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0
Note:
For complete equilibrium, these two equations must hold at the same time. If
one of them holds and the other does not, then the system is not in
equilibrium.
-
Free-Body-Diagram (FBD)
The FBD is a sketch of a system (body) isolated from all surrounding system, which
shows all forces exerted on the system by the surrounding systems.
Example:
Example:
Sign conventions
The positive directions require the distributed load to act upward on the beam; the
internal shear force to cause a clockwise rotation of the beam segment on which it
acts; and the internal moment to cause compression in the top fibers of the
segment.
Normally the applied distributed load is directed downward and labeled w. In this
case, w = q.
The change in shear force from A to B is equal to the area of the distributed loading
between xA and xB.
The change in moment from A to B is equal to the area of the shear force between xA and
xB.
In the Table, singularity functions for different kinds of distributed load q(x) are
given.
V(x) and M(x) may be obtained from q(x) by integration.
The first two integrations of q(x) for V(x) and M(x) do not require constants of
integration provided all loads on the beam are accounted for in q(x).
Note that the distributed loadings must extend all the way to the beams right end.
(Otherwise, superposition with opposite loading).
3.4 Stress
In general, the stress distribution will not
be uniform across the surface, and will
be neither normal nor tangential to the
surface at a given point.
Resultants components:
Normal stress : normal to the plane
Shear stress : in the plane
Plane-Stress transformations:
- To find and in the directions shown
- is an arbitrary angle, counterclockwise from the x-axis.
- Equilibrium equations in the direction of and and simplifying yields:
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
Differentiating Eq.(1) with respect to and setting the result equal to zero yields:
2
3
!"2#
Equation (3) gives the angles p1 and p2 of the two planes of principal normal
stresses.
p1 inserted into Eq. (1) gives the maximum normal stress 1 and p2 gives the
minimum normal stress 2.
The angle between principal directions is 90o:
&
#% #
4
2
10
1
11
2
6
This equation gives the angles s1 and s2 of the two planes of extreme shear
normal stresses.
s1 and s2 are 90o apart
si define the directions of the planes at which reaches an extreme value. Eq. (6)
into (2) gives:
% , )*+
5
,
2
7
At these planes occurs normal stress which is obtained by inserting (6) into (1):
2
8
Note : 1,2 in Eq.(7) are extreme values of the shear stress but may not be the same
as the maximum shear stress
The planes containing the maximum shear stresses and the planes containing the
principal normal stress are 45 apart.
Mohrs Circle:
12
Sign Convention:
A normal or shear stress component is positive provided it acts in the positive coordinate
direction on the positive face element, or it acts in the negative coordinate direction on
the negative face of the element.
Or simpler: The positive normal stress acts outward and positive shear stress acts upward
on the right-hand face of the element.
13
Radius of Circle:
2 , 3
, 04
2
5 *+
,
2
9
10
8
8
% 7 % 7 9 8
% 7 8
8
8
8
2 8 8
11
12
14
%/
%
2
/7
7
2
%/7
%
7
2
13
14
Also the principal stresses may be obtained using three Mohr circles in one
diagram.
>
?
@
Normal stress:
HOOKE:
=A
@?
Elongation:
B
C
Poisson Ratio:
D
=
?EFGHE? .FHEIJ
EIE? .FHEIJ
15
16
17
18
K
K LMN
LOPQ
18
Triaxial in x, y, z coordinates:
1
T
D 8 U
A
1
= T
D 8 U
A
1
=8 T8
D U
A
=
15
A 2S1 D
Type of stress
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Triaxial
Principal Strain
%
=%
A
=
D=%
=7
D=%
1
=% T%
D U
A
1
= T
D% U
A
D
=7
T% U
A
1
=% T%
D 7 U
A
1
= T
D% 7 U
A
1
=7 T7
D% U
A
Principal Stress
1 = E1
2 = 0
3 = 0
A=% D=
%
1
D
A= D=%
1
D
3 = 0
16
V/W
2
The maximum magnitude of the bending stress will occur where y has the greatest
magnitude (ymax = c).
\E
X
]
17
3
Two-Plane Bending
y, z : principal axes
^
8 ^
x-y and x-z planes. For cross sections with one or two planes of symmetry:
8 [ 9
X
X8
4
The maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses occur where the summation
gives the greatest positive and negative stresses, respectively.
The orientation of the neutral axis is given as:
!"_
X8
!"^
X
5
18
Fx = 0:
d
c
e
[
W 0
X
1
d
[W
Xc e
2
Where I is the second moment of area of the entire cross-section about the neutral axis
and b is the width of the section at the particular distance y1 from the neutral axis. Eq. (1)
may be written as:
f
Xc
3
where Q is the first moment of the area of the isolated vertical face about the neutral axis,
defined as
d
f [W [g h Wh
e
4
where A' is the top (or bottom) portion of the members cross-sectional area, defined
from the section where b is measured, and [g h is the distance to the centroid of A',
measured from the neutral axis.
19
Horizontal shear stress is always accompanied by vertical shear stress of the same
magnitude, and so the distribution can be diagrammed as in the figure.
