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(YDRO POWER
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3YSTEMS /VERVIEW
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(YDROPOWER IS BASED ON SIMPLE CONCEPTS -OVING WATER
TURNS A TURBINE THE TURBINE SPINS A GENERATOR AND ELECTRICITY
IS PRODUCED -ANY OTHER COMPONENTS MAY BE IN A SYSTEM
BUT IT ALL BEGINS WITH THE ENERGY ALREADY WITHIN THE MOVING
WATER
7HAT -AKES 7ATER 0OWER
7ATER POWER IS THE COMBINATION OF HEAD AND FLOW "OTH
MUST BE PRESENT TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITY #ONSIDER A TYPICAL
HYDRO SYSTEM 7ATER IS DIVERTED FROM A STREAM INTO A
PIPELINE WHERE IT IS DIRECTED DOWNHILL AND THROUGH THE
TURBINE FLOW 4HE VERTICAL DROP HEAD CREATES PRESSURE
AT THE BOTTOM END OF THE PIPELINE 4HE PRESSURIZED WATER
EMERGING FROM THE END OF THE PIPE CREATES THE FORCE THAT
DRIVES THE TURBINE -ORE FLOW OR MORE HEAD PRODUCES MORE
ELECTRICITY %LECTRICAL POWER OUTPUT WILL ALWAYS BE SLIGHTLY
LESS THAN WATER POWER INPUT DUE TO TURBINE AND SYSTEM
INEFFICIENCIES
(EAD IS WATER PRESSURE WHICH IS CREATED BY THE DIFFERENCE
IN ELEVATION BETWEEN THE WATER INTAKE AND THE TURBINE (EAD
CAN BE EXPRESSED AS VERTICAL DISTANCE FEET OR METERS OR AS
PRESSURE SUCH AS POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH PSI .ET HEAD IS
THE PRESSURE AVAILABLE AT THE TURBINE WHEN WATER IS FLOWING
WHICH WILL ALWAYS BE LESS THAN THE PRESSURE WHEN THE WATER IS
TURNED OFF STATIC HEAD DUE TO THE FRICTION BETWEEN THE WATER
AND THE PIPE 0IPELINE DIAMETER HAS AN EFFECT ON NET HEAD
&LOW IS WATER QUANTITY AND IS EXPRESSED AS hVOLUME
PER TIMEv SUCH AS GALLONS PER MINUTE GPM CUBIC FEET
PER SECOND CFS OR LITERS PER MINUTE $ESIGN FLOW IS THE
MAXIMUM FLOW FOR WHICH YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM IS DESIGNED
)T WILL LIKELY BE LESS THAN THE MAXIMUM FLOW OF YOUR
STREAM ESPECIALLY DURING THE RAINY SEASON MORE THAN
YOUR MINIMUM FLOW AND A COMPROMISE BETWEEN POTENTIAL
ELECTRICAL OUTPUT AND SYSTEM COST
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HOME POWER OCTOBER NOVEMBER
HYDRO INTRO
(EAD AND FLOW ARE THE TWO MOST IMPORTANT THINGS
YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT YOUR SITE 9OU MUST HAVE THESE
MEASUREMENTS BEFORE YOU CAN SERIOUSLY DISCUSS YOUR
PROJECT HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY IT WILL GENERATE OR THE COST
OF COMPONENTS %VERY ASPECT OF A HYDRO SYSTEM REVOLVES
AROUND HEAD AND FLOW )N 0ART OF THIS SERIES WE WILL
DISCUSS HOW TO MEASURE THEM
