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CHAPTER G H

Hinduism
Endures:
1100 to
1850
India responded to centuries
of Muslim invasion and rule
and later British colonization
by both armed resistance and
spiritual resolve. The country
remained overwhelming Hindu
despite foreign domination
and religious oppression.
India was one of the very

s. rajam
few ancient societies to
survive into modern times
with its religion and social The Rajput princess Mirabai devoted her life to the joyful worship of Lord
structure largely intact. Krishna. The poet saint danced and sang throughout North India.

Note to Students, Parents and Teachers pressive time. This is a difficult part of history to teach, but
This Educational Insight is the third chapter in our series necessary for a proper understanding of our modern world.
on Hindu history intended for use in US primary and sec- This lesson was written and designed by the editorial
ondary schools. Most textbooks presenting Indian history staff of HINDUISM TODAY in collaboration with Dr. Shiva Baj-
between 1100 and 1850 focus on the Muslim and British pai, Professor Emeritus of History, California State University,
rule. They tend to ignore the adverse material and religious Northridge.
impact of this rule on Hindus, who made up 80% of the Academic reviewers: Dr. Klaus Klostermaier, Professor of Religious
population during most of this period. This chapter is in- Studies, University of Manitoba; Dr. Jeffrey D. Long, Chair, Department
of Religious Studies, Elizabethtown College; Dr. Anantanand Ram-
tended to fill this gap and serve as a supplement to other bachan, Professor of Religion, St. Olaf College; Dr. T.S. Rukmani, Pro-
texts, not as a comprehensive overview of all events of this fessor and Chair in Hindu Studies, Concordia University; Dr. Michael
time. It is meant to explain what happened under India’s K. Ward, Visiting Lecturer in History, California State University, North-
foreign invaders and protracted alien rule and how Hindus, ridge. Research Assistant: Justin Stein, MA, University of Hawaii, and
their religion and way of life survived this violent and op- former middle school teacher in New York.

october/november/december, 2009 h i n d u i s m t o d ay I-1


SECTION
1 The Invasion The Gradual Conquest of India
Muslim Arab attacks upon India began in
636 ce, soon after Islam was founded. The
Damascus •
Basra
B
• Tehran
• Baghdad
raa •
• Medina
Spread of Islam

to 632

Centuries
• Mecca
to 751
first successful conquest was of the Sindh
to 1400
region in 712, with the fall of the temple
towns of Debal and Multan. By 870, Arabs
What You Will Learn... If YOU lived then... conquered the Hindu kingdoms of south-
India Mughal Period
Outside invaders have conquered the kingdom next to the one you western Afghanistan, then were stopped by Ghur • • Kabul
Main Ideas • Ghazni And Later Power
the kings of north and northwest India.
1. People today must come live in. The king calls for young men to join his army. Your father Centers
There were three types of conquerors
to terms with violent decides to take the family and flee to another kingdom, away from • Kandahar

er
Mughal Empire Limits
during this time. Some simply raided a city, • Lahore

Riv
times of the past. • Multan
ann ——— 1538
the fighting. You may either join the army or go with the family. Your

Yamuna Rive
us
2. From the eighth to the robbed its wealth and left. Others defeated ——— 1605, Under Akbar

Ind
S
eighteenth century, Mus- father leaves it up to you. a kingdom, reinstated the defeated king and SIKH
• D Delhi
——— 1707, At height
lims invaded and then Nepal
What do you do, and why? ordered him to pay regular tribute. The JAT
S Mathura

r
ruled much of India. Sindh • Agra
• K
Kannauj M
3. By the nineteenth century, third and most effective conquerer annexed TS
• Ajmer AHO
PU Patna • • Nalanda
the British East India Compa- the captured territory to his own kingdom. RAJ Ga
• Chittor ng
ny went from being traders in BUILDING BACKGROUND: Horses thrive in Central Asia, Iran and Arabia, The next wave of invasions began around
Debal • • Udaipur
ipur
urr
u Murshidabad • aR
ive
r
GAL
India to being rulers of India. but they do poorly in the hot climate of the Indian plains. Invaders on 1000. These attacks were not by Arabs, BEN • C
Calcutta (British)
horseback armed with swords and bows had an advantage over the but by Turks from central Asia who had • Surat ATH
AS • Pandharpur
Somnath • MAR
foot soldiers and even the elephants of the Indian armies. Later, Indian converted to Islam. One Turkic leader, SSA

