ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

UNIT I: Advanced Mechanical

Machining Processes

By: Akanksha Mishra

Assistant Professor
M&AE Department

Manufacturing
Manufacturing covers wide areas of inputs, processes
and products.
It reaches out to the demands in production for
thousands of different varieties and types of goods.
These demands range from large ships to hand drilling
equipment, and from micro circuits to automobiles.
The number and complexity of processes involved in
the production of these goods varies drastically.

Definition of Manufacturing

There are many ways and definitions available to explain the concept of
manufacturing. Some of these definitions are listed below:
A. The process of converting raw materials into finished products
b. Manufacturing is a very broad activity, encompassing many functions
everything from purchasing to quality control of the final product
D. Chemical or Physical transformation of the materials, substances or
components into some new products
E. Manufacturing is a value addition activity to the raw materials, substances
or components
F. Manufacturing is a process through which products are made through
various production activities.
G. Manufacturing may be considered as a system, wherein there is an
integration of people, equipment, policies and procedures to accomplish
the objectives of an organization i.e. production of the required product.
H. Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labour to make things for
use or sale
I. Manufacturing is an application of different resources such as machinery
and people used for converting the materials into finished goods.s

Manufacturing System
A manufacturing system can be considered as a simple inputoutput system at the first stage Fig 1:
The input-output system does not provide the sufficient
information about all the aspects of manufacturing.
Manufacturing involves more than just processing of raw
materials Fig 2.
The overall manufacturing system starts from the market or
specifically from the customer requirements and ends when
the product reaches the hands of customers.
The present day trends also look beyond the delivery of the
product to the customer i.e. after sale, services offered by the
organization Fig 3.

Fig: 2

Fig: 3

Facts of Manufacturing

The proof of the following dates and products is available in literature related to
manufacturing
5000-4000 BC Manufacturing started during 5000 4000 BC (Wood work, ceramics,
stones, metal works, earth wares)
2500 BC Sculptures produced by lost wax casting, jewelry Production, earth wares,
glass beads
600-800 AD Steel production & 800-1200 AD Sand casting of cast iron
1750 AD Machine tools run by the power of steam engine, resulting in growth of
production and abundant availability of goods
1920-1940 Automation, mass production, interchangeable parts, die casting and lost
wax methods for engineering parts
1940-1960 Computers development, Ceramic mold, nodular iron, semiconductors,
continuous castings .
1960-1990 NC, CNC machines, group technology, robotics and control, CAD / CAM,
adaptive controls etc, squeeze casting, single crystal turbine blades, vacuum casting,
organically bonded sand, compacted graphite, automation of molding and pouring,
large aluminum castings for aircraft structures for rapid solidification technology,
advanced manufacturing processes (advanced, casting, joining, machining, finishing
processes)
1990-date Hybrid processes, micro-machining processes, nano materials, hard
machining, lean manufacturing, agile manufacturing, etc

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy: The term accuracy is referred to as

the ability of the product to perform within
the design specifications.
Precision: Precision refers to repeatability: It
is the ability of the system to give the same
set of readings or results during each
run/attempt.

Manufacturing Trends
Present day, the success of
manufacturing company depends on
COST, QUALITY AND LEAD
TIME

1980s, the success of a

manufacturing company
depended on QUALITY

1960s, the success of a

manufacturing company
depended on COST

Manufacturing Challenges

The emerging economies, the social and political transitions taking place
and the new ways of doing business are changing the world dramatically. It
is visualized through these trends that manufacturing environment of the
future would be extremely competitive and significantly different from what it
is today. In-order to remain successful in such an environment, the
manufacturers needs to be updated with the latest trends and should
possess dynamic capabilities, which need to be distinctly different.
The main challenge for the future entrepreneurs is the attainment of
such capabilities, some of which are as discussed below:
The ability to innovate ideas and to develop a creative environment for such
innovations in manufacturing.
Development of effective and efficient training and education programs for
the manufacturing workforce, as more skilled workforce is required.
The use and implementation of information technology in various areas of
the manufacturing industries and their sub-functions
Sustainability of small and medium scale enterprises to provide support to
the large scale manufacturing organizations.
Focusing on clean and green manufacturing technologies, the environment
and the society issues. The responsibility for the production process thus
goes hand-in-hand with responsibility for the final disposal of products i.e.
recycling in line with environmental policies.

