Cold Regions Science and Technology, 12 (1986) 105-114

105

Elsevier Science Publishers B,V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

NUMERICAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL STUDY OF THERMAL BEHAVIOUR AROUND

A CYLINDRICAL COOLED UNDERGROUND CAVITY. DOMAIN OF V A L I D I T Y
OF AN AXlSYMMETRICAL SCHEME
A.M. Cames-Pintaux*, M. Nguyen-Lamba** and J. Aguirre-Puente
Laboratoire d'A~rothermique du C.N.R.S., 4 ter, Route des Gardes, F 92190 Meudon (France)

(Received December 18, 1984; accepted in revised form July 22, 1985)

ABSTRACT

o = o(o)

A numerical method involvingfinite element based

on enthalpy is proposed for the solution of twodimensional problems of heat transfer with phase
change. The method is used to study the thermal
behaviour of a cryogenic storage pilot station and
also to evaluate the limit of validity of an axi-symmetrical one-dimensional scheme.

x,y
x*,y*
0
O*
Of
Oo
Or

p(o)
p* p(0)/p(0r)
=

NOTATION
a = a(v)
c(O)
c* = c(O)/C(Or)
Fo
k(O)
k* = k(O)/k(Or)
L
Ro
R'-R o
Ste
t
At
t* = t/TMA
TMA

thermal potential
spatial coordinates
dimensionless spatial coordinates
temperature
dimensionless temperature
freezing temperature
initial temperature
reference temperature
density
dimensionless density

Subscript
enthalpy
specific heat
dimensionless specific heat
Fourier number
thermal conductivity
dimensionless thermal conductivity
latent heat per unit volume
radius of cavity
burial de pth
Stefan number
time
time -step
dimensionless time
time length of experiment

*also at the University of Reims and the University P. et

M. Curie, Paris.
**also at the University P. et M. Curie, Paris.
0165-232X/86/$03.50

1986 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

liquid
solid
time-step index

1. INTRODUCTION
Problems of heat transfer with phase change arise
in many technical fields including the underground
storage of liquified natural gas in frozen soil. The
"Groupe Cong~lation du Laboratoire d'A~rothermique du C.N.R.S." has sought to aid the industry
concerned by participating in a study of thermal
behaviour of soils around an underground tank. Both
the initial cooling period prior to filling the tank,
and the long term behaviour representating normal
operation of the storage system were studied.
In a previous study, we compared the measurements obtained by Geostock company at a pilot
station (Giat et al., 1983) with the numerical results

106
worked out by the "Groupe Cong61ation" using an
axisymmetrical model developed from the Goodrich's
method (Cames-Pintaux et al., 1983). The axisymmetrical scheme provides an easy to use model
suitable for microcomputers.
The storage tank at the pilot station in question is
buried at a depth of 23 metres. The results obtained
with the one dimensional axisymmetric numerical
model were in close agreement with the field
measurements. However, for more general applications, it is important to determine the domain of
validity of one-dimensional computations of the
thermal behaviour of the soil around a cooled underground cavity.
We neglect for this study the secondary cryogenic
phenomena (frost heave, ice lenses, . .) which accompany soil freezing. We can say that validity of the axisymmetrical scheme depends on the thermal regime
imposed at the domain boundaries, as well as on the
thermal and geometrical characteristics of the domain
considered. Only detailed and systematic studies with
a two-dimensional model for a range of depths of
burial of the storage cavity can determine the conditions for which the much more simply computed one
dimensional model results remain valid.