Bombay (British) • Deccan Plateau ORI


kings imported horses yearly for their armies at great cost. Mahmud of Ghazni, raided India 17 times Pune • • Pandharpur
The Big Idea • Satara • Golgunda
between 1001 and 1027. In each city, he • Bijapur • Capitals
India’s Hindus suffered looted and destroyed temples, and killed or MAJOR POWERS
but survived centuries of A Regions
Goa (Portuguese)
e) •
e) GAR
Muslim and British rule.
Understanding a Violent Past enslaved inhabitants. Mahmud’s successors
VIJA
Y ANA
• V
Vijayanagar
Vijayana
Vijayanag
ijayanag
ijayanag
j
We now enter what historians call a “difficult period” of Indian his- periodically raided northern India, but gen- ORE • Madras (British)
500 km
MYS
tory. The difficulty is not due to any lack of knowledge. The Muslims’ erations of Rajput rulers denied the invad- • Mysore • Pondicherry (French)
H INDUISM TODAY ’S
Teaching Standards invasions of India were carefully chronicled by their own historians. ers a permanent foothold. • Thanjavur
ALA
KER
The British also kept exacting records of their subjugation and ex- One of the great historians of India, A.L. • Madurai
This column in each of the ploitation of the subcontinent. We have a great deal of information, Basham, wrote that warfare among Hindus
three sections presents our
but of a disturbing nature. Muslim historians recount in detail the was governed by “a chivalrous and humane
subject outline for India and
Hinduism from 1100 to 1850 ce. destruction of cities, sacking of temples, slaughter of noncombatants ethical code, which discouraged such ruth- south as Thanjavur and Madurai. But these ACADEMIC
1. Explain the difficulty in and enslavement of captives. British accounts reveal the mismanage- less aspects of war as the sacking of cities regions were not annexed. Hindu rule gen- VOCABULARY
discussing violent historical ment and greed that led to famines that killed tens of millions of and the slaughter of prisoners and noncom- erally continued in Rajasthan, Gujarat and subjugation
events that continue people and ruined the local industry during their rule. batants.” The Islamic invasions introduced thrived in the entire South, notably within to bring under
to impact us today. Nearly every country on our planet has a dark period of history a brutal form of warfare which destroyed, the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1665). Areas control by force
2. Describe successive invasions it would like to forget or deny. It is difficult to study such unpleas- killed and enslaved enemies at will. with natural protective boundaries, such as reconciliation
of India by Arabs, Turks to restore friendly
and Mughals and the
ant pasts in a way that leads to understanding, not hatred. Hindu- In 1192, Muhammad of Ghur, also Tur- Kashmir, Nepal, Assam, Orissa and Kerala,
Muslim discord has been a fact of Indian history for over a thousand kic, finally succeeded in defeating Hindu were less subject to raids. relations
unyielding Hindu resistance.
years. At the same time, there have been long periods of friendly rulers of the Delhi-Ajmer region and the By 1220, the Mongol emperor Genghis famine
3. Explore the founding of the extreme shortage
Mughal Empire, its expansion relationship, especially at the village level. For Hindus and Muslims, Ganga valley. This conquest led to the Khan had created the largest empire the
of food
and ultimate decline. coming to terms with their collective past remains a “work in prog- establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in world had ever seen, conquering Asia from
tribute
4. Explain the origins of the ress.” True reconciliation comes when people honestly face the past, 1206. By 1300, the Sultanate had secured China to Iran. In 1398, a Muslim descen- payment made
East India Company and how forgive misdeeds, learn to truly respect each other’s religious beliefs stable rule around their main strongholds dant, Timur, attacked Delhi because he
it gained control of India. by one ruler to
and traditions and promise to move forward in peace. of the North, and sent armies to raid as far felt its Muslim ruler was too tolerant of another

I-2 h i n d u i s m t o d ay october/november/december, 2009 october/november/december, 2009 h i n d u i s m t o d ay I-3


Hindus. In just one instance alone, he killed The Colonial Period did not go well, and following the battle of Buxar in Basham explains that each new invader suc-
100,000 Hindu captives. In 1504, Babur, In 1600 a group of English merchants set 1764 the Company gained control of Bengal’s reve- ceeded by virtue of superior military organization,
a descendent of both Genghis Khan and up the East India Company to buy and sell nues. A few years later they became the direct rul- strategy, training, weapons, horses and mobility.
Timur, seized Kabul. This gave him a base goods between Britain, India and other ers and ruined the region with heavy taxes, unfair With these they overpowered the large but cum-
to attack India. He overwhelmed both the eastern countries. They arrived in India trade restrictions and corrupt practices. bersome Indian armies, Hindu and Muslim alike,
sultan of Delhi (in 1526) and the Rajput as businessmen, not conquerors, and built The Company seldom launched a direct attack which failed to adapt to new methods of warfare.
confederacy (in 1527) to found the Mughal major trading posts at Surat, Bombay, Ma- to conquer a region of India. Rather, they entered The British also possessed great military skill and
Empire. His army was the first in India to dras and Calcutta. Over time, they fortified ACADEMIC into treaties, alliances and other deals with local modern weapons, a result of their wars in Europe
use matchlocks and field cannons. their posts and developed private armies for VOCABULARY rulers, exploiting the divisions among them. Along at the time. The Indian rulers failed to recognize
Babur’s grandson, Akbar, became defense, paid for with the immense profits matchlock the way, they defeated several heroic kings, such and counter the brilliant British strategy and tac-
emperor in 1556. He expanded the Mughal of their trade. They hired Hindus and Mus- an early type as the Muslim king Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and tic of conquering a region by exploiting internal
Empire over northern India and part of lims as soldiers, called sepoys, who served of rifle eventually conquered the powerful Marathas and divisions among its rulers and only occasionally
the Deccan by entering into alliances with under British officers. fortify Sikhs after many battles. In this manner, by 1857, using its own armed forces in an outright invasion.
Hindu kings, particularly the fierce Rajputs. Emboldened by their strength, the British to build walls, they achieved direct rule over much of India and
towers and gates
Akbar’s rule was noted for its religious har- proceeded to meddle in local politics. They
to protect from
controlled the rest through puppet rulers. Section 1 Assessment
mony. Unfortunately, his successors did not gained power and profit by playing one rival attack
inherit his tolerance. Akbar’s great-grand- against another. The French, especially in Why Did the Muslims and the British Win? REVIEWING IDEAS, TERMS AND PEOPLE
meddle
son, Aurangzeb, destroyed temples and South India, did the same. If one king was Most historians agree that the Hindu kings simply 1. Explain: How do we know so much about the
to interfere in
reimposed the jizya religious tax on Hindus. supported by the French, the Company failed to realize the danger they faced and thus destruction in India under the Muslims and British?
someone else’s
2. Describe: What are three different ways that invading
By the mid-eighteenth century, the would back his rival as a way of weaken- affairs did not mount a common defense. Historians also
forces could profit from their conquests?
Mughal Empire had declined. The Sikhs, ing the French position. But they wanted alliance blame the caste system, saying that people re- 3. Contrast: How was the Muslim style of warfare
Jats, Rajputs, Marathas and the Empire’s still more. Robert Clive, commander of the an agreement to lied solely on the warrior caste to do the fighting. different from that of the Hindus?
own provincial governors (called nawabs) Company’s army, conspired to overthrow the work together Basham shows this explanation to be inaccurate, 4. Synthesize: How could Indian kings have better fought
had asserted their independence, leaving Nawab of Bengal, which led to the Nawab’s puppet ruler as all castes were present in Indian armies. Also, the Muslim invaders and the British empire builders?
a state ruler
no strong central government in India. The
regional Muslim rulers continued to oppress
defeat in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
Mir Jafar, the new Muslim ruler of Bengal
who is actually
controlled by
he points out, Muslim kingdoms themselves were
overrun by subsequent invaders, such as Timur
FOCUS ON WRITING

