1.9: Remote End Block Error (REBE):As stated earlier in the beginning of this chapter, this is an alarm signal which
is sent back to the transmitter, when there is a mismatch in the CRC
checksum at the receiver, indicating bit errors in the received data.
CRC or Cyclic Redundancy Check is a very powerful tool to detect errored
reception of data, without taking the system out of service [CRC has been
explained in detail in section 6.7]. Let us see how CRC is implemented in
PDH level 1 i.e. E1 level, and how the REBE bit is accommodated and
transmitted.
The diagram showing the principle of operation of CRC is redrawn here for
the ease of reference as fig 9.1.9-1.
CRC
Compu
tation
Tx
Node
A
Rx
CRC
word
Extraction
of received
CRC word
Local computation
of CRC word
R
Node B
Data + CRC
word
Comparator
Matching
No Action
Mismatch
Error
Fig: 9.1.9-1:- Principles of operation of CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
The 'frame check sequence' (FCS) or as it is normally called; the CRC word,
is generated by performing a complex logical manipulation (usually through a
polynomial implementation) on 8 frames of the E1 bit stream at a time. These
8 frames are actually half of a multi-frame of 16 frames. For this purpose the
multi-frame (MF) is divided into two sub multi-frames (SMFs) called SMF I and
SMF II. This is depicted in fig 9.1.9-2.
273
Multi-frame of 16 frames
Frame number
SMF I
10
11 12
13 14 15
SMF II
Fig: 9.1.9-2:- The multi-frame of E1 is divided into two sub multi-frames SMF I
and SMF II
The CRC manipulations are performed on all the bits of an SMF and a four bit
CRC word (FCS Frame Check Sequence) is generated.
[Use of a 4 bit word for CRC gives it the name CRC-4, for the use in E1 transmission.
For different transmission schemes the CRC word length may be different, may be 5,
6, 7 or 8, and accordingly the CRC scheme will be called CRC-5, CRC-6, CRC-7 or
CRC-8 etcetera]
This CRC word is transmitted in the next frame. At the receiver the same
manipulations are performed again on respective SMFs and a local CRC word
is generated. The received and locally generated CRC words are compared
with each other. If they are found matching, then the received data has no
errors, else the data is interpreted as errored, by the receiver.
Let us see how exactly the CRC word is carried from the transmitter to the
receiver.
Since the CRC manipulations take place simultaneously with the transmission
of the data, CRC word can not be carried in the same SMF on which the CRC
manipulations are being done. The natural choice thus for carrying the CRC
word is the next sub multi-frame. Hence the CRC word of SMF I of current
frame is carried in the SMF II of the current frame, and the CRC word of the
SMF II of the current frame is carried in the SMF I of the next frame, and so
on. Fig 9.1.9-3 illustrates the concept.
274
MF I
SMF I
MF II
SMF II
SMF I
SMF II
CRC word of
SMF I/ MF I
CRC word of
SMF II/ MF I
CRC word of
SMF I/ MF II
Fig: 9.1.9-3:- Carriage of CRC word by SMFs
So SMF is ok, but which are the bits, which actually carry the CRC word?
We have discussed earlier that the bit number 1 of Time-Slot 0 (TS-0)
(Please refer to fig 9.1.4-2) is used to indicate the origin of the E1. If the E1
is of international origin, the bit is set to 1 or if it is of domestic origin, the bit
is set to 0. The same bit is utilized for carrying the CRC word in Even
numbered frames of a multi-frame, when CRC is deployed. In this situation,
the identification of (international or otherwise) the origin is lost; and it is
considered to be an acceptable penalty for giving way to the implementation
of CRC.
[CRC may not be deployed always by all vendors, as it is considered to be an add on
feature for enhancing system availability through better diagnostics, without which
also the basic functioning of the system may continue]
There are four numbers of even numbered frames in an SMF, and thus 4 bits
are available for accommodating the 4 bit CRC word of the previous SMF.
Each even numbered frame of a multi-frame thus carries one bit each of CRC
words. Fig 9.1.9-4 shows the details.
275
TS 0
TS 1
TS 2
TS 31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frame 0
Frame 1
Frame 2
Bit no 1 of
TS 0 of even
numbered
frames used
for CRC word
Frame 3
S
M
F
I
Frame 4
(Frame 6)
Frame 7
Fig: 9.1.9-4:- The bit number 1 of TS-0 of even numbered frames carries the
CRC word in each SMF
As stated earlier in this section, the received and locally generated CRC
words are compared with each other. If they match properly, no action is
taken, but in case of a mismatch, an error signal is sent back to the
transmitter by the receiver. This signal called REBE (Remote End Block Error).
The situation is depicted in fig 9.1.9-5.
Data + CRC
Tx
Rx
Normal data if CRC matches.