2. S T A T E M E N T OF THE PROBLEM

Relatively few mathematical and numerical

methods exist for the multi-dimensional Stefan problem despite its technological importance. Most of the
powerful techniques usable for one-dimensional problems do not admit extension to higher dimensions.
There are no exact solutions for the multidimensional
case. The analytical solutions and semianalytical
methods are generally tailored to specific problems
and restricted to more limited domains. Among the
approximated methods, the energy balance integral
method gives acceptable accuracy but has been used
only for pipes buried at infinite depths (Lunardini,
1980; Bell, 1978). For finite depth, Lunardini (1982)
proposes a quasi-steady state approximation method
that supposes the temperature distribution to vary
successively from one stationary state to another. Its
precision is greatest for problems with Stefan
Numbers near zero. For buried pipes in permafrost or
for underground storage of liquified gas, however,

sensible heat can be approximately as important as

latent heat, and this diminishes the accuracy of the
method. Lunardini (1983) suggests the use of an
effective latent heat to remove the limitation of the
method for this kind of problems.
Numerical techniques for phase change problems
can be separated into two distinct groups based on
the formulation of the problem. The frst group deals
with the energy equation written in terms of temperature as the dependent variable and includes an interface between the solid region and the liquid region.
The interface is a surface whose position and shape
varies with time, and special equations need to be
written using finite differences or finite element
techniques to account for the interfacial energy
balance. Several authors have treated the Stefan
problem with this formulation using either finite
difference schemes (Lazaridis, 1970; Springer and
Olson, 1962; Bilenas and Jiji, 1970; Murray and
Landis, 1959; Duda et al., 1975; Hsu et al., 1981)
or finite element methods (Bonnerot and Janet,
1977; Lunch and O'Neill, 1981; Yoo and Rubinski,
1983).
In the second group, the interface is eliminated
from consideration and enthalpy is used as the dependent variable. The enthalpy is related to temperature
and includes the effects of both specific and latent
heat. The problem is made equivalent to the non
linear heat conduction problem without change of
phase. The method adapts itself very well for disperse
substances that change phase over a range of temperatures and, in this case, explicit reference to
enthalpy is frequently avoided by introducing an
apparent heat capacity.
When the phase change occurs at a fixed temperature the discontinuity of apparent specific heat leads
to significant numerical difficulties. Many authors
have approximated pure substance by ones which
change phase over a narrow range of temperature.
To solve these problems finite difference method
have been proposed by Meyer (1973), Bonacina et al.
(1973), Katayama and Hattor (1975), Comini et al.
(1974), Friedman (1977), Voller and Cross (1981),
and Ronel and Baliga (1979); but to our knowledge,
finite element techniques for discrete phase change
have been rarely developed to this date (Rolph and
Bathe, 1982; O'Neill, 1983).
The purpose of our work was to study the domain

107

of validity of an axisymmetrical one-dimensional

scheme. We also wished to have available a twodimensional model of discrete phase change to determine with a sufficient accuracy the thermal behaviour
of the soil surrounding underground cavities. Certain
conditions were to be met by this two-dimensional
model.
When the time period necessary to study a phenomenon is long, the multidimensional enthalpy
model, more easy to use than the front tracking
model, demands often less computation time and is
therefore less expensive. Although the method does
not keep track of the interface position, this area can
be estimated easily by interpolation from nodal
temperatures, with precision adequate for practical
calculations. Furthermore, as long term calculations
were envisaged, explicit time stepping procedures
with these attendant restrictions were to be avoided.
To be able to study different depths of burial of
the cavity, it is important to be able to change the
mesh geometry, simply and quickly. Finite element
techniques possess many advantages over finite difference methods with orthogonal meshes, such as easy
construction of the mesh and the handling of
irregular boundaries. Therefore we prefer a finite
element technique.
The one-dimensional method of Goodrich (1978)
determines with precision and minimum calculation
effort, the interface displacement for substances
with discrete phase change. The enthalpy method
adopted in this study also treats the case of phase
change at fixed temperature and its results can be
compared with those from the one-dimensional
model. This method, recently proposed by NguyenLamba (1982), is computationally efficient and
easily applicable to two-dimensional complex geometries.

3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL METHOD WITH

DISCRETE PHASE CHANGE

To date, few finite element enthalpy methods have

been developed for treating problems involving discrete phase change. Indeed, it is not easy to choose
basis functions that are sufficiently smooth in the
solid region and the liquid region and at the same
time are capable of accommodating the discontinuous

changes of enthalpy and thermal flux at the interface.