5. Analyze: How can studying the history of violence
Hindus, but less harshly than the centra- rewarded Clive’s support with huge gifts and another ruler and Nadir Shah, putting up no better defense than in India be useful in helping to bring about a more
lized Muslim governments of Delhi had. a promise to favor the Company. But things the earlier Hindu kings. peaceful world today?
Timeline: 1100 to 1850 ce
1350 1688 1835
1193 1230–60 Appaya Dikshitar, Mughal Emperor 1780–1830
1 1834 Lord Macaulay
Buddhist university at Surya Temple is South Indian Aurangzeb Golden era of
G The first indentured makes English the
1398
Nalanda is destroyed built in Konark, philosopher- 1574
1 demolishes Carnatic
C music Indians are sent to official language
Kabir
saint, compiles TTulsidasa writes all temples in
is born; Guru Nanak
by Bakhtiyar Khalji, a Orissa, for the under
u Tyagaraja, British plantations of schools in India;
Turk; soon afterwards Sun God, Surya a priest manual 1469 popular
p Hindi Mathura, said to Muthuswami
M abroad: Mauritius, the teaching
preaches
Buddhism severely still used today Guru Nanak, founder version
v of number 1,000, and Dikshitar
D and Guyana and the of Sanskrit was
unity of all
declines in India Sun Temple Orissa religions of Sikhism, is born Tulsidasa Ramayana
R many in Varanasi Tyagaraja Syama Sastri West Indies drastically curtailed

1100
300 CE
CE 1200
400 1300
500
5
5000 1400
600 1500
700 1600
800 1700 1800 1857
1030 1221 1270 1398 1541 1674 1699 1764 1857
Arab scholar Invading Mongols Maratha Turkic warrior Timur Jesuit missionary Shivaji founds Guru Gobind Singh British East India Hundreds of thousands of Indian
Al-Biruni writes under Genghis Vaishnava saint conquers Delhi, killing St. Francis Xavier Maratha Empire; founds Sikh Khalsa Company takes direct soldiers revolt in widespread
extensive account Khan reach India’s Jnaneshvara tens of thousands of arrives in Goa; frees large order, militarizing rule of Bengal; a uprising called India’s First
of Indian religion, border; Mongol and Namdeva residents and carrying eventually calls areas from his followers devasating famine War of Independence or the
science and raids continue are born off great wealth for an Inquisition Muslim control occurs in 1770 Sepoy Mutiny. After brutal
geography into 14th century and many slaves which leads to suppression, the British Crown
many deaths and takes formal control of India
Jnaneshvara forced conversions
I-4 h i n d u i s m t o d ay october/november/december, 2009 october/november/december, 2009 h i n d u i s m t o d ay I-5
2
In a joyous festival, the Deity is paraded in a giant chariot, pulled by
SECTION
Surviving a men holding two thick ropes. Hindus delight in sacred festivities,
which bless the community and strengthen their shared faith.

Time of Trial
What You Will Learn... If YOU lived then...
Main Ideas An army of the Muslim emperor Aurangzeb has just destroyed the
1. Most Muslim rulers temple in your Hindu village. The emperor has also reimposed a heavy
were intolerant of other tax on Hindus. Your father must always carry a receipt showing he paid
religions, with a few
exceptions, such as Akbar.
the tax or else he could be punished. If your family converts to Islam,
2. Muslims and Catholics he won’t be forced to pay the tax.

baps/mystic india
alike worked to convert
India’s Hindus. Do you think your family should convert?
3. During this difficult era,
Hinduism remained strong
due to the influence of
BUILDING BACKGROUND: The Roman Catholic Inquisition took place in
culture and saints. the Portuguese trading colony of Goa from 1560 to 1812. Church of- THE IMPACT

ficials arrested, tortured, tried and executed Hindus, Jews, Muslims and als could perform on their own. By sitting of the personal God. They were enlight- TODAY
Catholics for breaking Church laws, including restrictions against prac- alone under a tree and chanting the name of ened persons filled with a sense of divine

