Cover Assignment

Good evening sir. Thanks I will try to download the details.
Philos~Cov
Sent via Nokia Email
------Original message-----From: John Tengwi <jtengwi@gmail.com>
To: <covermasuka@gmail.com>
Date: Wednesday, April 25, 2012 9:03:16 AM GMT+0200
Subject: Re: Algebra asignment 2
On Fri, Apr 20, 2012 at 1:57 PM, <covermasuka@gmail.com> wrote:
> Anything so far?
>
> Philos~Cov
>
> *FrenetSerret formulas*
>
> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
>
> Jump to: navigation<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#mw-head>,
> search<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#p-search>
>
> *"Binormal" redirects here. For the category-theoretic meaning of this
> word, see **Normal morphism*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_morphism>
> *.*
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenet.png>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenet.png>
>
> A space curve; the vectors *T*, *N* and *B*; and the osculating plane<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osculating_plane>spanned
by
> *T* and *N*.
>
> In vector calculus <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculus>, the *FrenetSerret
> formulas* describe the kinematic <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematic>properties of a particle which moves along a
continuous, differentiable
> curve <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve> in three-dimensional Euclidean
> space <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space> *R**3*, or the
> geometric properties of the curve itself irrespective of any motion. More
> specifically, the formulas describe the derivatives<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative>of the so-called
> *tangent, normal, and binormal* unit vectors<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_vector>in terms of each other. The formulas are
named after the two French
> mathematicians who independently discovered them: Jean Frdric Frenet<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fr%C3%A9d
%C3%A9ric_Frenet>,
> in his thesis of 1847, and Joseph Alfred Serret<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Alfred_Serret>in 1851. Vector notation
and linear algebra currently used to write these
> formulas was not yet in use at the time of their discovery.
>
> The tangent, normal, and binormal unit vectors, often called *T*, *N*,
> and *B*, or collectively the *FrenetSerret frame* or *TNB frame* are
> defined as follows:
>
> - *T* is the unit vector tangent<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangent_vector>to the curve, pointing in the direction of motion.
> - *N* is the derivative of *T* with respect to the arclength
parameter<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve#Lengths_of_curves>of the curve, divided by its length.
> - *B* is the cross product <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_product>of
> *T* and *N*.
>
> The FrenetSerret formulas are
>
> where *d*/*ds* is the derivative with respect to arclength, is the
> curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature> and is the torsion<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_of_curves>of the
curve. The two
> scalars <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)> and
> effectively define the curvature and torsion of a space curve.
>
> *Contents*
>
> [hide <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas>]
>
> - 1 FrenetSerret formulas<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Frenet.E2.80.93Serret_formulas>
>
- 1.1 Formulas in *n* dimensions<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Formulas_in_n_dimensions>
> - 2 Proof<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Proof>
> - 3 Applications and interpretation<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Applications_and_interpretation>
>
- 3.1 Kinematics of the frame<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Kinematics_of_the_frame>
>
- 3.1.1 Graphical Illustrations<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Graphical_Illustrations>
>
- 3.2 FrenetSerret formulas in calculus<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Frenet.E2.80.93Serret_formulas_in_calculus>
>
- 3.3 Taylor expansion<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Taylor_expansion>
>
- 3.4 Ribbons and tubes<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Ribbons_and_tubes>
>
- 3.5 Congruence of curves<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Congruence_of_curves>
> - 4 Other expressions of the frame<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Other_expressions_of_the_frame>
> - 5 Special cases<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Special_cases>
> - 6 See also<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#See_also>
> - 7 Notes<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Notes>
> - 8 References<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#References>
> - 9 External links<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#External_links>
>
> *[**edit*<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas&action=edit&section=1>
> *] FrenetSerret formulas*
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FrenetTN.svg>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FrenetTN.svg>
>
> The *T* and *N* vectors at two points on a plane curve, a translated
> version of the second frame (dotted), and the change in *T*: *T'*. s is
> the distance between the points. In the limit will be in the direction *N*and the curvature describes the speed of rotation of the
frame.