In what follows only the principal steps of the
finite element method are presented. The reader is
referred to Cames-Pintaux and Nguyen-Lamba (1985)
for details.
In a two-dimensional homogeneous domain ~2,
we consider a pure substance with a solid phase and
a liquid phase. The surface S which separates these
two regions is isothermal at the freezing point Of. The
time is in the region [0, TMA] .
The boundary of 12 is divided into three zones F~,
1~, F3 with different boundary conditions.
In the absence of sources and sinks, the energy
conservation conditions are written:
in the solid,
3O
Ps Cs --at - div(ks grad 0) = 0 ,'

(1)

in the liquid,
30
pQc~ ~

3t

- div(k~ grad 0) = 0 ;

(1')

where convection has been neglected.

At the interface, 0 = 0f and the energy balance
gives:

ks

= L

"if;

onS;

(2)

d S / d t Ic represents the velocity and h~the unit normal

positive outward from the frozen zone of a point on

the front, and L is the latent heat per unit volume.
The boundary conditions are:
on r~, 0 = 0]

(3)

on r2, 0 =

(3)

on r3, 00/3~ =0

(4)

The initial temperature distribution in f~ is written

O(x,O) = Oo

(fort=Oandx=(xi)withi

= 1 , 2 ) (5)

The specific heat Cs, c~, the density Ps, P~ and the
thermal conductivity ks, k~ are continuous functions
of 0 except for a discontinuity at the freezing point.
To more easily accomodate temperature dependent properties, the "thermal potential" is introduced

108
(Kirchhoff transformation) and its inverse defined
by:
0

v = v(O) = f

k(z)dz,

h-l(v)

o = v<ot,) = 4

and o = v(Ot~ = vt2

a~t

The thermal potential is a monotonically

increasing piece-wise function, as is its inverse.

= 0

(10)

vo

k [h-1 (v)]

a(v) = f 17(z)dz + L.He [v-v(Of) l

0

(6)

in the solid and the liquid;

where He(z) = (0 if z < 0 and 1 if z > 0 ) (Heaviside

function).
Let O = [0, TMA] X
By multiplying the equations by a smooth test function w,

=L-

The enthalpy can be written

p [h-'(v)] c [h-~(O]

V2v

(9)

o n ['3

= v(Oo)

the reduced form of the problem is

av
r~(o) at

on I~2

av

Defining r~(v) =

(8)

on F!

-~t,

WeWo = {wECI(O), w(t =TMA)=O,

on S

(7)

wlF,=0, wlr,=0~
we can obtain a variational formulation

a(v)l

dw dQ + f grad [fl(a)-g] gradwdQ

- f a(o -ff
Q

= J a(0)w(0)dn
~2

(11)

where g is a function such that

v (Of)

- A g ( t ) = 0 in I2,

g(t) = vtl on F1,

g(t) = v~ on F2,

8(a) ~

v(Of)

//

Og(t)/ai~ = 0 on F3

The enthalpy a, function of the thermal potential,

a = a(v), is the general solution of the Stefan Problem
(6-10). Its inverse function is noted v=/~(a) (see
Fig. 1).
We consider the Hilbert space

Q ~ w l m m - -

v-- (o~H'(n),

i
I
!
!

Fig. 1. Functions used in calculations: (a) Enthalpy: function

of thermal potential; (b) Inverse enthalpy function.

vlr--0,

vlr ,--0)

The function a belongs to V*, the space of linear

continuous functionals defined on V.
The problem (6-10) can be solved mathematically
by a method proposed by Damlamian (1976).

109

Let F: V ~ V* the application of V in the space

V*, be characterized by (FV1, 1/2) = < V1, V2 >
and the operator ~ot(a) be defined by
~pt(a) = f

Stefan Problem in the case of practical but complex

geometries. Particularly, in the next paragraph, we
study the thermal behaviour around a cylindrical
cryogenic underground storage.