Tolerance
ticing any religion other than Roman Catholicism. Rama, singing bhajana or meditating on God, ecstasy. Vaishnavas especially revere for religious
The Big Idea the common Hindu could find the spiritual Chaitanya and Mirabai as divine beings. differences has
strength to endure hardship and persecution. A second tradition began with Rama- greatly increased
Most Hindus remained
around the world
passionately devoted Hinduism Under Non-Hindu Rule The great philosophers Madhva (1017-1137) nanda’s disciple Kabir (1398-1518). He in modern times,
to Hinduism despite In about 1030, the Muslim scholar Al-Biruni wrote, “The Hindus and Ramanuja (1238-1317) were forerun- was adopted as a child and raised by a in part because
centuries of persecution of the growing
believe with regard to God that He is eternal, without beginning and ners of popular saints during our period who low-caste Muslim, a weaver. He wrote
influence of
end, acting by free will, almighty, all-wise, giving life, ruling, pre- strengthened Hindus and discouraged con- hundreds of spiritual poems in Hindi, Hindu ideals.
Key Terms serving.” He explained, “According to Hindu philosophers, liberation version. An early Vaishnava saint, Jayadeva (c. the language of the people (rather than
polytheism, p. I-8 is common to all castes and to the whole human race, if their inten- 1200), wrote the famous Gita Govinda, popular Sanskrit). His poems are easy to under-
Sufism, p. I-9 tion of obtaining it is perfect.” He described Hindu beliefs, scripture in Orissa and Bengal. Among the Vaishnava stand, even today, and millions still follow
Ajlafs, p. I-9 and practices that were little different than those of today. He ob- saints from Maharashtra were Jnaneshvara his teachings. Kabir’s philosophy, mostly ACADEMIC
served that Hindus were not inclined to war with others for religious (1275-1296), Namdeva (1270-1350), Eknatha drawn from Hinduism, was simple and VOCABULARY
HINDUISM TODAY’S reasons and praised India’s religious tolerance. (1548-1600), Tukarama (1598-1649) and Sam- direct. It appealed both to Hindus and
TEACHING STANDARDS persecution
Al-Biruni noted, with approval, that the Muslim raids had “utterly artha Ramdasa (1606-1682). Muslims. He rejected the caste system to be treated
ruined the prosperity of the country.” Historians today estimate that In North India, Swami Ramananda (ca 1400- and ridiculed many Hindu and Muslim with hostility
5. Describe how the saints of
between 1000 and 1100 ce, 20 million Indians—ten percent of the 1470) promoted the worship of Lord Rama, religious practices. Seeking to promote because of one’s
the Bhakti Movement were
able to inspire Hindus to new population—perished. By the 16th century, tens of millions more died praising him as “Hari,” a name of Vishnu. religious harmony, Kabir taught that there beliefs
levels of religious devotion. through war and famine, while tens of thousands of temples had been Ramananda discouraged caste, saying, “Let no is only one God for all religions. ecstasy
6. Give examples of how destroyed. Hindus survived this long period of adversity through one ask about another’s caste or with whom he The Sikh religion was also a powerful feeling or
religious loyalty and devotion devotion to God and continued loyalty to community and tradition. eats; he who worships Hari is Hari’s own.” force. Its founder, Guru Nanak (1469- expressing
inspired Hindus to resist overwhelming
Two traditions arose from Ramananda’s 1539), taught, “Realization of Truth is
conversion and alien rule. joy in God
Responding with Devotion popular teachings. One group, including Nim- higher than all else. Higher still is truthful
7. Analyze the rationale and
strategies behind attempts
The Bhakti Movement, explained in Chapter Two, was a powerful barka (13th century), Chaitanya (1486-1534), living.” He emphasized the continuous
to forcibly convert Hindus force throughout our period all over India. It stressed one’s personal Surdasa (1483-1563), Mirabai (1503-1573) and recitation of God’s name and declared that
to Islam and Christianity. relationship with God and offered many spiritual practices individu- Tulsidasa (1532-1623), emphasized worship meditation is the means to see God, who

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Shivaji honors his
guru by touching Chapter One, Hindus see no contradiction to conversion. It guaranteed to Hindus a
his feet Biography THE IMPACT
TODAY
in believing in One Supreme God while secure identity and place in their commu-
ghal Emperor Aurangzeb, who sent a series of large armies to attack also worshiping the Gods and Goddesses. nity, which they would lose by converting. Religious tension
him. But Shivaji’s smaller, fast-moving and well-armed forces proved But this is unacceptable to Muslims and Also, other religions did not appeal to them still surrounds
some sites
difficult to overcome. Unlike earlier Hindu kings, Shivaji made use of Christians, and resulted in dreadful perse- either philosophically or culturally. Some
where mosques
modern means of warfare and even developed a navy. In 1674, he cution and killing during this period. low-caste Hindus were tempted to convert were built over
founded the Maratha Empire. Seventy years after his death in 1680, to improve their social status. But, in fact, destroyed temples,
the Maratha armies pushed Mughal forces out of much of central Centuries of Conversion Attempts converts to both Christianity and Islam such as in Varanasi,
India, leaving the Mughal Empire permanently weakened. where the
Before the Arabs, all foreign invaders, in- retained their caste position. Gyanvapi Mosque
Shivaji’s guru, Samartha Ramdasa, gave him spiritual advice and
cluding the Greeks and Huns, were even- Even today, Indian Muslims who claim was built atop the
a. manivel