>
> Let *r*(t) be a curve <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve> in Euclidean
> space <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space>, representing the position
> vector <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position_vector> of the particle as
> a function of time. The FrenetSerret formulas apply to curves which are *
> non-degenerate*, which roughly means that they have curvature<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature>.
> More formally, in this situation the velocity<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity>vector
> *r*(t) and the acceleration <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration>vector
> *r*(t) are required not to be proportional.
>
> Let *s(t)* represent the arc length<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_length>which the particle has moved along the
> curve <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve>. The quantity *s* is used to
> give the curve traced out by the trajectory of the particle a natural
> parametrization <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve#Lengths_of_curves> by
> arc length, since many different particle paths may trace out the same
> geometrical curve by traversing it at different rates. In detail, *s* is
> given by
>
> Moreover, since we have assumed that *r* 0, it is possible to solve
> for *t* as a function of *s*, and thus to write *r*(s) = *r*(*t*(*s*)).
> The curve is thus parametrized in a preferred manner by its arc length.
>
> With a non-degenerate curve *r*(*s*), parameterized by its arclength, it
> is now possible to define the *FrenetSerret frame* (or *TNB frame*):
>
> - The tangent unit vector *T* is defined as
>
>
> - The normal unit vector *N* is defined as
>
>
> - The binormal unit vector *B* is defined as the cross product<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_product>of
> *T* and *N*:
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenetframehelix.gif>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenetframehelix.gif>
>
> The Frenet-Serret frame moving along a helix<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix>.
> The *T* is represented by the blue arrow, *N* is represented by the red
> vector while *B* is represented by the black vector.
>
> From equation (2) it follows, since *T* always has unit magnitude<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitude_(mathematics)>,
> that *N* is always perpendicular to *T*. From equation (3) it follows
> that *B* is always perpendicular to both *T* and *N*. Thus, the three
> unit vectors *T*, *N*, and *B* are all perpendicular to each other.
>
> The *FrenetSerret formulas* are:
>
> where is the curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature> and is
> the torsion <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_of_curves>.
>
> The FrenetSerret formulas are also known as *FrenetSerret theorem*, and
> can be stated more concisely using matrix notation:[1]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-0>
>
> This matrix is skew-symmetric<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skew-symmetric_matrix>
>.
>
> *] Formulas in n dimensions*
>
> The FrenetSerret formulas were generalized to higher dimensional
> Euclidean spaces by Camille Jordan<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Jordan>in 1874.
>
> Suppose that *r*(*s*) is a smooth curve in *R**n*, parametrized by arc
> length, and that the first *n* derivatives of *r* are linearly
> independent.[2]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-1>The vectors in the Frenet
Serret frame are an orthonormal
> basis <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis> constructed by
> applying the Gram-Schmidt process<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-Schmidt_process>to the vectors (
> *r*(*s*), *r*(*s*), ..., *r*(*n*)(*s*)).
>
> In detail, the unit tangent vector is the first Frenet vector *e*1(*t*)
> and is defined as
>
> The *normal vector*, sometimes called the *curvature vector*, indicates
> the deviance of the curve from being a straight line. It is defined as
>
> Its normalized form, the *unit normal vector*, is the second Frenet
> vector *e*2(*s*) and defined as
>
> The tangent and the normal vector at point *s* define the *osculating
> plane* <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osculating_plane> at point *r*(*s*).
>
> The remaining vectors in the frame (the binormal, trinormal, etc.) are
> defined similarly by
>
> The real valued functions *i*(*s*) are called *generalized curvature*and are defined as
>
> The *FrenetSerret formulas*, stated in matrix language, are
>
> *] Proof*
>
> Consider the matrix
>
> The rows of this matrix are mutually perpendicular unit vectors: an orthonormal
> basis <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis> of *R*3. As a
> result, the transpose <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose_of_a_matrix>of
> *Q* is equal to the inverse<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_of_a_matrix>of
> *Q*: *Q* is an orthogonal matrix<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix>.