5SEFUL (YDRO
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7HILE SOME LOSSES ARE INEVITABLE AS THE ENERGY IN MOVING
WATER GETS CONVERTED TO ELECTRICITY THEY CAN BE MINIMIZED
WITH GOOD DESIGN %ACH ASPECT OF YOUR HYDRO SYSTEMFROM
WATER INTAKE TO TURBINE
GENERATOR ALIGNMENT TO TRANSMISSION
WIRE SIZEAFFECTS EFFICIENCY 4URBINE DESIGN IS ESPECIALLY
IMPORTANT AND MUST BE MATCHED TO YOUR SPECIFIC HEAD AND
FLOW FOR BEST EFFICIENCY
! HYDRO SYSTEM IS A SERIES OF INTERCONNECTED COMPONENTS
7ATER FLOWS IN AT ONE END OF THE SYSTEM AND ELECTRICITY COMES
OUT THE OTHER (ERE IS AN OVERVIEW OF THESE COMPONENTS
FROM THE WATER SOURCE TO THE ELECTRICAL CONTROLS
7ATER $IVERSION )NTAKE
4HE INTAKE IS TYPICALLY THE HIGHEST POINT OF YOUR HYDRO
SYSTEM WHERE WATER IS DIVERTED FROM THE STREAM INTO THE
PIPELINE THAT FEEDS YOUR TURBINE ! DIVERSION CAN BE AS
SIMPLE AS A SCREENED PIPE DROPPED INTO A POOL OF WATER OR
AS BIG AND COMPLEX AS A DAM ACROSS AN ENTIRE CREEK OR RIVER
! WATER DIVERSION SYSTEM SERVES TWO PRIMARY PURPOSES
4HE FIRST IS TO PROVIDE A DEEP ENOUGH POOL OF WATER TO
CREATE A SMOOTH AIR
FREE INLET TO YOUR PIPELINE !IR REDUCES
HORSEPOWER AND CAN DAMAGE YOUR TURBINE 4HE SECOND IS TO
REMOVE DIRT AND DEBRIS
4RASH RACKS AND ROUGH SCREENS CAN HELP
STOP LARGER DEBRIS SUCH AS LEAVES AND
LIMBS WHILE AN AREA OF QUIET WATER
WILL ALLOW DIRT AND OTHER SEDIMENT TO
SETTLE TO THE BOTTOM BEFORE ENTERING
YOUR PIPELINE 4HIS HELPS REDUCE
ABRASIVE WEAR ON YOUR TURBINE !NOTHER
APPROACH IS TO USE A FINE SELF
CLEANING
SCREEN THAT FILTERS BOTH LARGE DEBRIS AND
SMALL PARTICLES
3TATIC (EAD 0RESSURE
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0IPELINE 0ENSTOCK
4HE PIPELINE OR PENSTOCK NOT ONLY MOVES THE WATER
TO YOUR TURBINE BUT IS ALSO THE ENCLOSURE THAT CREATES HEAD
PRESSURE AS THE VERTICAL DROP INCREASES )N EFFECT THE PIPELINE
FOCUSES ALL THE WATER POWER AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PIPE WHERE
THE TURBINE IS )N CONTRAST AN OPEN STREAM DISSIPATES THE
ENERGY AS THE WATER TRAVELS DOWNHILL
0IPELINE DIAMETER LENGTH MATERIAL AND ROUTING ALL
AFFECT EFFICIENCY 'UIDELINES ARE AVAILABLE FOR MATCHING
THE SIZE OF YOUR PIPELINE TO
THE DESIGN FLOW OF YOUR
SYSTEM !S YOULL SEE IN THE
NEXT ARTICLE IN THIS SERIES
A SMALL
DIAMETER PIPELINE
CAN CONSIDERABLY REDUCE
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HYDRO INTRO
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THE WATER THAT OPERATE FULLY IMMERSED IN WATER AND ARE
TYPICALLY USED IN LOW TO MODERATE HEAD SYSTEMS WITH HIGH