helped inspire the Maratha people toward freedom. Ramdasa had demolished Kashi
1,100 disciples, each an excellent preacher, including 300 women. tually absorbed into mainstream Hindu foreign ancestry—the descendants of Arabs, Vishwanath Temple
Ramdasa taught devotion to Lord Rama, especially through chanting society. This was also true of many tribal Turks, Afghans, etc.—are called Ashrafs in the 11th century.
the mantra “Shree Ram, Jaya Ram, Jaya Jaya Ram”—”Victory to Lord communities within India. The Muslim and have a higher status than Hindu con-
SAINT AND KING Rama.” By one account, Shivaji offered Ramdasa his entire kingdom,
which Ramdasa returned to him to rule in the name of Lord Rama.
rulers—with the exceptions of Akbar and verts, who are called Ajlafs. The Ajlafs are
some others—made great effort to convert divided into occupational castes, just as
At the time of Shivaji’s birth in 1627, the Marathas German scholar Max Weber wrote in the 19th century, “Shivaji ACADEMIC
had been under Muslim domination for hundreds of was no bigot and allowed equal freedom to all faiths. He was served their Hindu subjects. They used persuasion, are Hindus. Likewise, Christian converts VOCABULARY
years. At age 17 this courageous Maratha warrior led as zealously by the Muslims as by the Hindus. He built a mosque heavy taxes, legal discrimination and force, retained their caste status. The lowest, such
mystical
his first military campaign, capturing the Torna Fort opposite his palace for the use of his Muslim subjects.” While Shivaji but had only limited success. as Untouchables, or Dalits, even have sepa- concerned with
from the Bijapur Sultanate in 1645. Within ten years, was not above sacking an enemy’s city if he needed the money, he Christian conversion efforts in India, rate churches and graveyards. the soul or spirit,
he gained control of enough territory to alarm Mu- did not kill noncombatants, take slaves or damage Muslim holy sites. though sustained and sometimes vigorous, rather than
were not very successful. The East India The Common Man’s Plight material things
is omnipresent. Like Kabir and Ramananda, flourished during this period such as Company found missionary efforts bad for Altogether, the common Hindu did not fare pilgrimage
Guru Nanak discouraged ritual worship Kashmir Saivism, Natha saints and the business and did not encourage them. well during this time. He faced military at- to travel to a
ACADEMIC and caste discrimination. Gorakha Panthi yogis. They all were part of At their worst, invaders and later rulers tacks, discrimination as a kafir, oppressive special religious
VOCABULARY place
Nine Sikh gurus followed Nanak. The India’s ongoing vibrant religious spirit. destroyed Hindu temples and killed those taxes and sustained pressure to convert.
omnipresent eighth, Tegh Bahadur (1621-1675), was who would not convert. According to the Hindu rulers collected from farmers a tax
existing executed by Aurangzeb for defending The Conqueror’s Religious Goals Muslim accounts of the time, thousands of of one-sixth of their crop. Under Muslim
everywhere at
once, said of
religious freedom. His son and successor, The Arab and Turkic Muslim invaders who temples were looted and torn down, includ- and British rule, taxes soared to as much as
God Gobind Singh, transformed the Sikhs into swept across the Middle East, Africa, Cen- ing hundreds at major pilgrimage destina- one-half, plunging the people of the once
flourish a warrior community called the Khalsa. tral and South Asia were intent on religious tions, such as Somnath, Mathura, Vrindavan wealthy country of India into poverty.
to grow well Gobind Singh decreed that he was the last domination, demanding conversion from and Varanasi. Many mosques were built on .
and thrive Sikh guru and after his death the Guru those they conquered. They made an excep- the same sites from the temple materials. Section 2 Assessment
polytheist Granth Sahib, their holy scripture, would tion for “People of the Book,” Christians and Among the Muslims, the Sufi preachers
one who be the guide. From that time forward, the Jews, because certain parts of the Torah and were most responsible for making converts. REVIEWING IDEAS, TERMS AND PEOPLE
believes in or Sikhs have been an influential political and the Bible are regarded as revealed scripture Sufism is a mystical tradition within Islam, 1. Explain: What evidence do we have that Hinduism in
worships more military force in North India. by the Muslims as well. They did not force with some elements similar to the Bhakti 1030 was similar to today’s Hinduism?
than one God 2. Analyze: What are some reasons for Kabir’s continued
As you have studied, South India largely Christians and Jews to convert, but humili- Movement. Sufism was much stronger dur-
popularity in India?
escaped the oppressive Muslim domina- ated them and imposed the jizya tax. ing this period than it is today. Sufis worked 3. Explain: How did Shivaji’s faith and religious tolerance
tion of North and Central India. To this day The Muslims treated Hindus as kafirs, closely with Muslims rulers and helped help him lead the Maratha people against the Mughals?
the South retains the most ancient Hindu lowly non-believers. The Christians judged secure their rule by converting conquered 4. Analyze: Why do Hindus see no contradiction between
culture and has many grand temples. Influ- Hindus to be polytheists, and some, as in people to Islam. Many persons captured and worshiping the Supreme God and revering many Gods?