or
Data with REBE if CRC mismatches
Extraction
of received
CRC word
Node
B
Node
A
Rx
Local
computation
of CRC word
Tx
Comparator
Matching
Mismatch
No Action
REBE
Error
276
Fig: 9.1.9-5:- Generation and transmission of REBE, in case of CRC word

mismatch
The REBE signal is sent back to the transmitter indicating that there are errors
in the received data. Though it is not clear as to how many errored bits are
received and where they are located, still CRC is considered very useful
because its operation is In Circuit, i.e., it does not call for the system to be
taken out of service. The maintenance engineers are alerted on receipt of
REBE alarm and take necessary remedial action to correct the bit errors.
The REBE signal is conveyed by setting the bit number 1 of time slot 0 (TS0) of frame number 13 of the multi-frame of 16 frames, to a value of 0,
which is normally set to 1 otherwise. Let us have a look at the bit assignment
of TS-0 of frame number 13, which is shown in fig 9.1.9-7.
TS 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bit no 1 of
even numbered
frames, used
for CRC
TS 1
TS 2
TS 31
Frame
Number
0
1
2
3
CRC word
of SMF II
of Previous
frame
S
M
F
I
5
6
Multi
Frame
7
8
CRC word
of SMF I
of this
frame
10
11
Bit no 1 of
frame no 13
is REBE bit
for SMF I
of previous
frame
S
M
F
II
12
13
14
15
Bit no 1 of
frame no 15
is REBE bit
for SMF II
of previous
frame
Fig: 9.1.9-7:- The utilization of bit number 1 of TS-0 of multi-frame for CRC
word and REBE
On receipt of bit 0 in this position, the transmitter interprets it as REBE signal

and generates a local alarm. This REBE indication is for SMF I of previous
frame. The REBE indication for SMF II of the previous frame is carried
similarly in frame number 15 of multi-frame through same bit 1 of TS-0.
You may notice from fig 9.1.9-7 that bit number 1 which was reserved for
marking the (international or otherwise) origin of the E1, has been utilized in
277
all the even numbered frames for CRC word, and in odd numbered frame
numbers 13 and 15 for CRC error indication. The bit in remaining odd
frames is also not used for origin identification when CRC is deployed, rather
it is used for a 6 bit CRC sequence, which is utilized for inter-working with the
nodes which do not deploy the CRC procedure.
******************************
References:
1. ITU-T recommendations G.775, "Loss of Signal (LOS), Alarm Indication

Signal (AIS) and Remote Defect Indication (RDI) defect detection and
clearance criteria for PDH signals."
2. Trend's E1/T1 Guide, Pocket Guide for E1 and PDH Testing, Trend
Communications.
3. ITU-T recommendations G.704, "Synchronous frame structures used at
1544, 6312, 2048, 8448 and 44 736 kbit/s hierarchical levels."
4. ITU-T recommendations G.706, "Frame alignment and cyclic redundancy
check (CRC) procedures relating to basic frame structures defined in
Recommendation G.704."
***************************
278
Chapter-XII
SDH Architecture and Protection

