\An Algebraic Exploration of the Positive Rationals

Mitchell Gordon Gracie

Abstract. The prime numbers in

serve many purposes including that which the Fundamental Thereom of

Arithmetic tells us: they construct all other members of

in a unique way and it is exactly those decompositions

that have both puzzled and guided mathematicians' understanding of

that polynomial ring

Z[x]

N, Z, Q,

and

R.

This preprint discusses how

contributes vastly to how these unique prime decompositions interact with one another.

0. Introduction

For notational purposes, in this paper we let

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . },
Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . },
na
o
Q=
|a Z, 0 6= b Z, gcd(a, b) = 1 .
b
Of particular note, we will be looking at both the ring of polynomials with integer coecients,

Z[x] = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + ak xk |k N, ai Z

for

0 i k},

and the positive rational numbers,

Q+ = { Q| > 0}.
We will be following the propositions made in Atiyah&Macdonald [1] as both lemmas and tools to our disposal.
First, we lay out the denition of a commutative ring with unity.

Definition. A

commutative ring with unity

is a set with two binary operations (addition and multiplication)

such that
(R1):

(R, +)

additive inverse

is an abelian group. Namely, there exists a neutral element,0

R,

and for all

xR

there is an

x R.

(R2): Multiplication in

is associative ((xy)z

= x(yz))

and distributive over addition;

x(y + z) = xy + xz, (y + z)x = yx + zx.

(R3):

xy = yx

for all

(R4): There exists

If

x, y R.

1R

such that

x1 = 1x = x

for all

x R.

R saties (R1) to (R4), then for convenience we shall intechangably say that R is a ring or a commutative ring .

0. INTRODUCTION

If we come across an object who does not satisfy all these axioms, then we will explicitly announce so as to
avoid confusion.

We shall provide two examples of commutative rings that will be of important study and use

during this preprint.

Fact.

with unity.

Both the integers, Z, and the polynomials whose coecients are integers, Z[x], are commutative rings

Proof. Note that showing

is a commutative ring with unity automatically forces

Z[x]

to be a commutative

ring with unity as well. This is demonstrated in several undergraduate textbooks. However, I will provided simple
proofs for both as they will introduce us to notation and concepts necessary to understand further claims we
wish to establish.

0 Z

So, rst x

and inverse elements

k, m, n Z.

(Z, +)

By denition,

m = (1)m Z.

is an abelian group with both neutral element

Further, classical notions of multiplication over the integers is

associative, distributes over addition (via its denition in Peano arithmetics) and is commutative:

k(m + n) = km + kn; (m + n)k = mk + nk ; mn = nm.

m1 = 1m = m.

So

Further,

1 Z

k(mn) = (km)n;

acts as our multiplicative identity:

satisfes (R1) to (R4) and thusly is a commutative ring with unity. Now, we must show that

its polynomial ring is also a commutative ring with unity. First, we dene two important polynomials,

Z[x] 3 0 = 0 + 0x + 0x2 + + 0x`

Now, given any polynomials with integer coecients,
and

a0 , a1 , . . . , ak , b0 , b1 , . . . , bl , c0 , c1 , . . . , cm Z

b2 x2 + + bl xl ,
and

and

and

1 + 0x + 0x2 + + 0x` = 1 Z[x].

f (x), g(x), h(x) Z[x],

such that

bl+2 = = bl+n = 0.

Note this means that

by denition, there exists

k, l, m N

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + ak xk , g(x) = b0 + b1 x +

h(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cm xm .

m = l + n = k + j + n.

` 1:

WLOG, we can suppose

klm

so that

l = k+j

ak+1 = ak+2 = = ak+j = ak+j+1 = = ak+j+n = bl+1 =

We can then dene the classical notions of addition and multiplication

Z[x] Z[x] Z[x]

through summing alike coecients for addition and using the Cauchy sums for multiplication. Explicitly given,
we have both:

f (x) + g(x) = a0 + a1 x + + al xl + b0 + b1 x + + bl xl = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + + (al + bl )xl =: (f + g)(x) Z[x],

l

f (x) g(x) = a0 + a1 x + + al x b0 + b1 x + + bl x

l

l
X

(Z[x], +)

trivially true since

f (x) Z[x]

by

i=0

We claim that

a b xi =: (f g)(x) Z[x].

+=i

is an abelian group whose neutral element is there zero polynomial

0 Z[x].

This is

is an abelian group so the coecients always commute and we can get inverse by multiplying

1 Z,
0 = f (x) + (1) f (x).

0. INTRODUCTION

Classically, it is left to the reader as an exercise to show associativity (f (x) (g(x)

distributivity (f (x)
all

[g(x) + h(x)] = f (x) g(x) + f (x) h(x)).

Further, since

h(x)) = (f (x) g(x)) h(x))

and

is a commutative ring, we have for

i 0,
X
+=i

and the fact that

f (x) g(x) = g(x) f (x)

a b =

b a ,

+=i

follows quickly. Thus we have that

Z[x]

is, too, a commutative ring with

unity.

Next we will give a few more elementary denitions from [1] and [2] of objects such as subrings, ideals, integral
domains, ring homomorphism, etc.

Definition. Let

and

R, S, T

be commutative rings with unity.

(1) A map

f :RS

is

injective

(2) A map

f :RS

is

surjective

(3) A map

f :RS

is

bijective

are

isomorphic as rings

(i):

f :RS

is a

provided

f (R) = S .

implies

x = y , x, y R.

We denote this

We denote this

f : R , S .

f : R  S.

provided it is both injective and surjective. If this is the case, we say that

and denote this

(4) An additively closed subset

(5) A map

f (x) = f (y)

provided

AR

is a

R
= S.

subring

provided both

homomorphism of rings

provided

1R A

x, y R

and

AA A.

the following are satised:

f (x+y) = f (x)+f (y) and hence we have f (x) = (1S )f (x), f (xR y) = f (x)S f (y) and f (0R ) = 0S ;

(ii):
(iii):

f (x R y) = f (x) S f (y);
f (1R ) = 1S .

(6) A bijective homomorphism of rings is said to be an

(7) An additive subgroup

aR

is an

ideal

provided

isomorphism of rings.

Ra = a = aR.

We denote this

a C R.