> It suffices to show that
>
> Note the first row of this equation already holds, by definition of the
> normal *N* and curvature . So it suffices to show that (d*Q*/d*s*)*Q*Tis a skew-symmetric matrix. Since
> *I* = *QQ*T, taking a derivative and applying the product rule yields
>
> which establishes the required skew-symmetry.[3]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
>
> *] Applications and interpretation*
>
> *] Kinematics of the frame*
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenet-Serret_moving_frame1.png>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenet-Serret_moving_frame1.png>
>
> The Frenet-Serret frame moving along a helix<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix>in space
>
> The FrenetSerret frame consisting of the tangent *T*, normal *N*, and
> binormal *B* collectively forms an orthonormal basis<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis>of 3-space. At each
point of the curve, this
> *attaches* a frame of reference<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference>or
> rectilinear <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectilinear> coordinate system<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system>(see
image).
>
> The FrenetSerret formulas admit a kinematic<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics>interpretation. Imagine that an
observer moves along the curve in time,
> using the attached frame at each point as her coordinate system. The
> FrenetSerret formulas mean that this coordinate system is constantly
> rotating as an observer moves along the curve. Hence, this coordinate
> system is always non-inertial<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-inertial_reference_frame>.
> The angular momentum <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum> of
> the observer's coordinate system is proportional to the Darboux vector<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darboux_vector>of the
frame.
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TNB_frame_momenta.svg>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TNB_frame_momenta.svg>
>
> A top whose axis is situated along the binormal is observed to rotate with
> angular speed . If the axis is along the tangent, it is observed to rotate
> with angular speed .
>
> Concretely, suppose that the observer carries an (inertial) top<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top>(or
> gyroscope <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope>) with herself along
> the curve. If the axis of the top points along the tangent to the curve,
> then it will be observed to rotate about its axis with angular velocity -
> relative to the observer's non-inertial coordinate system. If, on the other
> hand, the axis of the top points in the binormal direction, then it is
> observed to rotate with angular velocity -. This is easily visualized in
> the case when the curvature is a positive constant and the torsion
> vanishes. The observer is then in uniform circular motion<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_circular_motion>.
> If the top points in the direction of the binormal, then by conservation
> of angular momentum<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum>it must rotate in the
> *opposite* direction of the circular motion. In the limiting case when
> the curvature vanishes, the observer's normal precesses<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precess>about the tangent vector, and
similarly the top will rotate in the opposite
> direction of this precession.
>
> The general case is illustrated below<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#Illustrations>.
> There are further
illustrations<http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Illustrations_for_curvature_and_torsion_of_curves>on wikimedia.
>
>
>
> *Applications.* The kinematics of the frame have many applications in the
> sciences.
>
> - In the life sciences <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_sciences>,
> particularly in models of microbial motion, considerations of the
> Frenet-Serret frame have been used to explain the mechanism by which a
> moving organism in a viscous medium changes its direction.[4]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
> - In physics, the Frenet-Serret frame is useful when it is impossible
> or inconvenient to assign a natural coordinate system for a trajectory.
> Such is often the case, for instance, in relativity theory<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_theory>.
> Within this setting, Frenet-Serret frames have been used to model the
> precession of a gyroscope in a gravitational well.[5]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
>
>
> *] Graphical Illustrations*
>
> 1. Example of a moving Frenet basis (*T* in blue, *N* in green, *B* in
> purple) along Viviani's_curve<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviani%27s_curve>
> .
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triedro-frenet.gif>
>
> 1. On the example of a torus knot<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus_knot>,
> the tangent vector *T*, the normal vector *N*, and the binormal vector
> *B*, along with the curvature (s), and the torsion (s) are displayed.
> At the peaks of the torsion function the rotation of the Frenet-Serret
> frame (*T*,*N*,*B*) around the tangent vector is clearly visible.
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Torus-Knot_nebeneinander_animated.gif>
>
> 1. The kinematic significance of the curvature is best illustrated
> with plane curves (having constant torsion equal to zero). See the page on curvature
> of plane curves<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature#Curvature_of_plane_curves>
> .
>
> *] FrenetSerret formulas in calculus*
>
> The FrenetSerret formulas are frequently introduced in courses on multivariable
> calculus <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivariable_calculus> as a
> companion to the study of space curves such as the helix<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix>.