FLOW %XAMPLES INCLUDE &RANCIS PROPELLER AND +APLAN
)MPULSE TURBINES USE RUNNERS THAT OPERATE WITHOUT BEING
IMMERSED DRIVEN BY ONE OR MORE HIGH
VELOCITY JETS OF WATER
%XAMPLES INCLUDE 0ELTON AND TURGO )MPULSE TURBINES ARE
TYPICALLY USED WITH MODERATE
TO
HIGH HEAD SYSTEMS AND
USE NOZZLES TO PRODUCE THE HIGH
VELOCITY JETS 3OME IMPULSE
TURBINES CAN OPERATE EFFICIENTLY WITH AS LITTLE AS FEET M
OF HEAD
4HE CROSSFLOW TURBINE IS A SPECIAL CASE !LTHOUGH
TECHNICALLY CLASSIFIED AS AN IMPULSE TURBINE BECAUSE THE
RUNNER IS NOT ENTIRELY IMMERSED IN WATER THIS hSQUIRREL
CAGEv TYPE OF RUNNER IS USED IN APPLICATIONS WITH LOW TO
MODERATE HEAD AND HIGH FLOW 4HE WATER PASSES THROUGH
A LARGE RECTANGULAR OPENING TO DRIVE THE TURBINE BLADES IN
CONTRAST TO THE SMALL HIGH
PRESSURE JETS USED FOR 0ELTON AND
TURGO TURBINES
2EGARDLESS OF THE TURBINE TYPE EFFICIENCY IS IN THE DETAILS
%ACH TURBINE TYPE CAN BE DESIGNED TO MEET VASTLY DIFFERENT
REQUIREMENTS 4HE TURBINE SYSTEM IS DESIGNED AROUND NET
HEAD AND DESIGN FLOW 4HESE CRITERIA NOT ONLY INFLUENCE
WHICH TYPE OF TURBINE TO USE BUT ARE CRITICAL TO THE DESIGN OF
THE ENTIRE TURBINE SYSTEM
-INOR DIFFERENCES IN SPECIFICATIONS CAN SIGNIFICANTLY
IMPACT ENERGY TRANSFER EFFICIENCY 4HE DIAMETER OF THE
RUNNER FRONT AND BACK CURVATURES OF ITS BUCKETS OR BLADES
CASTING MATERIALS NOZZLE IF USED TURBINE HOUSING AND
QUALITY OF COMPONENTS ALL AFFECT EFFICIENCY AND RELIABILITY
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0OWERHOUSE
4HE POWERHOUSE IS SIMPLY A BUILDING OR BOX THAT HOUSES
YOUR TURBINE GENERATOR AND CONTROLS )TS MAIN FUNCTION IS TO
PROVIDE A PLACE FOR THE SYSTEM COMPONENTS TO BE MOUNTED
AND TO PROTECT THEM FROM THE ELEMENTS )TS DESIGN CAN AFFECT
SYSTEM EFFICIENCY ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO HOW THE WATER
ENTERS AND EXITS YOUR TURBINE &OR EXAMPLE TOO MANY ELBOWS
LEADING TO THE TURBINE CAN CREATE TURBULENCE AND HEAD LOSS
,IKEWISE ANY RESTRICTIONS TO WATER EXITING THE TURBINE MAY
INCREASE RESISTANCE AGAINST THE TURBINES MOVING PARTS
4URBINE
4HE TURBINE IS THE HEART OF THE HYDRO SYSTEM WHERE
WATER POWER IS CONVERTED INTO THE ROTATIONAL FORCE THAT
DRIVES THE GENERATOR &OR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY THE TURBINE
SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO MATCH YOUR SPECIFIC HEAD AND FLOW
4HERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF TURBINES AND PROPER
SELECTION REQUIRES CONSIDERABLE EXPERTISE ! 0ELTON DESIGN
FOR EXAMPLE WORKS BEST WITH MEDIUM TO HIGH HEADS !