ential saints of the time include Meykandar, Goa, used violence to convert them. Mus- enslaved during raids on Hindu towns and
FOCUS ON WRITING
Arunagirinathar, Tayumanavar, Vallab- lims and Christians both consider monothe- villages converted to Islam knowing they
5. EEven when
h th threatened,
t d many Hi Hindus refused to convert to
hacharya and Kumaraguruparar. ism (the belief that there is only one God) would be treated better or even released. another religion. Why did they choose to resist?
Other religious movements also to be the right conviction. As explained in The caste system was a main obstacle

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I-11
h i n d u i s m t o d ay
october/november/december, 2009

72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64
dull qualities active qualities good qualities plane of creation plane of Siva plane of Vishnu plane of bliss plane of inner space plane of nature
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
ego plane of first sound plane of air plane of light plane of truth positive intellect negative intellect happiness darkness
54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46
plane of devotion plane of water plane of violence earth plane of austerity River Ganga River Yamuna Goddess of Wisdom conscience
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
wisdom plane of energy plane of elimination plane of circulation creative plane plane of fire human birth false knowledge right knowledge
36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28
clarity netherworld plane of flavor plane of fragrance plane of devas nature spirits good tendencies false faith true faith
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
plane of karma giving atonement plane of dharma heavenly plane bad company good company sorrow selfless service
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
plane of joy mercy jealousy underworld lower astral plane higher astral plane envy devas of music purification
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
birth illusion anger greed earth plane delusion conceit or vanity avarice plane of sensuality
a. manivel

october/november/december, 2009
Hindu Games
Snakes and Ladders
The Western children’s game Snakes and Ladders, or Chutes and move forward. Nowadays dice are used. If the player lands on a lad-
Ladders, comes from the Indian game for adults called Gyan der, he jumps to the square at the top of the ladder. If he lands on
Chaupar, the “Game of Knowledge.” Gyan Chaupar teaches the the head of a snake, he slides back down the snake to a low square.
Hindu spiritual path to moksha, which is liberation from reincarna- The object of the game is to land exactly on square 68, the center
tion. There are 72 numbered squares on the board listing various of the top row. This square represents liberation from rebirth and
virtues, vices, states of consciousness and planes of existence. The entry into heaven. If he lands past 68, he continues to play until he

h i n d u i s m t o d ay
ladders start from squares with virtues, such as devotion, and move reaches 72, which takes him back to 51 for another try. The game is
the player up the board. Snakes are found on squares of vices, such an entertaining way to learn about making progress on the spiritual
as jealousy, and take the player back down the board. path. By cultivating a virtue, such as devotion, one advances. By
Play begins at square one in the lower left corner. In the old falling prey to egotism, one goes backwards.
days, the player threw six cowrie shells on the floor. The number Play the game online or download the board and full instructions
of shells that landed upright indicated the number of squares to at www.hinduismtoday.com/resources/snakesandladders.

I-10
SECTION
3 Music, Art, Dance days. A highly skilled storyteller will recount
episodes from sacred texts, such as the
Ramayana, then lead the audience in singing
related bhajanas.
range from the simple and most common
eight-beat Adi tala to elaborate rhythms such
as the Dhamar tala, composed of 14 beats
divided as 5, 2, 3 and 4.
THE IMPACT
TODAY
Modern katha
performers

and Architecture
attract crowds of
Alongside these basic musical traditions is Songs were written in Sanskrit and increas- thousands in the
US and England,
India’s classical Carnatic music. Three great ingly in the regional languages, such as and hundreds
innovators of this ancient system lived in Hindi, Telegu and Tamil. Singers and musi- of thousands
What You Will Learn... If YOU lived then... South India in the late 18th and early 19th cians improvise upon the basic melody while in India.

Main Ideas Your father is an artist hired by Mughal Emperor Akbar in Delhi. The centuries: Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar keeping within the chosen raga and tala.
and Syama Sastri. They systematized and The results are always creative, akin to the ACADEMIC
1. India has rich artistic traditions emperor has brought great painters from Persia. He wants to develop VOCABULARY
of music, dance, drama, improved upon the existing framework of improvisations in Western jazz. This is one
a new art style. You have been an apprentice to your father for several systematize
painting and architecture. raga and tala, the essentials of Indian music. key way that Indian classical music differs
2. These arts are closely tied years now, but now you both must learn a new artistic style. Your father to arrange in an
Hindustani is a related musical system that from Western classical music, which is usu-
to the Hindu religion. thinks it will be valuable to learn from the Persians. orderly fashion
arose in the North as musicians blended Per- ally played exactly as it was composed.
3. Muslim rule brought improvise
Persian influence to Indian How do you feel about learning the new art form? sian elements into the Indian tradition. in music, to
painting and architecture. First, the composer selects a raga in which A Meeting of Art Styles create and
to write his song. A raga is a pattern of notes The Mughal emperors were responsible for perform
BUILDING BACKGROUND: The arts, such as painting, music, dance and upon which a melody is made. Ragas include a major advancement in painting which spontaneously