> A helix can be characterized by the height 2*h* and radius *r* of a
> single turn. The curvature and torsion of a helix (with constant radius)
> are given by the formulas
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenet-Serret_helices.png>
>
> <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenet-Serret_helices.png>
>
> Two helices (slinkies) in space. (a) A more compact helix with higher
> curvature and lower torsion. (b) A stretched out helix with slightly higher
> torsion but lower curvature.
>
> The sign of the torsion is determined by the right-handed or left-handed
> sense <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-hand_rule> in which the helix
> twists around its central axis. Explicitly, the parametrization of a single
> turn of a right-handed helix with height 2*h* and radius *r* is
>
> *x* = *r* cos *t*
>
> *y* = *r* sin *t*
>
> *z* = *h* *t*
>
> (0 t 2 )
>
> and, for a left-handed helix,
>
> *x* = *r* cos *t*
>
> *y* = *r* sin *t*
>
> *z* = *h* *t*
>
> (0 t 2 ).
>
> Note that these are not the arc length parametrizations (in which case,
> each of *x*, *y*, and *z* would need to be divided by .)
>
> In his expository writings on the geometry of curves, Rudy Rucker<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy_Rucker>
> [6]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-5>employs the model of a
> slinky <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slinky> to explain the meaning of
> the torsion and curvature. The slinky, he says, is characterized by the
> property that the quantity
>
> remains constant if the slinky is vertically stretched out along its
> central axis. (Here 2*h* is the height of a single twist of the slinky,
> and *r* the radius.) In particular, curvature and torsion are
> complementary in the sense that the torsion can be increased at the expense
> of curvature by stretching out the slinky.
>
> *] Taylor expansion*
>
> Repeatedly differentiating the curve and applying the FrenetSerret
> formulas gives the following Taylor approximation<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor%27s_theorem>to the curve near
> *s* = 0:[7]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-6>
>
> For a generic curve with nonvanishing torsion, the projection of the
> curve onto various coordinate planes in the *T*, *N*, *B* coordinate
> system at *s* = 0 have the following interpretations:
>
> - The *osculating plane*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osculating_plane>is the plane
> containing <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_span> *T* and *N*. The
> projection of the curve onto this plane has the form:
>
> This is a parabola <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola> up to terms
> of order *o*(*s*2), whose curvature at 0 is equal to (0).
>
>
> - The *normal plane* <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_plane> is
> the plane containing *N* and *B*. The projection of the curve onto
> this plane has the form:
>
> which is a cuspidal cubic <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuspidal_cubic>to order
> *o*(*s*3).
>
>
> - The *rectifying plane* is the plane containing *T* and *B*. The
> projection of the curve onto this plane is:
>
> which traces out the graph of a cubic polynomial<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_polynomial>to order
> *o*(*s*3).
>
> *] Ribbons and tubes*
>
> The FrenetSerret apparatus allows one to define certain optimal *ribbons*and
> *tubes* centered around a curve. These have diverse applications in materials
> science <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science> and elasticity
> theory <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_theory>,[8]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-7>as well as to computer
> graphics <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics>.[9]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet
>
> A *Frenet ribbon*[10]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-9>along a curve
> *C* is the surface traced out by sweeping the line segment [*N*,*N*]
> generated by the unit normal along the curve. Geometrically, a ribbon is a
> piece of the envelope<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_(mathematics)>of the osculating planes of the curve.
Symbolically, the ribbon
> *R* has the following parametrization:
>
> In particular, the binormal *B* is a unit vector normal to the ribbon.
> Moreover, the ribbon is a ruled surface<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruled_surface>whose reguli are the line segments
spanned by
> *N*. Thus each of the frame vectors *T*, *N*, and *B* can be visualized
> entirely in terms of the Frenet ribbon.[11]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-10>
>
> The Gauss curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss_curvature> of a
> Frenet ribbon vanishes, and so it is a developable surface<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developable_surface>.
> Geometrically, it is possible to "roll" a plane along the ribbon without
> slipping or twisting so that the regulus always remains within the plane.