CROSSFLOW DESIGN WORKS BETTER WITH LOWER HEAD BUT HIGHER
FLOW /THER TURBINE TYPES SUCH AS &RANCIS TURGO AND
PROPELLER EACH HAVE OPTIMUM APPLICATIONS
4URBINES CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO MAJOR TYPES 2EACTION
TURBINES USE RUNNERS THE ROTATING PORTION THAT RECEIVES
HOME POWER OCTOBER NOVEMBER
HYDRO INTRO
$RIVE 3YSTEM
4HE DRIVE SYSTEM COUPLES THE TURBINE TO THE GENERATOR
!T ONE END IT ALLOWS THE TURBINE TO SPIN AT THE RPM THAT
DELIVERS BEST EFFICIENCY !T THE OTHER IT DRIVES THE GENERATOR
AT THE RPM THAT PRODUCES CORRECT VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY APPLIES TO ALTERNATING CURRENT !# SYSTEMS ONLY
4HE MOST EFFICIENT AND RELIABLE DRIVE SYSTEM IS A DIRECT
COUPLING BETWEEN THE TURBINE AND GENERATOR
4HIS IS POSSIBLE FOR MANY SITES BUT NOT FOR ALL HEAD AND
FLOW COMBINATIONS )N MANY SITUATIONS ESPECIALLY WITH
!# SYSTEMS IT IS NECESSARY TO ADJUST THE TRANSFER RATIO
SO THAT BOTH TURBINE AND GENERATOR RUN AT THEIR OPTIMUM
BUT DIFFERENT SPEEDS 4HESE TYPES OF DRIVE SYSTEMS CAN
USE EITHER GEARS CHAINS OR BELTS EACH OF WHICH INTRODUCES
ADDITIONAL EFFICIENCY LOSSES INTO THE SYSTEM "ELT SYSTEMS
TEND TO BE MORE POPULAR BECAUSE OF THEIR LOWER COST
'ENERATOR
4HE GENERATOR CONVERTS THE ROTATIONAL ENERGY FROM THE
TURBINE SHAFT INTO ELECTRICITY %FFICIENCY IS IMPORTANT AT THIS
STAGE TOO BUT MOST MODERN WELL
BUILT GENERATORS DELIVER
GOOD EFFICIENCY $IRECT CURRENT $# GENERATORS OR ALTERNATORS
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/NE CRITICAL ASPECT OF !# IS FREQUENCY TYPICALLY MEASURED
AS CYCLES PER SECOND CPS OR (ERTZ (Z -OST HOUSEHOLD
APPLIANCES AND MOTORS RUN ON EITHER (Z OR (Z
DEPENDING ON WHERE YOU ARE IN THE WORLD AS DO THE MAJOR
GRIDS THAT INTERCONNECT LARGE GENERATING STATIONS &REQUENCY
IS DETERMINED BY THE ROTATIONAL SPEED OF THE GENERATOR SHAFT
FASTER ROTATION GENERATES A HIGHER FREQUENCY )N BATTERY
BASED
HYDRO SYSTEMS THE INVERTER PRODUCES AN !# WAVEFORM AT A
FIXED FREQUENCY )N BATTERYLESS HYDRO SYSTEMS THE TURBINE
CONTROLLER REGULATES THE FREQUENCY
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HOME POWER OCTOBER NOVEMBER
HYDRO INTRO
!# #ONTROLS
0URE !# HYDRO SYSTEMS HAVE NO BATTERIES OR INVERTER
!# IS USED BY LOADS DIRECTLY FROM THE GENERATOR AND SURPLUS
ELECTRICITY IS BURNED OFF IN DUMP LOADSUSUALLY RESISTANCE
HEATERS
'OVERNORS AND OTHER CONTROLS HELP ENSURE THAT AN !#
GENERATOR CONSTANTLY SPINS AT ITS CORRECT SPEED 4HE MOST
COMMON TYPES OF GOVERNORS FOR SMALL HYDRO SYSTEMS
ACCOMPLISH THIS BY MANAGING THE LOAD ON THE GENERATOR
7ITH NO LOAD THE GENERATOR WOULD hFREEWHEELv AND RUN