[l"(a)-g(t).a]dI2

I2

where ](a) is the primitive of # which vanishes at 0.

Let a~0t(a) be the subdifferential of such that:
act(a) = f [ B ( a ) - g ]
The mathematical formulation of the problem is
then to find a E V*, such that:
aa
at

+ a~ot(a) = 0

with a(O) = ao

(12)

The problems ( 6 - 1 0 ) and (12) are equivalent.

To discretize eqn. (12) in I2, we consider a linear
triangular family and in the time domain, we use a
scheme introduced by Crouzeix (1980). The nonlinear term is treated by an explicit method (tn =
nAt).
n+l

ah

4. PARAMETERS

OF THE PROBLEM

The pilot cavity for undergound cryogenic storage

was built at ScheUe (Belgium) by GEOSTOCK (Paris)
and DISTRIGAZ (Brussels). The underground installation consists of a horizontal concrete lined cylindrical
tunnel, 3 m in diameter, 30 m in length located at a
depth of 23 m below the surface. The local soil is
Boom's clay. The schematic model of a transverse
vertical section of the pilot station is indicated in
Fig. 2.

/
/
/

-ah -k(a) 72(a~ +l -a~a) + a tn (a~) = 0 (13)

.'
#

At
To ensure that the physical problem yields wellconditioned matrices, we take dimensionless parameters, where d is a reference length for the domain
and Or a reference temperature such that (Or - Of)
is a characteristic temperature difference for the
moving boundary problem. Then

i,

t* = t/TMA
for time
Fo = k(0r)'TMA/[C(0r)P(0r)d 2] Fourier number
Ste = (Or - Of)" c(Or)P(Or)/L
Stefan number
Following the well-known procedure, the appropriate elemental contributions are collected to obtain
the global matrix system.

r2

I
I
I

I
I

Id
I
I

/
/
/

I
I
I

t [M] n + AtFo[k]n(~)n+l= (B} n

=

f o)

where [M] is the capacitance matrix, [K] the conductance matrix and {~B} the right-hand side.
This mathematical approach applied to twodimensional systems allows the treatment of the

d
Fig. 2. Underground cavity scheme.

110
For calculation purposes we adopted the physical
and thermal properties of clay estimated from
Kersten's empirical formulae (1949) based on
measured values of dry density (1.7.103 kg m -a) and
moisture content (35%) (Giatet al., 1983).
Frozen clay
heat capacity
Cs = 1.24.103 J kg -1 K -1
thermal conductivity
ks = 1.97 W m -1 K -1
density
Ps = 2.01.10 a kg m -a
Unfrozen clay
heat capacity
c~ = 1.68.103J kg -~ K -~
thermal conductivity
k~ = 1.63 W m -~ K -~
density
p~ = 2.01" 10 a kg m -3
Although, in clays, phase change takes place over a
finite range of temperature of several degrees and
cryogenic secondary effects involving moisture redistribution may also occur, we assumed that all
freezing was concentrated on the zero isotherm.
Latent heat per unit volume L was taken to be
1 . 0 5 . 1 0 s J m -3.

F1 represents the half circumference of the cavity

of radius Re = 1.5 m (we suppose that the difference
between the outside radius and inside radius of the
concrete wall is negligible in comparison with Other
dimensions).
The cavity was cooled in stages from ambient
temperature to -196C by spraying liquid nitrogen.
Cooling was spread out over a period of 8 months.
This was followed by 2 months of storage, during
which time the cavity was maintained half full of
liquid nitrogen.
For modeling purposes we assumed the cavity wall
to be isothermal. A step-wise continuous decreasing
temperature (Fig. 3) obtained by smoothing daily
measurements made in the concrete lining near the
soil/lining contact was used as boundary condition
representing the cavity.
The domain is symmetric with respect to the
vertical axis through the centre of the circular cavity
and the corresponding boundary condition on Fa is
that of zero normal heat flux.
The soil is assumed limited by F~. The distance
between the ground surface of F~ and the upper
surface of the cylindrical cavity, represents the depth
of burial of the cavity (R'-Ro).
To facilitate comparison with results computed
previously with the one-dimensional model the
temperature was assumed constant along the entire