architecture, are essential parts of every culture. Flourishing civiliza- notes from the seven-note Indian scale (sa, eventually influenced much of India. Earlier
The Big Idea tions develop new artistic styles over time. Fresh ideas appear and ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni) as well as micro- Muslim rulers started the process by bring-
blend with old traditions, allowing artists to express the culture,
Islamic culture influenced some tones, which are like the sharps and flats of ing artists to India to illustrate the elaborate
forms of Indian art, while others thoughts and emotions of the time in beautiful, uplifting works. Western music, only more numerous. This handwritten books of the time (see top left
remained largely unaffected. multiplicity of tones allows for the creation on page 14). These painters had been influ-
Artistic Achievements of thousands of ragas. Next, the composer enced earlier by Chinese artists who were
Key Terms Art within Hindu India was already highly developed prior to the selects a tala, or rhythmic pattern. Talas brought to Persia by conquering Mongols.
bhajana, p. 12 Arab, Turkic and Mughal invasions. Some art forms, such as music
katha, p. 13 and dance, were less affected by these invasions, especially in INDIA’S MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
raga, p. 13 the South where Hindu rule was the norm. In the North, Persian The double-sided
tala, p. 13 Cymbals, drums, horns and stringed instruments commonly accompany the singer in the drum, mridangam, is
building design, with its arches and domes, became common, and in popular in South India
mudras, p. 15 various types of Indian music. In concerts, the singer and the drum or horn player will
painting, the Mughal emperors stimulated a harmonious blending of engage in a kind of duet, with each improvising upon the other’s melody line and rhythm.
composition and method, thus creating the Indo-Islamic art style.

HINDUISM TODAY’S A Rich History of Music


TEACHING STANDARDS India has always had an extraordinarily diverse musical scene. This
8. Describe the relationship ranges from the complex works of the classical tradition to the vil-
between Hinduism and lagers’ simple work songs and devotional hymns in local languages.
traditional forms of Indian art, Temple stone workers, for example, sing together to coordinate the ef-
including music, dance, drama,
painting and architecture. fort of moving a heavy stone. At a certain point in the song, all apply
9. Explain how the Muslim perfectly timed force to their iron pry bars. In this way, stones weigh-
conquests in the subcontinent ing tons can be moved by hand. To this day, Hindu men and women
influenced the painting sing devotional songs to accompany and ease their daily tasks.
and architectural styles of There is within Hinduism a long tradition of bhajana and kir-
northern and central India.
tana, call-and-response devotional singing of simple songs, usually in The shehnai, a popular, oboe-like, North
small groups with musical accompaniment. Katha is a popular form Indian reed instrument, is similar to
Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri. At left is the larger nadasvara of South India
of storytelling, occurring in multiple sessions, often spanning many the Sarasvati Vina, with 24 frets, four playing strings and three
drone strings. The other two instruments are the four-stringed
I-12 h i n d u i s m t o d ay october/november/december, 2009 tambura. In the background are the Divinities of music. o c t o b e r / n o v e m b e r / d e c e m b e r , 2009 h i n d u i s m t o d ay I-13
India’s Sacred Dance

The Mughal Emperor Akbar, trained in art as RELIGION THROUGH MOVEMENT


a child, encouraged a true synthesis of forms. He Bharatanatyam and the related dances Kuchipudi and Odissi come
commissioned craftsmen by the hundreds in an from the ancient temple dances of South India, described in the
almost factory-like setting under his Royal Bureau 2,000-year-old Natya Shastra. Originally, dance, accompanied
by classical Indian music, was one of the sixteen offerings made
of Books. This enterprise, headed by the great Per-
during the ritual worship called puja. Indian dance is not simply en-
sian artists, Khwaja Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid tertainment, but a religious experience both for the dancer and the
Ali, resulted in major artistic innovations. audience. Early dance tradition used improvisation, as does Indian
As the Mughal Empire declined, this huge com- music, but today the choreography is usually set. Most dances are
munity of artists lost their rich patronage. The depictions of religious stories, told through poses, movements and
last emperor, Aurangzeb, dismissed the artists and dozens of meaningful hand gestures called mudras.
v&a museum

v&a museum

c o u r t e s y k a n i s h k a pat e l
When the first Bharatanatyam dancers came to Europe in 1838,
banned music and dance. He judged their work
a reviewer wrote, “The dancers of all Europe dance with their feet,
contrary to Islamic teachings that prohibit the but that is all. The Indians dance in a different manner. They dance
depiction of religious themes in any art form. Hindu with their whole frame. Their heads dance, their arms dance. Their
and Muslim artists turned to independent local rul- eyes, above all, obey the movement and fury of the dance. Their
ers across India for support. Many applied the new feet click against the floor; the arms and the hands flash in the air;
techniques to Hindu subjects, especially illustrating the eyes sparkle; their mouths mutter; the whole body quivers.”
the Mahabharata and stories of Lord Krishna.
Indian painting before this time was two-dimen-

dmitry rukhlenko
sional, as seen in the example at top left. The new A Bharatanayam dancer in the
style adopted typical Indian colors, used delicate pose of Siva Nataraja; (left)
brush lines (some made with a brush of a single hand gestures, called mudras:
squirrel hair) and introduced better lighting effects. picking flowers, greeting, lotus
Advancements were also made in the preparation
of pigments and paints, allowing for a greater range in design with many Hindu elements. Com- not breakkd d the
down under h alien
l l so
rule, ACADEMIC
the social structure remained stable. Most VOCABULARY
and depth of color. pleted in 1653, it took 20,000 craftsmen
During the British rule, a blending of painting working 22 years to build and was a great Hindus did not convert to Islam, despite Nataraja
“King of Dance,”
styles was attempted between Indo-Islamic and drain on the treasury. Shah Jahan was over- heavy pressure. The arrival of the East In-
a form of Lord
European art. The result, called Company style, thrown and imprisoned by his son, Aurang- dia Company changed the political situa- Siva
tended toward realism, and was later displaced by zeb, shortly after its completion. tion. By force and skillful tactics, the Brit-
the invention of photography. ish slowly gained complete control of India.
ehrenfeld collection