AT A VERY HIGH RPM "Y ADDING PROGRESSIVELY HIGHER LOADS
YOU CAN EVENTUALLY SLOW THE GENERATOR UNTIL IT REACHES THE
EXACT RPM FOR PROPER !# VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY !S LONG
AS YOU MAINTAIN THIS hPERFECTv LOAD KNOWN AS THE DESIGN
LOAD ELECTRICAL OUTPUT WILL BE CORRECT 9OU MIGHT BE ABLE TO
MAINTAIN THE CORRECT LOAD YOURSELF BY MANUALLY SWITCHING
DEVICES ON AND OFF BUT A GOVERNOR CAN DO A BETTER JOB
AUTOMATICALLY
"Y CONNECTING YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM TO THE UTILITY GRID YOU
CAN DRAW ENERGY FROM THE GRID DURING PEAK USAGE TIMES
WHEN YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM CANT KEEP UP AND FEED EXCESS
ELECTRICITY BACK INTO THE GRID WHEN YOUR USAGE IS LOW )N
EFFECT THE GRID ACTS AS A LARGE BATTERY WITH INFINITE CAPACITY
)F YOU CHOOSE TO CONNECT TO THE GRID HOWEVER KEEP IN
MIND THAT SIGNIFICANT SYNCHRONIZATION AND SAFEGUARDS MUST
BE IN PLACE 'RID INTERCONNECTION CONTROLS DO BOTH 4HEY WILL
MONITOR THE GRID AND ENSURE THAT YOUR SYSTEM IS GENERATING
COMPATIBLE VOLTAGE FREQUENCY AND PHASE 4HEY WILL ALSO
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$# #ONTROLS
! $# HYDRO SYSTEM WORKS VERY DIFFERENTLY FROM AN !#
SYSTEM 4HE ALTERNATOR OR GENERATOR OUTPUT CHARGES BATTERIES
! DIVERSION CONTROLLER SHUNTS EXCESS ENERGY TO A DUMP LOAD
!N INVERTER CONVERTS $# ELECTRICITY TO !# ELECTRICITY FOR
HOME USE $# SYSTEMS MAKE SENSE FOR SMALLER STREAMS WITH
POTENTIAL OF LESS THAN +7
!# SYSTEMS ARE LIMITED TO A PEAK LOAD THAT IS EQUIVALENT
TO THE OUTPUT OF THE GENERATOR 7ITH A BATTERY BANK AND LARGE
INVERTER $# SYSTEMS CAN SUPPLY A HIGH PEAK LOAD FROM THE
BATTERIES EVEN THOUGH THE GENERATING CAPACITY IS LOWER
3ERIES CHARGE CONTROLLERS LIKE THOSE USED WITH SOLAR
ELECTRIC SYSTEMS ARE NOT USED WITH HYDRO SYSTEMS SINCE
THE GENERATORS CANNOT RUN WITHOUT A LOAD OPEN CIRCUIT
4HIS CAN POTENTIALLY DAMAGE THE ALTERNATOR WINDINGS AND
BEARINGS FROM OVERSPEEDING )NSTEAD A DIVERSION OR SHUNT
CONTROLLER MUST BE USED 4HESE NORMALLY DIVERT ENERGY FROM
THE BATTERY TO A RESISTANCE HEATER AIR OR WATER TO KEEP THE
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HYDRO INTRO
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STRAIGHT TO YOUR BOTTOM LINE 9OUR TURBINE MANUFACTURER CAN
GIVE YOU GUIDANCE ON THE MOST EFFICIENT DESIGN AS WELL AS
GRID INTERCONNECTION CONTROLS AND SAFEGUARDS )F YOURE OFF
GRID AND YOUR SITE DOESNT HAVE LOTS OF HEAD AND FLOW HIGH
EFFICIENCY CAN MAKE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AMPLE ELECTRICITY
FOR YOUR NEEDS AND HAVING TO USE A BACKUP GASOLINE