The maximum horizontal shear occurs where the vertical shear is largest. This is usually
at the neutral axis but may not be if the width b is smaller somewhere else.
c[
c
j
[%
f [W c [[ i
2
2
e
e
e
[%
2X
20
7
5
3
[%
k1
l
2W
8
is zero at the outer surfaces ([% )) and becomes maximum at the neutral axis (y1=0)
and equals:
3
2W
9
3.12 Torsion
Assume:
21
Shear Stress:
Ym
Z
where J is the polar second moment of area and defined for a solid round section as:
Z
& a
32
where d is the diameter of the shaft. For hollow round section, we have:
Z
& a
Ia
32 n
\E
^
Yo
Z
Yp
SZ
For rectangular cross section b c, where b is the longer side, c the shorter side, max
occurs in the middle of the longest side b and is of the magnitude
\E
Y
Y
1.8
33
4
_c c
c/
^
Yp
rc 7 S
22
where Am is the area enclosed by the section median line. Solving for gives
Angle of twist:
^%
Y
2W\ !
Ys
t
4SW\
For constant wall thickness (t), the angular twist per unit of length
^%
Ys\
!
4SW\
3Y
s
Where L is the length of the median line and c is the wall thickness.
Note that open thin-walled sections in torsion should be avoided in design.
23
Geometric irregularities:
- shoulders of shafts,
- key slots in shafts
- bolds heads
- screw threads
- oil grooves
- notches
- any change in cross-section of a member.
Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the
neighborhood of the discontinuity. Elementary stress equations must be
modified.
Nominal stresses exist only if the members are free of stress raisers.
A geometrical stress-concentration factor may be defined for normal stresses as
24
uF
uF.
vwx
y
vwx
y
Static Load:
-
25
Tangential stress
Radial stress
F
zI oI
zn on
oI on zn
zI /o
on
oI
zI oI
zn on oI on zn
zI /o
H
on
oI
zI oI
?
on
oI
Note: the above equations apply only to sections taken a significant distance from
the ends and away from any areas of stress concentration.
Tangential stress:
Radial stress
F
oI zI
on
k1
l
o
on
oI
H
on
oI zI
k1
l
o
on
oI
Thin-Walled Vessels
o { 20!, pi = p, po = 0.
-
zI !
2!
?
26
zI
2!
zI
4!
Flywheels, blowers,
Restrictions:
- The outside radius of the ring, or disk, is large compared with the
-
thickness ro 10t.
The thickness of the ring or disk is constant.
The stresses are constant over the thickness.
Tangential stress
3D
oI on 1 3D
4 koI on
o l
F m} 3
8
3D
o
Radial stress
3D
oI on
H m} 3
4 koI on
o l
8
o
where r is the radius to the stress element under consideration, is the mass density, and
is the angular velocity of the ring in radians per second. For a rotating disk, use ri = 0
in these equations.
27
1 o
5 ~ 3 n
An on
1 5 oI
D
4
3
DI 4
n
AI 5
oI
5
5
AB on 5 5 oI
z
25 7
on
oI
5 oI
FI
z
5
oI
on 5
Fn z
on
5
28
_YA
1
D
Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
- The neutral axis of a curved beam does not coincide with the neutral axis
stress varies nonlinearly from the neutral axis (hyperbolic).
- The location of the neutral axis with respect to the center of curvature O is given by
oJ
29
W
W
o
Where A and r are the cross-sectional area of the beam and the arbitrary position of the
area element, respectively.
For composite areas, we have
W
oJ
W
Balancing the external applied moment against the internal resisting moment yields the
bending stress in the form
[
WoJ
[
I
WoI
n
n
Won
Note:
- The above equations are valid for pure bending.
- In the general case, the bending moment is due to forces acting to one side of the
cross section under consideration. In this case the bending moment is computed
about the centroidal axis, not the neutral axis. Also, an additional axial tensile or
compressive stress must be added to the bending stresses given by Eqs. (2) and
(3) to obtain the resultant stresses acting on the section.
If the radius of curvature is greater than five times the depth of the member, the flexure
formula can normally be used to compute the stress with error < 7% (Hibbeler).
Approximations:
For a large curvature where e is small with oJ od , we can use the approximations
X
od W
[ od
X o
where o oJ
[.
Sections most frequently encountered in the stress analysis of curved beams are shown in
the following Table.
30
31
Spherical Contact:
-
When two solid spheres are pressed together, a circular area of contact of radius a
is obtained
1
D% 1
D
3V A% A
"
1
1
8
%
32
3V
2&"
2
1
1
9
4 1 D
%
z\E 31
!" %
|9"|
"
7 8
z\E
9
1
"
4
9
2 31 4
"
3
\E %/7 /7
33
%
7
7
2
2
5
Note that the shear stress reaches a maximum value slightly below the surface
causes surface fatigue failure.
Cylindrical Contact:
1
D% 1
D
2V A% A
c
1
1
&p
%
Maximum pressure
z\E
-
2V
&cp
7
2Dz\E *1
34
6
9
9
c
c
8
1 2 9
9
c
z\E
2
c
9
b
1 c
7 8
35
z\E
b1 9
c
9
10