> [12]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-11>The ribbon then traces out a ribbon in the
plane (possibly with multiple
> sheets). The curve *C* also traces out a curve *C*P in the plane, whose
> curvature is given in terms of the curvature and torsion of *C* by
>
> This fact gives a general procedure for constructing any Frenet ribbon.
> [13]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-12>Intuitively, one can cut out a curved
ribbon from a flat piece of paper.
> Then by bending the ribbon out into space without tearing it, one produces
> a Frenet ribbon.[14]<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_note-13>In the simple case of the
slinky, the ribbon is several turns of an
> annulus <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annulus_(mathematics)> in the
> plane, and bending it up into space corresponds to stretching out the
> slinky.
>
> *] Congruence of curves*
>
> In classical Euclidean geometry<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry>,
> one is interested in studying the properties of figures in the plane which
> are *invariant* under congruence, so that if two figures are congruent
> then they must have the same properties. The Frenet-Serret apparatus
> presents the curvature and torsion as numerical invariants of a space curve.
>
> Roughly speaking, two curves *C* and *C* in space are *congruent* if one
> can be rigidly moved to the other. A rigid motion consists of a combination
> of a translation and a rotation. A translation moves one point of *C* to
> a point of *C*. The rotation then adjusts the orientation of the curve *C
> * to line up with that of *C*. Such a combination of translation and
> rotation is called a Euclidean motion<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_transformation>.
> In terms of the parametrization *r*(t) defining the first curve *C*, a
> general Euclidean motion of *C* is a composite of the following
> operations:
>
> - (*Translation*.) *r*(t) *r*(t) + *v*, where *v* is a constant
> vector.
> - (*Rotation*.) *r*(t) + *v* M(*r*(t) + *v*), where *M* is the
> matrix of a rotation.
>
> The FrenetSerret frame is particularly well-behaved with regard to
> Euclidean motions. First, since *T*, *N*, and *B* can all be given as
> successive derivatives of the parametrization of the curve, each of them is
> insensitive to the addition of a constant vector to *r*(t). Intuitively,
> the *TNB* frame attached to *r*(t) is the same as the *TNB* frame
> attached to the new curve *r*(t) + *v*.
>
> This leaves only the rotations to consider. Intuitively, if we apply a
> rotation *M* to the curve, then the *TNB* frame also rotates. More
> precisely, the matrix *Q* whose rows are the *TNB* vectors of the
> Frenet-Serret frame changes by the matrix of a rotation
>
> *A fortiori*, the matrix (d*Q*/d*s*)*Q*T is unaffected by a rotation:
>
> since *MM*T = *I* for the matrix of a rotation.
>
> Hence the entries and of (d*Q*/d*s*)*Q*T are *invariants* of the
> curve under Euclidean motions: if a Euclidean motion is applied to a curve,
> then the resulting curve has *the same* curvature and torsion.
>
> Moreover, using the FrenetSerret frame, one can also prove the converse:
> any two curves having the same curvature and torsion functions must be
> congruent by a Euclidean motion. Roughly speaking, the FrenetSerret
> formulas express the Darboux derivative<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darboux_derivative>of the
> *TNB* frame. If the Darboux derivatives of two frames are equal, then a
> version of the fundamental theorem of calculus<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus>asserts that
the curves are congruent. In particular, the curvature and
> torsion are a *complete* set of invariants for a curve in
> three-dimensions.
>
> *] Other expressions of the frame*
>
> The formulas given above for *T*, *N*, and *B* depend on the curve being
> given in terms of the arclength parameter. This is a natural assumption in
> Euclidean geometry, because the arclength is a Euclidean invariant of the
> curve. In the terminology of physics, the arclength parametrization is a
> natural choice of gauge <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory>.
> However, it may be awkward to work with in practice. A number of other
> equivalent expressions are available.
>
> Suppose that the curve is given by *r*(*t*), where the parameter *t* need
> no longer be arclength. Then the unit tangent vector *T* may be written as
>
> The normal vector *N* takes the form
>
> The binormal *B* is then
>
> An alternative way to arrive at the same expressions is to take the
> first three derivatives of the curve *r*(*t*), *r*(*t*), *r*(*t*),
> and to apply the Gram-Schmidt process<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-Schmidt_process>.