POWERED GENERATOR
7HETHER A HYDRO SYSTEM GENERATES A FEW WATTS OR
HUNDREDS OF MEGAWATTS THE FUNDAMENTALS ARE THE SAME
(EAD AND FLOW DETERMINE HOW MUCH RAW WATER POWER
IS AVAILABLE AND THE SYSTEM EFFICIENCY AFFECTS HOW MUCH
ELECTRICITY WILL COME OUT THE OTHER END %ACH COMPONENT
OF A HYDRO SYSTEM AFFECTS EFFICIENCY SO ITS WORTHWHILE TO
OPTIMIZE YOUR DESIGN EVERY STEP OF THE WAY
)S HYDROPOWER FEASIBLE FOR YOU 4HE NEXT ARTICLE IN THIS
SERIES WILL HELP YOU ANSWER THIS QUESTION )LL DISCUSS METHODS
FOR MEASURING HEAD AND FLOW OFFER TIPS FOR DETERMINING
PIPELINE SIZE AND PROVIDE FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING ELECTRICAL
OUTPUT AND EFFICIENCY
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HEAD FLOW
-EASURING (EAD
(EAD IS WATER PRESSURE CREATED BY THE DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION BETWEEN THE INTAKE OF YOUR PIPELINE AND YOUR
WATER TURBINE (EAD CAN BE MEASURED AS VERTICAL DISTANCE
FEET OR METERS OR AS PRESSURE POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH
NEWTONS PER SQUARE METER ETC 2EGARDLESS OF THE SIZE OF
YOUR STREAM HIGHER HEAD WILL PRODUCE GREATER PRESSURE
AND THEREFORE HIGHER OUTPUTAT THE TURBINE
!N ALTIMETER CAN BE USEFUL IN ESTIMATING HEAD FOR
PRELIMINARY SITE EVALUATION BUT SHOULD NOT BE USED FOR
THE FINAL MEASUREMENT )T IS QUITE COMMON FOR LOW
COST
BAROMETRIC ALTIMETERS TO REFLECT ERRORS OF FEET M
OR MORE EVEN WHEN CALIBRATED '03 ALTIMETERS ARE OFTEN
EVEN LESS ACCURATE 4OPOGRAPHIC MAPS CAN ALSO BE USED
TO GIVE YOU A VERY ROUGH IDEA OF THE VERTICAL DROP ALONG
A SECTION OF A STREAMS COURSE "UT ONLY TWO METHODS OF
HEAD MEASUREMENT ARE ACCURATE ENOUGH FOR HYDRO SYSTEM
DESIGNDIRECT HEIGHT MEASUREMENT AND WATER PRESSURE
$IRECT (EIGHT -EASUREMENT
4O MEASURE HEAD YOU CAN USE A LASER LEVEL A SURVEYORS
TRANSIT A CONTRACTORS LEVEL ON A TRIPOD OR A SIGHT LEVEL
hPEASHOOTERv $IRECT MEASUREMENT REQUIRES AN ASSISTANT
/NE METHOD IS TO WORK DOWNHILL USING A TALL POLE WITH
GRADUATED MEASUREMENTS ! MEASURING TAPE AFFIXED TO A
FOOT M SECTION OF 06# PIPE WORKS WELL !FTER EACH
MEASUREMENT MOVE THE TRANSIT OR PERSON WITH THE SIGHT
LEVEL TO WHERE THE POLE WAS AND BEGIN AGAIN BY MOVING THE
POLE FURTHER DOWNHILL TOWARD THE GENERATOR SITE +EEP EACH
TRANSIT OR SIGHT LEVEL SETUP EXACTLY LEVEL AND MAKE SURE THAT
THE MEASURING POLE IS VERTICAL 4AKE DETAILED NOTES OF EACH
MEASUREMENT AND THE HEIGHT OF THE LEVEL 4HEN ADD UP THE
SERIES OF MEASUREMENTS AND SUBTRACT ALL OF THE LEVEL HEIGHTS
TO FIND TOTAL HEAD
-EASURING $OWNHILL
-EASURING 5PHILL
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HEAD FLOW