Aspects of Manufacturing

Three major aspects of manufacturing are:

Design

Translation of design
into product which is
also called actual
manufacturing

Performance
of the product

1. Design: Consumer's Perspective: The product must be designed to meet the

requirement of the end-customer. It must be designed 'RIGHT', the very first.
While designing, all aspects of the customer expectations must be incorporated
into the product.

2. Manufacturer's Perspective: The product must be manufactured exactly as designed.

The activities involved at this stage include:: Defect Prevention, Defect Finding,
Defect Analysis and Rectification. The difficulties encountered at the manufacturing stage
must be conveyed to the designers for modifications in design.
3. Performance of the manufactured Product: The product must function as per the
expectations of the end customer. The continuous communication between designer and
customer is the key to have a high quality product.

Conventional & Non Conventional Machining

Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they
are primary manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing
processes. The former ones provide basic shape and size to the material
as per designers requirement. Casting, forming, powder metallurgy are
such processes to name a few. Secondary manufacturing processes
provide the final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface
characteristics etc. Material removal processes are mainly the secondary
manufacturing processes.
Material removal processes once again can be divided into mainly two
groups and they are Conventional Machining Processes and NonTraditional Manufacturing Processes.
Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring,
milling, shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive
Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro-discharge Machining
(EDM) are some of the Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes.

Advance Manufacturing Processes

Advance manufacturing or nonconventional manufacturing processes do not

employ traditional tools and methods for shaping of materials; instead a form
of energy is used. The energy used may be in the form of mechanical,

electrical, thermo-electric, chemical etc

Need of Advance Manufacturing Technology

Need of the advance manufacturing can be attributed to the following:
Limitations in conventional methods
Rapid improvement in material properties.
Product & High tolerance requirements..
High production with low cost.
Automated data transmission.
Precise and ultra precision finishing etc.
Newer materials have been developed and their processing requires special machine
tools or special manufacturing process
Therefore, there is a vital need to have more efforts to continuously advance
manufacturing technology for a better-off and more stable future.

Advantages of Advance Technique

Classification of Advance Manufacturing Techniques

Energy Source:
pneumatic/hydraulic
pressure cutting tool
Mechanism of material
removal: Erosion & sharing

Energy Source:
Ionized Material
Mechanism of material
removal: Fusion and
vaporization

Energy Source:
chemical corrosive
agent and high current
& electrolyte solution
Mechanism of material
removal: chemical ablation,
ion displacement

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material
at a high velocity.
The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air.
The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the
carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet.
The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work material, so that the
distance between the nozzle and the work piece and the impingement angle can be set
desirably.
The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle
fracture of the work material.
In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 0.025 mm size would impinge on the work
material at velocity of 150-300 m/s from a nozzle of I.D. of 0.3 to 0.5 mm with a stand off
distance of around 0.7 mm.
The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material removal due
to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives. As the particles
impact the surface of workpiece, it causes a small fracture and wear, which is carried away by
the gas along with the abrasive particles.
The abrasive particles once used, cannot be re-used as its shape changes partially and the
work piece material is also clogged with the abrasive particles during impingement and
subsequent flushing by the carrier gas.
It is an effective machninng process for hard and brittle material sucg as glass, silica, ceramics
and tungsten.

Schematic diagram of AJM

Applications of AJM
For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials
For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials
AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning and etching.
Micro-machining of brittle materials

Advantages of AJM

AJM process is a highly flexible process wherein the abrasive media

is carried by a flexible hose, which can reach out to some difficult
areas and internal regions.
AJM process creates localized forces and generates lesser heat
than the conventional machining processes.
There is no damage to the workpiece surface and also the process
does not have tool-workpiece contact, hence lesser amount of heat
is generated.
The power consumption in AJM process is low

Limitations of AJM
The material removal rate is low.

Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if the work material

is ductile
Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet
Environmental load is rather high.
The wear rate of nozzle is very high

Components in Abrasive Jet Machining

Abrasive jet cutting machines includes the following types of devices:
GAS PROPULSION DEVICE: The gas propulsion system provides the
supply of clean, dry gas or air to propel the abrasives particles to the
workpiece. In this system there must be some arrangement to regulate the
flow of air or gas and the mixture of abrasive particles.The vibrating system
is generally attached to the system so that the abrasive is properly and
uniformly mixed with the gas or air stream.
NOZZLE FOR DELIVERY OF ABRASIVE MIX: The nozzle used to deliver
the mixture at the workpiece should be manufactured from such materials
which can withstand the erosive action of the abrasive particles and should
be wear resistant. The size of the nozzle opening depends upon the flow
rate requirement of abrasive mix on the surface of the workpiece.
ABRASIVE COLLECTION DEVICE: The abrasive dust collection system is
essential for the safety of the operator. Vacuum based dust collector system
is the most preferred choice.

Process Parameters

The process parameters in AJM can be grouped into following

categories:
1. Abrasive (Type, Composition, Strength, Size, Mass flow rate):
selection of abrasive particles depend on the type of work material
and machining process need to carry out. Commonly used
abrasive particles are aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.
2. Gas (Composition, Pressure, Velocity): gas must be non toxic,
cheap and easily available. Common gases uses for AJM are air,
nitrogen and carbon.
3. Nozzle (Geometry, material, stand of distance (SOD), feed rate,
inclination to the work): velocity of the gas abrasive grain mixture
is function of nozzle design, nozzle pressure and abrasive partical
design. SOD is a distance between tip of nozzzle and work
surface. Larger the SOD poor is the quality and accuracy of cut.
Effect of SOD is showing in fig.

Types of Nozzle used

Fish Bone ( Cause and effect) Diagram for AJM

Effect of Process Parameters on AJM

dg: Grain mean diameter

SOD: Stand of distance
Refer book for explanation of graphs

Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

The rate of cutting in water jet machining, particularly while cutting

ductile material, is quite low. Cutting rate can be achieved by mixing
abrasive powder in the water to be used for machining.

In Abrasive Water Jet Cutting, a narrow, focused, water jet is mixed with
abrasive particles.

This jet is sprayed with very high pressures resulting in high velocities
that cut through all materials.

The presence of abrasive particles in the water jet reduces cutting

forces and enables cutting of thick and hard materials (steel plates over
80-mm thick can be cut).

The velocity of the stream is up to 90 m/s, about 2.5 times the speed of
sound.
Abrasive Water Jet Cutting process was developed in 1960s to cut
materials that cannot stand high temperatures for stress distortion or
metallurgical reasons such as wood and composites, and traditionally
difficult-to-cut materials, e.g. ceramics, glass, stones, titanium alloys

Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AJM)

Abrasive Water Jet Machining have potential for cost reduction and speeding up the process
through considerable reduction in secondary processes of machining. The cut edges are clean
with fewer burrs as there is no heat application.
In this process the subsequent problems faced in other processes such as crystallization, edge
defects, hardening, reduction in weld ability and machinability are considerably reduced.
Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) is a subcategory of water jet machining in which
abrasive is introduced in the water to accelerate the process. In AWJM processes, which is
considered as an extension of water jet cutting, abrasive particles such as aluminium oxide or
silicon carbide are added, which increases the material removal rate further.
The abrasive water jet cutting process is suitable for machining different types of materials
ranging from hard, brittle ceramics and glass to soft metals such as rubber and foam.
The abrasives are separately mixed in the nozzle with the water-stream, making it distinct from
water jet machining process.