Mechanism
One of the main advantages of SDH/ SONET over PDH is the Resilience
provided in the SDH networks, besides the direct drop/insert facility and
enhanced OAM features. Resilience means, that the networks is tolerant to
faults, and the customer traffic is not affected by system breakdowns. Though
it is never possible to provide a 100% fault tolerant design for any type of
network, SDH provides for fault tolerance to a great extent. The electronics of
today is by and large very reliable, thanks to the large scale integrated circuits
and much improved manufacturing facilities; with much harder specifications
as compared to past. This makes the equipment very less prone to faults as
compared to the media (referring the OFC or buried copper cables), which is
extremely prone to damages. The buried or underground OFC is subjected to
a very hostile environment because of a large number of activities in the
vicinity involving digging by: municipal corporations, electricity companies,
telephone companies and private parties. The result is that the cases of
damages/cuts to OFC are very frequent, leading to complete disruption of
telecom traffic.
SDH provides for switching over the traffic to an alternative healthy media, in
such an eventuality of an OFC cut, through a mechanism called protection
switching. The resilience so achieved; has an associated cost. A large amount
of system capacity has to be kept reserved for providing alternative/protection
channels. Depending upon the quality of resilience to be provided, the
reserved capacity could be up to 100% of the actual capacity provided to the
customer. The switch over might take place due a variety of other cases of
signal failures or signal degradations [for details of SDH failure alarms &
degradations please see the previous chapter], to cater for an uninterrupted
traffic to the customer to a great extent. We will discuss these details in this
chapter.
To achieve the overall objectives of resilience, flexibility and management, the
SDH network elements (NEs, also called nodes) are arranged in categories
called Terminal Multiplexer, Regenerator, Add-Drop multiplexer, and Cross
Connects. These elements are then arranged in the network in linear, point to
point, ring, or mesh topologies depending upon the need and reliability
requirements.
In this chapter we will discuss these elements and architectures. We will also
see about various types of ring architectures and their relative merits and the
mechanisms of protection switching in each case. The role of K1, K2 bytes of
the MSOH which is very important for protections switching, will also be
explored. The practical deployment scenarios are generally very different and
complex from the scenarios considered for explaining the principles, however
they work on same principles for achieving the end objectives. We will have a
look at practical deployment too.
SDH can operate on any media, like: paired copper cables; coaxial cables;
radio; or optical fibre cables, however bulk of the present SDH network is on
OFC. To keep our focus on the subject of architecture and protection
arrangements, we will presume the media to be OFC throughout this chapter.
12.1: SDH Network Elements:-
The SDH network elements can be arranged in following categories:(i) Terminal Multiplexer
(ii) Regenerator
(iii) Add and Drop Multiplexer
(iv) Digital Cross Connect
Let us see the features of each of them.
12.1.1:- Terminal Multiplexer (TM):A terminal multiplexer is a multiplexer equipment, beyond which there is no
transmission. It could be located at the end of the telecom operators territory
or may be at customer premises etcetera. A terminal multiplexer is depicted in
fig 12.1.1-1.
Rx(STMN)
TM
Tx(STMN)
Tributaries
E1, E3, Ethernet
Etcetera
Fig- 12.1.1-1:- A Terminal Multiplexer
Thus a TM has the STM transmission and reception on one side of it and
tributaries getting inserted or dropped on the other side. There is no
regeneration at TM.
12.1.2: Regenerator (REG):A regenerator node is an equipment, which simply regenerates (or repeats)
the signal received from either side and transmits it on to the opposite sides,
in an SDH network. Fig- 12.1.2-1 shows a regenerator node.
Tx(STMN)
(STMN)Rx
Regenerator
(STMN)Tx
Rx(STMN)
Fig: 12.1.2-1:- A regenerator node in an SDH network.
There are no tributaries getting into or out of this equipment. A regenerator