4HE PRESSURE GAUGE MUST BE GRADUATED SO THAT
MEASUREMENTS ARE TAKEN IN THE MIDDLE OF ITS RANGE $ONT
USE A TO PSI GAUGE TO MEASURE TO PSI PRESSURE
3ELECT INSTEAD A TO PSI GAUGE ,IQUID 3UN (YDRO NOW
SELLS PRESSURE GAUGES CALIBRATED IN FEET WHICH MAKES HEAD
MEASUREMENT A SNAP
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"Y RECORDING THE MEASUREMENTS DESCRIBED IN THE PREVIOUS
SECTIONS YOU HAVE DETERMINED GROSS HEADTHE TRUE VERTICAL
DISTANCE FROM INTAKE TO TURBINE AND THE RESULTING PRESSURE
AT THE BOTTOM .ET HEAD ON THE OTHER HAND IS THE PRESSURE AT
THE BOTTOM OF YOUR PIPELINE WHEN WATER IS ACTUALLY FLOWING
TO YOUR TURBINE 4HIS WILL ALWAYS BE LESS THAN THE GROSS HEAD
YOU MEASURED DUE TO FRICTION LOSSES WITHIN THE PIPELINE
9OU WILL NEED TO HAVE WATER FLOW FIGURES DESCRIBED IN THE
FOLLOWING SECTIONS TO COMPUTE NET HEAD ,ONGER PIPELINES
SMALLER DIAMETERS AND HIGHER FLOWS CREATE GREATER FRICTION
! PROPERLY DESIGNED PIPELINE WILL YIELD A NET HEAD OF TO
PERCENT OF THE GROSS HEAD YOU MEASURED
.ET HEAD IS A FAR MORE USEFUL MEASUREMENT THAN GROSS
HEAD AND ALONG WITH DESIGN FLOW IS USED TO DETERMINE
HYDRO SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (ERE ARE
THE BASICS OF DETERMINING PIPE SIZE AND NET HEAD BUT YOU
SHOULD WORK WITH YOUR TURBINE SUPPLIER TO FINALIZE YOUR
PIPELINE SPECIFICATIONS
(EAD LOSS REFERS TO THE LOSS OF WATER POWER DUE TO
FRICTION WITHIN THE PIPELINE ALSO KNOWN AS THE PENSTOCK
!LTHOUGH A GIVEN PIPE DIAMETER MAY BE SUFFICIENT TO CARRY
ALL OF THE DESIGN FLOW THE SIDES JOINTS AND BENDS OF THE PIPE
CREATE DRAG AS THE WATER PASSES BY SLOWING IT DOWN 4HE
EFFECT IS THE SAME AS LOWERING THE HEADLESS WATER PRESSURE
AT THE TURBINE
(EAD LOSS CANNOT BE MEASURED UNLESS THE WATER IS
FLOWING ! PRESSURE GAUGE AT THE BOTTOM OF EVEN THE SMALLEST
PIPE WILL READ FULL PSI WHEN THE WATER IS STATIC IN THE PIPE
"UT AS THE WATER FLOWS THE FRICTION WITHIN THE PIPE REDUCES
THE VELOCITY OF THE WATER COMING OUT THE BOTTOM 'REATER
WATER FLOWS INCREASE FRICTION FURTHER
,ARGER PIPES CREATE LESS FRICTION DELIVERING MORE POWER
TO THE TURBINE "UT LARGER PIPELINES ARE ALSO MORE EXPENSIVE
SO THERE IS INVARIABLY A TRADE
OFF BETWEEN HEAD LOSS AND
SYSTEM COST 3IZE YOUR PIPE SO THAT NOT MORE THAN TO
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)F THE DISTANCE IS SHORT ENOUGH YOU CAN USE ONE OR MORE
GARDEN HOSES OR LENGTHS OF FLEXIBLE PLASTIC TUBING TO MEASURE
HEAD 4HIS METHOD RELIES ON THE CONSTANT THAT EACH VERTICAL
FOOT OF HEAD CREATES PSI OF WATER PRESSURE VERTICAL
FEET CREATES PSI "Y MEASURING THE PRESSURE AT THE