> The resulting ordered orthonormal basis<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis>is precisely the
> *TNB* frame. This procedure also generalizes to produce Frenet frames in
> higher dimensions.

>
> In terms of the parameter *t*, the FrenetSerret formulas pick up an
> additional factor of ||*r*(*t*)|| because of the chain rule<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_rule>
>:
>
> *] Special cases*
>
> If the curvature is always zero then the curve will be a straight line.
> Here the vectors *N*, *B* and the torsion are not well defined.
>
> If the torsion is always zero then the curve will lie in a plane. A circle<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle>of radius
> *r* has zero torsion and curvature equal to 1/*r*.
>
> A helix <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix> has constant curvature and
> constant torsion.
>
> *] See also*
>
> - Affine geometry of curves<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_geometry_of_curves>
> - Differential geometry of curves<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_curves>
> - Darboux frame <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darboux_frame>
> - Kinematics <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics>
> - Moving frame <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_frame>
>
> *] Notes*
>
> 1.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-0> Khnel
> 2002<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#CITEREFK.C3.BChnel2002>,
> 1.9
>
> 2.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-1>Only the first
> *n* 1 actually need to be linearly independent, as the final remaining
> frame vector *e*n can be chosen as the unit vector orthogonal to the span
> of the others, such that the resulting frame is positively oriented.
>
> 3.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-2>This proof is likely due to lie
> Cartan <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lie_Cartan>. See Griffiths
> (1974) where he gives the same proof, but using the Maurer-Cartan form<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurer-Cartan_form>.
> Our explicit description of the Maurer-Cartan form using matrices is
> standard. See, for instance, Spivak, Volume II, p. 37. A generalization of
> this proof to *n* dimensions is not difficult, but was omitted for the
> sake of exposition. Again, see Griffiths (1974) for details.
>
> 4.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-3>Crenshaw (1993).
>
> 5.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-4>Iyer and Vishveshwara (1993).
>
> 6.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-5>Rucker (1999).
>
> 7.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-6> Khnel
> 2002<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#CITEREFK.C3.BChnel2002>,
> p. 19
>
> 8.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-7>Goriely
> *et al.* (2006).
>
> 9.
*^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-8>Hanson.
>
> 10. *^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-9>For terminology, see Sternberg (1964).
>
> 11. *^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-10>For such an interpretation, see Rucker
(1999).
>
> 12. *^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-11>See Guggenheimer (1977).
>
> 13. *^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-12>Exploited by Rucker's construction of
so-called
> *kappatau curves*.
>
> 14. *^*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas#cite_ref-13>Somewhat more accurately, the plane
ribbon should be thought of as a
> "railroad track": one may move it up into space, but without shearing or
> bending its cross-ties.
>
> *] References*
>
> - Crenshaw, H.C.; Edelstein-Keshet, L. (1993), "Orientation by Helical
> Motion II. Changing the direction of the axis of motion", *Bulletin of
> Mathematical Biology* *55* (1): 213230
> - Etgen, Garret; Hille, Einar; Salas, Saturnino (1995), *Salas and
> Hille's Calculus One and Several Variables* (7th ed.), John Wiley &
> Sons, p. 896
> - Frenet, F. (1847), *Sur les courbes double
courbure*<http://portail.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1852_1_17_A22_0.pdf>,
> Thse, Toulouse,
> http://portail.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1852_1_17_A22_0.pdf . Abstract
> in *J. de Math.* *17*, 1852.
> - Goriely, A.; Robertson-Tessi, M.; Tabor, M.; Vandiver, R. (2006), "Elastic
> growth models"<http://math.arizona.edu/~goriely/Papers/2006-biomat.pdf>,
> *BIOMAT-2006*, Springer-Verlag,
> http://math.arizona.edu/~goriely/Papers/2006-biomat.pdf .
> - Griffiths, Phillip <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Griffiths>(1974), "On Cartan's method of Lie groups and moving
frames as applied to
> uniqueness and existence questions in differential geometry", *Duke
> Mathematical Journal*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Mathematical_Journal>
> *41* (4): 775814, doi<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier>
> :10.1215/S0012-7094-74-04180-5<http://dx.doi.org/10.1215%2FS0012-7094-74-04180-5>
> .