Advantages of AWJM

AWJM are very useful processes for hard metals like cutting tool steels.
No further secondary or finishing operations are required in most cases.
In AWJM process, the cutting forces generated on work pieces are typically low.
The tooling requirements are limited
Typical surface finish achieved is in the range of 125-250 microns Ra.
The material wastages are reduced.
There is no heat affected zone.
There is no cutter induced metallic contamination.
Eliminates thermal distortion
There is no tool re-sharpening cost
It can cut metals, plastics, stones, composites, glass, ceramics and rubber

Disadvantages of AWJM

Cannot cut materials which degrades quickly with moisture

Higher cutting speeds are frequently used for rough cutting purposes which degrade
the surface finish.
There is a strong possibility of cracking in brittle materials and only few varieties of
materials could be cut economically.
In thicker materials the taper generated is also a problem.
The equipment used are quite expensive
There are safely concerns due to noise and high pressures

Applications of AWJM

The Water Jet Cutting (WJC) process is mainly made used in cutting low strength
materials like plastics, wood and aluminium. With the addition of abrasives, the
AWJM process can be used for stronger materials like tool steels.

Equipment of AWJM

The major components of Jet equipment (WJ or AWJ) are:

Pump
Nozzle
Orifice
Control System

Performance Parameters of AWJM

This depicts the effect of various parameters affecting the accuracy and quality of
the machining operations by water jet and abrasive water jet machines.
1. Hydraulic parameters: Size of the orifice and required pressures.
2. Abrasive Used: Type; Grit size and the flow rate required
3. Target material: Composition of workpiece and mechanical properties such as
hardness etc.
4. Mixing: Inlet angle; tube length, bore diameter;
5. Cutting: Angle of Attack; Stand of Distance (SOD); Traverse Speed

Ultrasonic machining

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a mechanical material removal process.

It is used to erode material in the form of fine holes and cavities in hard or brittle
workpiece through the use of formed tools, vibrations of high frequency along with
the use of a suitable abrasive slurry-mix.
The Ultrasonic Machining (USM) process is suitable for machining brittle materials
such as glass, ceramics and semiconductors for increasingly complex operations
to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles. The USM is a non-thermal and
non-chemical process which creates no change in the chemical, physical or
metallurgical properties of the workpiece.
It is therefore being widely used in the manufacturing of hard and brittle materials
which are normally unfeasible to machine by the traditional methods.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

USM Process
The USM process is performed using a desirable tool along-with abrasives slurry as
a media.
The cutting tool oscillates at high frequencies (typically 15-30 kHz).
The shape of tool corresponds to the shape requirements in the workpiece.
The abrasive grains are driven by the high speed reciprocations across the small
gap, in between the tool and the workpiece.
Uniform force is used to gradually feed the tool.
The impact of abrasives is the energy source which is mainly responsible in removal
of material, through the form of small wear particles which are carried away by the
abrasiveslurry.
Due to the abrasive action of particles, gradually wear of the tool occurs, thereby

requiring the tool to be made of tough materials

Note:
For assumptions and derivation of MRR refer
class notes.
For the detailed study of any topic refer book.

Mechanism of Material Removal in USM

Material in USM can be removed due to following mechanisms:

Mechanical abrasion: Occurs due to the

hammering effect of abrasive particles on work
piece through the tool.
Impact: The freely moving particles impact with a
certain velocity on the work piece resulting in
micro chipping.
Erosion: Due to cavitation effect of the abrasive
slurry, erosion of the work surface occurs.
Chemical: Due to fluid employed, chemical effect
can come into consideration.

Ultrasonic Machine Components

The basic ultrasonic equipment consists of the following elements:
1. A generator for high frequency oscillations (Ultrasonic generator)
2. An acoustic head consisting of transducer and trunk (shank)
3. Tool and
4. abrasive slurry
1. The High Frequency Oscillating Current (OC) Generator
The purpose of the OC generator is to produce high frequency oscillating
currents. This generator transmits electrical power to the transducer which
creates energy impulses in the ultrasonic range i.e. 20-40 KHz and converts
them into mechanical vibrations. The primary function of the transducer is to
convert electrical impulses into vertical and two dimensional strokes.
2. The Acoustic Head
This is the heart of the whole equipment and consists of two parts,
(a) The transducer, which converts the high frequency output of the
generator into linear vibrations and
(b) The trunk, which mechanically amplifies the linear vibrations.