Architecture Section 3 Assessment


In South India during this period, the art of temple CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEWING IDEAS, TERMS AND PEOPLE
building reached its peak. In fact, Hindu temples Beginning in 1100, Muslim armies con-
today are still built according to the styles devel- 1. Describe: What are the roles of raga, tala and
quered vast regions of India. Despite improvisation in Indian classical music?
oped at this time, following principles from the repeated defeats, the Rajput and other 2. Analyze: What were some of the advancements made
ancient Agama texts. In North India, Hindu ar- Hindu rulers refused to surrender. South in painting under the Mughals? What made these
Top left: a page from a 1330 ce Persian manuscript in the chitecture was eventually strongly influenced by
style Akbar encouraged. Top right: a watercolor painting of a India, far from the Muslim capitals of advancements possible?
scene from the Ramayana from Bengal is typical of the two- Persian design, especially the use of the dome and Delhi and Agra, escaped the unceasing 3. Contrast: How did the architecture of this period differ in
dimensional, flat style of most earlier Indian art. Above: this arch. The most spectacular construction during the North and South India and why?
warfare and foreign dominance that be-

portrait of Rajput Raja Aniruddha Singha, painted in Rajasthan period was the Taj Mahal, among the world’s most set North India, suffering only periodic FOCUS ON WRITING
in the early 1700s, is typical of the Mughal school which evolved elegant buildings. Built in white marble by Shah
from the blending of earlier styles. raids. Wherever Hindus were conquered,
Jahan to entomb his beloved wife, the Taj, with its 4.
4 Synthesize:
S h i How H does
d the
h mixing of cultures result in
resistance continued, mainly on a social new artistic styles? Give examples from your society.
immense domes and towering minarets, is Persian and religious level. The caste system did

I-14 h i n d u i s m t o d ay october/november/december, 2009 october/november/december, 2009 h i n d u i s m t o d ay I-15


CHAPTER
3 Standards Assessment
DIRECTIONS: READ EACH QUESTION AND CIRCLE THE LETTER OF THE BEST RESPONSE

1. We need to understand even unpleasant history because: 8. Which of the following was NOT a hardship endured by
A We can then punish the people responsible Hindus during this period?
B It helps us learn to live in peace today A The heavy religious tax
C It helps us see that some religions are bad B The destruction of temples
D We should never forgive our attackers C The powerful Bhakti Movement
D Being regarded as kafirs
2. What military advantage did Muslim invaders have?
A Support from people in the invaded regions 9. Why did the British East India Company not encourage
B Many more soldiers than the Indian kings missionary efforts to convert Hindus?
C Bigger elephants and more of them A They found these efforts to be bad for business
D Horses, better weapons, tactics and training B They considered Hindus to be ‘People of the Book’
C They found the missionaries’ methods unethical
3. Why is the rule of Mughal Emperor Akbar remembered as D They thought Hinduism was a better religion
exceptional?
A He destroyed many Hindu temples 10. The game of Gyan Chaupar was intended to:
B He created the largest empire in the world A Teach the path to spiritual liberation
C He was tolerant of other religions B Be entertaining for children
D He formed strong alliances with British merchants C Convert Hindus to Christianity
D Show that going to heaven is not the goal of life
4. How did the British East India Company gain control of
India? 11. When did Hindus make and enjoy music?
A They set up puppet rulers under their control A In formal concerts with musicians
B They created their own army B During their work day
C They played one ruler against another C At the special events called kathas
D All of the above D All of the above

5. How did the Bhakti Movement help preserve Hinduism? 12. What terms best describe Indian music?
A It strongly supported the caste system A Improvisation
B Followers were exempt from the religious tax (jizya) B Raga
C Its devotional practices made each Hindu strong C Tala
D It organized military resistance to the Muslims D All of the above

6. Converts to Islam and Christianity found themselves 13. Which Indian art forms changed during Muslim times?
A Welcomed as equals A Music and dance
B At the same social level as before their conversion B Painting and architecture
C Still subject to the religious tax C Music and painting
D All of the above D All of the above

7. When Shivaji offered his guru the kingdom, the guru 14. Why did India remain mostly Hindu?
A Took over the kingdom and moved into the palace A The caste system
B Told Shivaji to rule it in the name of Lord Rama B Loyalty to the Hindu religion
C Refused to accept it C The personal nature of Bhakti worship
D Divided the kingdom among his followers D All of the above

Internet Resources: Go to http://www.hinduismtoday. resources and letters of endorsement from academics


com/education/ for a PDF version of this chapter, as and community leaders. To order additional copies of
well as Chapters One and Two with clickable links to this Educational Insight, go to http://www.minimela.
resources. Also at the same URL are additional teaching com/booklets/.
I-16 h i n d u i s m t o d ay october/november/december, 2009

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