node is placed amongst two multiplex section nodes if the distance between
them is more than what can be supported by the transmit power and the
receiver threshold of the multiplex section nodes (Typically 30-100 kms). The
regenerator nodes can be more in numbers if the distance is too large.
12.1.3: Add/ Drop Multiplexer (ADM):At the add/drop multiplexer equipment, we regenerate the signal as well as
we can add or drop tributaries. These are the nodes which form the multiplex
section NE. An ADM is shown in fig 12.1.3-1.
Rx
Tx
(STM N)
(STM N)
ADM
Tx
Rx
(STM N)
(STM N)
Tributaries like
E1, E3, Ethernet
etcetera
Fig: - 12.1.3-1:- An Add/Drop Multiplexer node.
12.1.4:- Digital Cross Connect (DXC):Digital Cross Connect is basically a switching unit, facilitating the
interconnection of any of the tributaries connected to it on one side to any of
the tributaries connected on the other side of the equipment. It is just like a
small automatic exchange interconnecting various subscribers.
In SDH, cross connects can be divided in two categories namely:
(a) Higher order cross connect, and
(b) Lower order cross connect.
Let us see their functioning.
(a) Higher Order Cross Connect:Higher Order Cross Connect switches the higher order virtual container (VC4) from one STM-1 to another STM-1. The access capacity in this cross
connect is STM-1. Fig 12.1.4-1 shows this.
VC 4Switching
STM1
STMN
Optical to
Electrical
conversion
STM1
STM1
STM1
STM1
STM1
STM1
STM1
STM1
STM1
Optical to
Electrical
conversion
STMN
Electrical Levels
(a)
STMN
STMN
(b)
Fig -12.1.4-1:- Higher Order Cross Connect (a) and its symbolic
representation (b).
The STM-N is first broken into STM-1s (electrical signals); then any of the
STM-1s on one side can be connected to any other STM-1 s on the other side.
(b) Lower Order Cross Connect:The cross connections of lower order payloads i.e. VC12, VC2 etcetera are
required rather more frequently as compared to higher order payload. This is
owing to the fact that most of the user channels are tributaries like E1, E3 and
Ethernet etcetera, the lower order cross connects provide this switching. Fig
12.1.4-2 shows the concept.
Tributary containers
STMN
M
U
X
VC2,VC12etc
Tributary containers
VC12,VC2
VC2,VC12etc
M
U
X
STMN
Switching
(a)
STMN
VC12
VC
12
STMN
(b)
Fig-12.1.4-2:- A lower order cross connect (a), and its symbolic

representation (b)
The STM-N signal is de-multiplexed into tributaries and then any of the
tributary containers or the lower order payload on one side is connected to
any of the tributary containers on the other side.
In practical situations, the operator may need to re-route a few STM-1s and
drop and insert some tributaries. Hence the ADMs will generally include cross
connects of higher and lower order both levels, unless the network at the
node is only of STM-1 capacity, in which case only a lower order cross
connect will be required.
All these network elements are arranged in various types of topologies
depending upon the need of the situation, these topologies are discussed in
the next section.
12.2: SDH Network Topologies:-
The SDH network topology will basically depend upon the application. The
simplest one could be point to point connection between two places, say
connecting two exchanges or two offices of a company. The more general
application is the network of a telecom operator, which could be linear or a
ring or a mesh network, again depending upon the geography of the nodes to
be served and the requirement of reliability. These topologies are depicted in
fig-12.2-1(a) (b) (c) & (d).
OFC Link
Tx
TM
Rx
TM
Rx
Tx
STM-N
Terminal
Multiplexer
Terminal
Multiplexer
A point to point SDH network formed by an OFC link connecting two
In this process of concatenation, the E1 (or any other size tributaries),

which are contiguous to each other are grouped or concatenated together,
and hence this is called Contiguous Concatenation. We will see the
procedure and some examples of Contiguous Concatenation in the next
section.
13.4: Contiguous Concatenation: -
In our discussion in the previous section, we have taken the tributaries like
E1, T1, and E3 etcetera for the purposes of concatenation, to enable easy
understanding. However in actual practice the concatenation is done at the
Virtual Container (VC - Level). We have seen in detail in section 10.6 and
10.8, the formation of containers and virtual containers from the
asynchronous tributaries. The asynchronous tributary (E1, T1, E3 etc) is
brought to a constant bit rate level by adding some justification and control
bits. The unit so formed is called a container. The container is added with
path overhead bytes, to be called a virtual container (VC). The VC, when
added with a pointer (TU/AU) is called a Tributary Unit or Administrative
Units. Fig 13.4-1 shows this process.
Asynchronous Tributary
E1, T1, E3 etc.
Rate
Adaptation
Unit
Path Overhead
Container
Virtual
Container
TU/AU Pointer
TributaryUnit/
Administrative
Unit
Fig: - 13.4-1 Process of forming container, Virtual Container and Tributary

Unit (TU) and Administrative Unit (AU) in SDH
There are virtual containers of lower and higher levels pertaining to

respective tributaries. The concatenation can be done at any of these
levels i.e. VC-4, VC-3, VC-2, VC-12 or VC-11, whenever the payload
capacity required is more than the capacity of any of these containers.
Let's take an example, where the data communication payload capacity
required is more than VC-4, and it is decided to concatenate a number of
s
VC-4 , say X numbers.