(a) Ultrasonic transducer: The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by a

transducer that is driven by the signal generator which gets further powered
by an amplifier. The USM transducer works on the following principle:
Piezo-electric effect
Magneto-strictive effect
Electro-strictive effe
The function of ultrasonic transducer is to converts high frequency electrical
impulses from the oscillator into mechanical vibrations. The periodicity of
these vibrations periodically shortens and lengthens. For low power
applications piezo-electric transducers are used, whereas for high power
applications magneto-strictive transducers are commonly used.
(b) The trunk : It is a critical link in the ultrasonic machining system. It is
known by several names such as shank, horn, concentrator and
amplifier. The trunk amplifies and focuses vibrations of the transducer to
the required intensity necessary enough for driving the tool. The increase in
amplitude of vibrations at the tool end is obtained by reducing the cross
section of the trunk.
The horn or concentrator can be of
different shapes like
Tapered or conical
Exponential
Stepped
Machining of tapered or stepped horn is
much easier as compared to the
exponential one.

3.

The Tool: The tool is designed to provide the maximum amplitude of

vibration at the free end. The selection of tool material is very important as
the tool tip is subjected to vibration and it must not fail due to wear. The
commonly used tool materials are brass, high speed steel, mild-steel, silver,
stainless steel, tungsten carbide and monel. The tool is attached to the
trunk (horn) by silver brazing or by hard soldering. At times it is fastened
(screwed) with the trunk.
4. The Abrasive Slurry: The recommended slurry to be used in this process is
a mixture of abrasive particles and liquid (water or kerosene). The slurry is
pumped across the tool face. Slurry pump is a part of the machine-system.
The properties required from the transport medium of abrasives include low
viscosity, good wetting and high thermal conductivity. Water is a
recommended medium for abrasive transportation which generally meets
most of the process requirement.

Most commonly used abrasives are

Boron carbide , silicon carbide (SiC),
Aluminum oxide,
Diamond can also be used as abrasive

Process Parameters in USM

Process Parameters in USM
The determination of accurate process parameters which affect performance of ultrasonic
machining is hard to determine as it works under multiple factors. The geometry and
material properties of the work piece and tool make the system further complex to
ascertain its performance characteristics. However, the performance of ultrasonic
machining, to some extent is decided by the machining rate, machining accuracy, surface
finish and tool wear. The process parameters which can affect the performance of
USM are arranged into the following four major groups:
(a) Machine Parameters
These are those parameters which can be set on the machine. They include frequency
and amplitude of the ultrasonic vibrations, the static load, work piece rotation and toolhead rotation.
(b) Abrasive Slurry Characteristics
The type and size of the abrasives particles, its hardness, type of the fluid used as a
carrier to form the abrasive slurry and the concentration of abrasive particles in the slurry.
(c) Work piece properties
The hardness, fracture characteristics, strength, work hardening tendency and fatigue
properties of the work material also affect the process performance.
(d) Tool Material Properties and Tool Geometry
The shape of the tool (solid or hollow), mechanical properties of the material used in toolmaking are some of the other parameters that may affect the USM process performance.

Effect of Process Parameters in

USM

Here:
F: feed force
ao: amplitude
dg: mean grain diameter
C: abrasive concentration
f: frequency

Refer book for

explanation of
graphs

Applications of USM

USM process is used in machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,

semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
In machining of advanced ceramics for applications in auto-engine
components.
In machining, wire drawing, punching or blanking of small dies
Machining ceramic substrates for drilling holes in borosilicate glass
for the sensors used in electronic industries
Drilling small holes in helicopter power transmission shafts and
gears.:

Limitations of USM:
Low MRR
Rather high tool wear
Low depth of hole
consumes higher power

Advantages of USM

In USM process, there are no physical, chemical or thermal

changes. The microstructures reveal that there are also no
structural changes as the stresses induced are too less. The
cutting forces being low, work piece is unstressed, undistorted
and free from heat effects.
There is no direct contact of the tool and work piece due to
the slurry used, it makes it a wet cutting process. The
surfaces produced are free from stress and damages.
The process is free from burrs and distortions.
The process is suitable for any materials, irrespective of
electrical conductivity
The process is very much suitable for machining brittle
materials
The process offers good surface finish and structural integrity.