0
-50'

"" -100'

-150'

50

100

150

200

250

300

t(days)
Fig. 3. Program of cooling of the cavity.
curve F2. A value of 15C was taken as representative
of conditions at Schelle. The initial temperature was
assumed to be uniform at 15C and the computations
simulated operation for 300 days.
The two-dimensional domain is subdivided by triangular elements. Since the temperature gradients are
greatest near the cavity, a graded mesh is used with
the finest mesh sizes in the neighbourhood of the
cavity.
The mesh network is created using an independant mesh generator program from "Data structures
MODULEF". Depending on the desired depth of
burial, the nodal distribution on the vertical upward
axis was made to adjust itself to different cases. Each
point of the network is located by the space coordinates x and y, taking the cavity centre as origin of
coordinates.
Preliminary numerical experimentation was carried
out to determine an appropriate time-step length.
Using time steps of 1 day, we simulated the thermal
behaviour with the help of an IRIS 80 computer
during 300 days in order to compare with the experimental measurements. The model provides the evolution of the freezing front (Fig. 4) and the temperature field (Fig. 5) in the soil surrounding the cavity.
We have plotted on these two figures experimental
measurements furnished by Geostock company.
The experimental curves are based on measurements made at 12 different distances from the pipe
surface to a maximum of 12 metres in four profiles
extending radially in both horizontal and both

111

days calculations
R

Y~

7.5- - l
(m)

25

75
50
100
125
150
175
200

~,
o
v

experimental

R
10

i ~

1055-

--5~
-25~

-75'~
1.5

0-,

1,5 _--2"~
-50'
-12.5

5~-0,5-

2.5
7.5

12.5
I

T
Fig. 4. Freezing front progress in soil around the pilot tank:
(R'-R o) = 23 m. Results of the bidimensional model and
experimental measurements from the pilot station.

vertical directions. The experimentally estimated zero

isotherms are oval shaped and not circular. Moreover,
the depth of the frozen zone is much greater beneath
the cavity than above, if we consider the experimental depth (23 m) and duration (300 days). This
phenomenon has two probable causes, inherent to the
experimental and geological conditions. In the first
place, the temperature inside the cavity is not uniform because of the circulation of the nitrogen and
the fact that the cavity was only partly filled during
the second phase of the experiment. In the second
place, geotechnical investigation revealed the presence
of horizontal layers of limestone concretions and
a change of soil type a few metres below the cavity.

10~

isotherm
C
- 100
- 50
- 25
- 12.5

experimental
data
x

Fig. 5. Isotherms at time 200 At (t* = 0.66) obtained by

numerical computation. Comparison with experimental measurements from the pilot station.
The two phenomena may suffice to explain the
small differences noted between numerical results and
experimental measurements. Additional errors result
from the simplifying assumptions made in treating
the boundary conditions and in treating the phase
change process.
In view of the inevitable imprecision in the experimental data, we believe that the two-dimensional
model is sufficiently accurate and provides a costeffective technique for engineering applications such
as those considered.
To determine the limit of validity of the onedimensional axisymmetrical scheme to quickly and

112

accurately evaluate freezing front progression, we

have compared the interface displacement computed
on the upward vertical axis of our two-dimensional
model with that obtained by the axisymmetrical
model for different depths of buried cavities. The
burial depths considered were R ' - R o = 3, 6, 12, 23
and 60 m. An approximate solution exists for the
case of constant surface and cavity temperature
(Lunardini, 1982) and a quasi-steady method can also
be used for variable temperature as on the present
case (Lunardini, 1983). A direct comparison between
the experimental measurements and the one-dimensional axisymmetrical model was made in a previous
paper (Giat et al., 1983).
Using the time dependant cavity temperatures
measured at the pilot station, we compare the rate of
advance of freezing on Fig. 6. Table 1 indicates the
most important differences which were observed in
each case. In Fig. 7, we Show results for a constant
inside temperature of the cavity.
With the two-dimensional scheme, the curves
describing the interface location exhibit oscillations
which are thought to be caused by the interpolation
used to estimate the interface position and not by