The data communication payload is carried in the containers of the VC-4
s
whereas the POH portion of the VC-4 is filled with stuff bytes (which are
discarded at the receiving end) except that of the first VC -4. The AU-4
pointer, which points to the location of the first byte J1 of the VC-4, is
retained as it is for the first AU-4, while the rest of the AU-4s pointers are
filled with bits, which indicate that this VC-4 has been concatenated. The
concatenated payload structure so formed is called VC-4-Xc, where X is
s
the number of VC-4 that have been concatenated and the c

subscripted to X indicates contiguous concatenation. Fig:-13.4-2 shows
the arrangement.
VC-4-Xc
POH
Row No
J1
B3
C2
Fixed
F2
Stuff
H4
F3
K3
N1
1
Container
C4-Xc
Bytes
X-1
X x 260
X x 261
Fig:-13.4 -2: Contiguous Concatenation of VC-4s

(Where X = 4, 16, 64 or 256)
The payload capacity of this concatenated container is X x 260 x 9 bytes.

The value of X could be 4, 16, 64 or 256 depending upon the value of N in
STM-N (N=4, 16, 64 or 256). The pointer values of the concatenated AUs
4 are shown below.
1st AU-4
H1 Y
H2
H3
H3
H3
First H1 & first H2 bytes make
up the AU-4
Pointer
Normal value Indicating Location

of J1 byte of first VC-4
AU-4s 2nd to X - H1
- H2
1101SS11
where SS > Unspecified
11111111
STM 1 has only one VC-4, STM-4 has 4-VC4s and STM-16 has 16 VC4s. The respective data communication capacities of these concatenations
will be (maximum capacities if X=N)
STM-4 : VC4-4c = 599.040 Mbps. (4 x 260 x 9 x 8 x 8000)
STM-16 :- VC-4-16c = 2396.160 Mbps (16 x 260 x 9 x 8 x 8000)
The concatenation indication tells the receiver that this particular VC-4 has
been concatenated, and thus it should not look for J1 byte, but continue to
receive the bit stream. After reception of the bits, the knowledge of
locations of stuff bytes is used in discarding them.
Thus treating the data communication bitstream as payload and using
concatenation allows us to use SDH for the transport of data
communication services.
The process of arranging the data-communication frames into the SDH
payload area; in a systematic manner, is called Mapping. ITU-T has
defined the mapping of various types of data signals into SDH in their
recommendation G.707. We will have a look at some of them; in the next
few sections, to develop our understanding further.
13.5: Mapping of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer

Mode) Frames: -
ATM is one of the most popular data communication protocols. An ATM

frame (also called a Cell. In fact Cell is a more popular name in case of
ATM instead of a frame. It consists of 53 bytes. Out of 53 bytes, 5 bytes
are overhead bytes and 48 bytes are payload or data bytes. The ATM cell
is shown in fig -13.51 below
53 Bytes
Header
Payload
5 Bytes
48 Bytes
Fig:-13.5-1: An ATM cell
Since ATM cell is only 53 bytes long, it can be mapped into any size of
payload of SDH i.e. VC-12, VC-11, VC-2, VC-3 or VC-4. We will see here
s
an example of mapping in two types of VC , one in which the VC area is

not an integer multiple of cell size; and second where it is.
1. ATM Mapping in VC-4: The ATM cells are arranged from the beginning of the payload area, one
after the other, till the full payload area of VC-4 i.e. C-4 is filled.
STM-1
RSOH
Pointer
MSOH
C4 = 260 x 9 bytes
(Or C4-Xc)
Fig:- 13.5-2 Mapping of ATM cells into VC-4 or VC-4-Xc
Since the ATM cell size is 53 bytes and VC-4 payload area size is 260 x 9
= 2360 bytes, the VC-4 is not an integer multiple of ATM cells. Thus the
boundary at the end of VC-4 will not align with the boundary of the ATM
cell. A part of the last ATM cells is thus allowed to get into the next VC-4,
or in other words it is allowed to cross the boundary of the container VC-4.
Though the example shown above is for a single VC-4, similar mapping
will be done for a concatenated VC-4-Xc. The mapping in the case of VC-3
or VC-3Xc will also be similar.
2. ATM Mapping in VC -2: The process of mapping the ATM cells into VC-2 remains the same as that
used for VC-4. The VC-2 structure is a four frame multi-frame of 428
bytes, out of which 4 bytes are overhead bytes, and remaining 424 bytes
are data bytes. The mapping is shown in fig 13.53.
V5
106 Data Bytes
125s
J2
125s
106 Data Bytes
428 Bytes
500s
N2
125s
106 Data Bytes