> - Guggenheimer, Heinrich (1977), *Differential Geometry*, Dover,
ISBN<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number>
> 0-486-63433-7<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-63433-7>
> - Hanson, A.J. (2007), "Quaternion Frenet Frames: Making Optimal Tubes
> and Ribbons from Curves"<http://www.cs.indiana.edu/pub/techreports/TR407.pdf>,
> *Indiana University Technical Report*,
> http://www.cs.indiana.edu/pub/techreports/TR407.pdf
> - Iyer, B.R.; Vishveshwara, C.V. (1993), "Frenet-Serret description of
> gyroscopic precession", *Phys. Rev.*, D *48* (12): 57065720
> - Jordan, Camille (1874), "Sur la thorie des courbes dans l'espace
> n dimensions", *C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris* *79*: 795797
> - Khnel, Wolfgang (2002), *Differential geometry*, Student
> Mathematical Library, *16*, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical
> Society <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society>,
> ISBN <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number>
> 978-0-8218-2656-0<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-2656-0>,
> MR <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Reviews>1882174<http://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1882174>
> - Serret, J. A. (1851), "Sur quelques formules relatives la thorie
> des courbes double courbure"<http://portail.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1851_1_16_A12_0.pdf>,
> *J. De Math.* *16*,
> http://portail.mathdoc.fr/JMPA/PDF/JMPA_1851_1_16_A12_0.pdf .
> - Spivak, Michael <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Spivak>(1999),
> *A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry (Volume Two)*,
> Publish or Perish, Inc. .
> - Sternberg, Shlomo (1964), *Lectures on Differential Geometry*,
> Prentice-Hall
> - Struik, Dirk J. (1961), *Lectures on Classical Differential Geometry*,
> Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley .
>
> *] External links*
>
> Wikimedia Commons has media related to: *Graphical illustrations for
> curvature and torsion of
curves*<http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Illustrations_for_curvature_and_torsion_of_curves>
>
> - Create your own animated illustrations of moving Frenet-Serret
> frames, curvature and torsion functions<http://www.math.unimuenster.de/u/urs.hartl/gifs/CurvatureAndTorsionOfCurves.mw>(
> Maple <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maple_(software)>-Worksheet)
> - Rudy Rucker's KappaTau Paper<http://www.mathcs.sjsu.edu/faculty/rucker/kaptaudoc/ktpaper.htm>
> .
> - Very nice visual representation for the
trihedron<http://www.math.byu.edu/~math302/content/learningmod/trihedron/trihedron.html>
>
> [hide <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas>]**
>
> - *v* <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Curvature>**
> - *t* <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Curvature>**
> - *e*<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Curvature&action=edit>
> **
>
> *Various notions of **curvature* <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature>*defined in
> **differential geometry*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry>
> **
>
> *Differential geometry of curves*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_curves>
> **
>
> Curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature> **Torsion of a curve<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_of_a_curve>
> *FrenetSerret formulas* **Radius of curvature
(applications)<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius_of_curvature_(applications)>
> ** Affine curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_curvature> ** Total
> curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_curvature>
>
> *Differential geometry of surfaces*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_surfaces>
> **
>
> Principal curvatures <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_curvature> *
> *Gaussian curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_curvature> **Mean
> curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_curvature> **Darboux frame<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darboux_frame>
> **GaussCodazzi equations<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Codazzi_equations>
> **First fundamental form<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_fundamental_form>
> **Second fundamental form<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_fundamental_form>
>
> *Riemannian geometry* <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_geometry>**
>
> Curvature of Riemannian manifolds<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature_of_Riemannian_manifolds>
> **Riemann curvature tensor<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_curvature_tensor>
> **Ricci curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricci_curvature> **Scalar
> curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_curvature> **Sectional
> curvature <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectional_curvature>
>
> *Curvature of connections*<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connection_(mathematics)>
> **
>
> Curvature form <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature_form> **Torsion
> tensor <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_tensor> **Cocurvature<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocurvature>
> **Holonomy <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomy>
>
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