the numerical formulation (Cames-Pintaux and

Nguyen-Lamba, 1985). The axisymmetrical model
calculates the front position by solving the moving
interface equation and its results are free of oscillations generated by either the numerical formulation
or by interpolation procedures.
TABLE 1
The most important relative differences x - x o / ( R ' - R o) for
the freezing front location between results of the twodimensional model and those of the axisymmetrieal model

(%)

30

3
6
12
23
60

50

100 110 120 240 280 290

6.7
2.3

2.5

1.7
1.3
0.3

1.1
0.5 0.2

1.1

t 10is

25

::': 1 ,,o

(m)

15

40

11

R-R
10

t (days)

R'-R o

20 t x 10~s 25

.uo,.

.b,.,m q ,3

R-Ro
(m)

R-f

(ml

6
R-R a

(m)

~O

lVU

I~U

~uU

Z~O t ( d a y s

Fig. 6. Progress of the freezing front. Results of the bidimensional and axisymmetrie models for R ' - R o = 3, 6, 12 and
23 m and temperature program of the pilot station.

50

100

150

200

::,:.]

,.

4'- bidim. 1
uni.
J

6m

2501/days )300

Fig. 7. Progress of the freezing front. Results of the bidimensional and axisymmetric models for R ' - R o = 3, 6, 12 and
23 m, and 0 = -100C in the cavity,

113
Because of limitations on the total number o f
equations which could be treated by the standard
subroutine modules used, we were forced to take
space-steps equal to or larger than 0.75 m, on the
upward vertical axis when ( R ' - R o) = 3 m. In the onedimensional model the space step was 0.10 m. This
explains much of the relative difference noted during
the first time-step. For a cavity burial depth of 6 m,
the curves diverge when the front location is at a
distance of more than 4 m from the cavity surface,
because the shape o f the soil surface has a preponderant influence. Even for relatively shallow depths
of the cavity, the results are in close agreement, given
the different ways the interface location is determined in the two schemes. With a domain o f smaller
dimensions the results would be even better. We
also show the important influence o f cavity temperature on the front position for a cavity buried at
( R ' - R 0 ) = 50 m depth in Fig. 8. At this depth the
two models give nearly identical results while cavity
temperature becomes the most important controlling
parameter. Moreover, the one-dimensional model is
very closed to the quasi-steady method proposed by
Lunardini.

5, C O N C L U S I O N

A finite element numerical method based on

enthalpy has been developed for the solution of twodimensional problems of heat transfer with phase
change. The model was used to study the thermal
behaviour of a pilot station for cryogenic storage.
The comparison of the results obtained with experimental measurements showed the model to perform
satisfactorily.
The two-dimensional model also made it possible
to evaluate the limit of validity of an axisymmetrical
one-dimensional scheme for a range of thermal conditions and depths of burial o f the cavity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very thankful to Dr. Goodrich for his helpful comments on the original manuscript and for his
assistance with the translation. We also thank
Dr. Lunardini very much for his comments and
supplementary calculations for comparison.

REFERENCES
6

1,

/
~
~t~
If/
~ /
,~"
I
~.~.7
i
///

is

~o t .lo'.

Imposed cavity temperature

"~

2-dim. vertical axis

. . . . horizontal " I

, d~. . . . , , , m
....
L. . . . d i n l

1-dlm. aximym.
"/~ . . . .
L. . . . dini
100

ISO

I g.o.t.o,
I

-1
I

~4Jt ( days)3O

Fig. 8. Progress of the freezing front for R ' - R o = 60 m and

different imposed cavity temperatures completed with the
results of the quasi-steady Lunardini method.

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O.C. (1974). Finite element solution of non linear heat

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