K4
125s
106 Data Bytes
Fig 13.5-3 Mapping of ATM cells into VC-2
We can see that each individual frame of the multi-frame has an area of
106 bytes as the payload area. It is a great coincidence that it can
accommodate just 2 ATM cells of 53 bytes each, completely aligning the
boundaries at the beginning and at the end.
Similar results will be produced for mapping of ATM cells into VC-2-Xc, i.e.
concatenated VC-2 containers too. The only difference being that the POH
of all the VC-2s, except the first one, will be filled with stuff bytes and the
pointers will carry the concatenation indication as explained in section 13.4
above.
The ATM mapping can be done in all other types of tributaries of SDH, in a
manner similar to the above two methods.
13.6: Mapping of HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, IP, LAPS: -
HDLC (High Level Data Link Control) is a data communication protocol for
data link layer, which was developed by ISO (International Standard
Organization).
ITU-T modified HDLC and called it LAP (Link Access Procedure). LAP was
subsequently modified to LAP B and finally to LAP-S (Link Access Procedure
for SDH). PPP (Point to Point Protocol) is a protocol which was especially
developed for Internet.
Ethernet and IP are carried over one of these protocols.
All these protocols i.e. HDLC, PPP and LAPS have a similar format, with
some
difference from one another; incorporated by different
standardization organizations.
However as far as the mapping over SDH is concerned, their exact shape &
size and the contents do not matter, they have to be carried over the SDH as
a payload. Fig. 13.6-1(a) and (b) show the format of HDLC and LAPS frames
for example.
No. of bytes (also called octets)

1
>=0
16
1
Flag
Address
Control
Data
Checksum
Flag
(a) Frame format of HDLC

No. of bytes
1
>=0
1
Flag
Add
Control
SAPI
SAPI
Data
FCS
(b): Frame format of LAPS
Fig: - 13.6.1 Frame format of HDLC and LAPS.
Flag
A detailed explanation of the functionality of these protocols is out of the

scope of this text, but that knowledge is not necessary either, for
understanding of the concept being dealt.
The Ethernet and IP (Internet Protocol) are carried by one of these protocols.
Fig 13.6-2 shows an Ethernet frame being carried over a LAPS frame.
No. of bytes
7
46-1500
4
Preamble
Flag
1
Start of Destination
Frame
Add
Add
Control
1
Source
Add
SAPI
2nd
SAPI
1st
1
Length/Type Data
Data
1
FCS
Ethe
Fra
FCS
LAPS
Fram
Flag
>=0
Fig-13.6-2 Ethernet frame being carried over a LAPS frame
As can be seen in fig 13.6-2, the whole of the Ethernet frame is

accommodated in the data area of a LAPS frame, except the preamble and
start of frame bytes, which are discarded, as these functions are performed
by SDH and LAPS. These bytes are again added at the receiver end to form
proper Ethernet frames.
The data over SDH is also popularly known as POS (Packet Over SONET).
Another name to the process applicable for Ethernet is EOS (Ethernet over
SDH or SONET),
Now, coming back to the mapping of these frames over SDH, they are simply
s
filled in the VC or VC-Xcs, aligning the first frame with the beginning of the
VC payload area. Since the total length of these frames is variable (the data
field could be an arbitrary length for HDLC frames, whereas it could be 461500 bytes for LAPS frames. Please see fig-13.6-2), their boundaries are not
s
likely to match with the boundaries of VC . Hence the frames are allowed to
cross the VC payload boundaries, with a part of the frame being loaded in
subsequent containers. They can be mapped into any of the VCs, like VC-4,
VC-3, VC-2, VC-12, and VC-11, depending upon the requirement of the
throughput. The mapping can again be either in a single container or in

concatenated containers depending upon the requirement.
The developments so far discussed in this chapter, facilitated the muchneeded transport of data communication bit-stream over long distances.
However these procedures have some limitations and shortcomings, which
are the subject of next section.
13.7: Shortcomings of Data over SDH: -
When the data over SDH was made possible, it was a wonderful
achievement, but as the time passed and we got used to it, we started
realizing that things could be better than what they are. A number of
shortcomings started surfacing by and by, which limited the capacity and
efficiency of the system. The important ones are as follows: i) Requirement of Concatenation feature : The concatenation feature is required to be available at all the nodes,
throughout the link on which the facility is required. This makes the
deployment of concatenated services very difficult on the existing
infrastructure, which may not have this feature.
ii) Inefficient capacity utilization: The capacity utilization of the SDH; when used for data communication;
remains poor, which results in poor overall circuit efficiency. For example if a
100 Mbps traffic (100 base T Ethernet) is to be carried over the SDH, the
nearest suitable capacity is approximately 150 Mbps in the container C-4 in
an STM-1, leaving about 50 Mbps of the data capacity unutilized, leading to
an efficiency of 66%. If a 1000 Mbps (GB Ethernet) is to be transported, the
nearest SDH level is 2.5 Gbps (STM-4), resulting in only 40% or so efficiency.
iii) Stuffing Bytes requirement:The protocols like, HDLC, PPP & LAPS etc have a frame marker or flag with a
value

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Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

(Basics, PDH, SDH and OTN)

Rajesh Kumar Jain

Dear Friends:I am an engineer by qualification, and a signalling and telecommunication

Wish you a happy reading.

Rajesh Kumar Jain

1.1 You and Me 1

2.2.2.2 Relevance of Type of Noise 28

3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 45

4.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Line Codes 78

What is Clock 116

Types of Signal Impairments 129

7.9.1 Permitted number of Slips in Pseudo-Synchronous 190

8.9.2 Using High Accuracy Clocks 251

9.1 Types of Alarms 262

10.1 Evolution of SDH 280

10.16.1 AU pointer 327

11.1 Performance Monitoring 360

11.5.1.6 Bytes X (Reserved for National Use) 392

12.1 SDH Network Elements 412

12.10.5 Switching Protocol 445

Problems of Interfacing Data and SDH 458

14.1 The case for Ethernet Backbone 476

14.3.2.6 LCAS Operation (Higher Order) 494

15.3.3 Optical Cross Connect (OXC) 538

OTH (Optical Transport Hierarchy) Principles

16.9 Operations & Maintenance in OTN

Advent of Digital Technology

2.1: Analog Communication Systems:-

Analog communication system is the natural communication system. We

2.2: Problems in Analog Communication Systems:-

Fig: 2.2.1-1:- Signal attenuation due to losses in the channel

Fig: 2.2.1-2:- Actual speech signal representation

Noise Signal being generated

Fig: 2.2.2-1:- Corruption of an analog signal caused by the noise generated in

Other sources of noise include almost everything that can generate

Medium freq component

High freq component

Fig: 2.2.3.1-1:- Amplitude distortion in an amplifier

Fig: 2.2.3.1-2:- A channel or transmission line can be modelled as constituting

Since the resistance, inductance and capacitance are distributed continuously

Low freq component

High freq component

Fig: 2.2.3.2-1:- Phase or Delay distortion in the received signal

Non Linear Region

Non Linear Region

Flattened tops of the wave

Output wave with

Fig: 2.2.3.3-1:- The harmonic distortion caused by the non-linear

This type of distortion is called harmonic distortion. The non-linear operation

Singing takes place when the echo is continuously coupled.

Channel, adding: Noise,

2.4: The Digital Advantage:-

2.5: The Digital Signal:-

No natural signal is digital. Our speech or motions, everything is analog or

Fig: 2.5-1:- A digital signal represented as a square pulse

2.6: Processing of Digital Signal:-

Fig 2.6-1 shows a typical transmitted and received digital signal.

Fig: 2.6-1:- Transmission and reception of a digital square wave signal

Fig: 2.6-2:- Recognition of a received signal as a pulse

Fig: 2.6-3:- Regeneration of digital signal at trans-receivers (repeaters)

2.7: Channel Capacity in Digital Technology:-