BOTTOM OF THE HOSE YOU CAN CALCULATE THE ELEVATION CHANGE
2UN THE HOSE OR TUBING FROM YOUR PROPOSED INTAKE SITE
TO YOUR PROPOSED TURBINE LOCATION )F YOU ATTACH MULTIPLE
HOSES TOGETHER MAKE SURE THAT EACH CONNECTION IS TIGHT AND
LEAK FREE !TTACH AN ACCURATE PRESSURE GAUGE TO THE BOTTOM
END OF THE HOSE AND COMPLETELY FILL THE HOSE WITH WATER
-AKE SURE THAT THERE ARE NO HIGH SPOTS IN THE HOSE THAT COULD
TRAP AIR 9OU CAN FLUSH WATER THROUGH THE HOSE BEFORE THE
GAUGE IS CONNECTED TO FORCE OUT ANY AIR BUBBLES
)F NECESSARY YOU CAN MEASURE TOTAL HEAD OVER LONGER
DISTANCES BY MOVING THE HOSE AND TAKING MULTIPLE READINGS
+EEP IN MIND HOWEVER THAT THERE IS LESS THAN PSI
DIFFERENCE FOR EVERY VERTICAL FOOT %XCEPT FOR VERY STEEP
HILLSIDES EVEN A
FOOT HOSE MAY DROP ONLY A FEW VERTICAL
FEET 4HE CHANCE FOR ERROR SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASES WITH A
SERIES OF LOW
HEAD READINGS 5SE THE LONGEST POSSIBLE HOSE
ALONG WITH A HIGHLY ACCURATE PRESSURE GAUGE
(EAD ,OSS IN 06# 0IPE
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HOME POWER DECEMBER JANUARY
HEAD FLOW
PERCENT OF THE GROSS TOTAL HEAD IS LOST
AS PIPELINE FRICTION (IGHER LOSSES MAY
BE ACCEPTABLE FOR HIGH
HEAD SITES
FEET PLUS BUT PIPELINE FRICTION LOSSES
SHOULD BE MINIMIZED FOR MOST LOW
HEAD SITES
4HE LENGTH OF YOUR PIPELINE
HAS A MAJOR INFLUENCE ON BOTH THE
COST AND EFFICIENCY OF YOUR SYSTEM
4HE MEASUREMENT IS EASY THOUGH
3IMPLY RUN A TAPE MEASURE BETWEEN
YOUR INTAKE AND TURBINE LOCATIONS
FOLLOWING THE ROUTE YOULL USE FOR
YOUR PIPELINE 2EMEMBER THAT YOU
WANT TO RUN THE PIPELINE UP OUT OF THE
CREEK BED WHEN POSSIBLE TO AVOID
DAMAGE DURING HIGH WATER
-EASURING &LOW
4HE SECOND MAJOR STEP IN EVALUATING
YOUR SITES HYDRO POTENTIAL IS MEASURING
THE FLOW OF THE STREAM 3TREAM LEVELS
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TIMES OF THE YEAR )F THIS IS NOT POSSIBLE
ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE VARIOUS ANNUAL FLOWS BY DISCUSSING
&OR EXAMPLE IF YOUR CONTAINER IS A
GALLON PAINT BUCKET
THE STREAM WITH A NEIGHBOR OR FINDING 53 'EOLOGICAL
AND IT TAKES SECONDS TO FILL YOUR FLOW IS GALLONS PER
3URVEY FLOW DATA FOR YOUR STREAM OR A NEARBY LARGER STREAM
SECOND GPS OR GALLONS PER MINUTE GPM
!LSO KEEP IN MIND THAT FISH BIRDS PLANTS AND OTHER LIVING
THINGS RELY ON YOUR STREAM FOR SURVIVAL .EVER USE ALL OF THE
&LOAT -ETHOD
STREAMS WATER FOR YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM
4HE FLOAT METHOD IS USEFUL FOR LARGE STREAMS IF YOU CAN
&LOW IS TYPICALLY EXPRESSED AS VOLUME PER SECOND OR
LOCATE A SECTION ABOUT FEET M LONG WHERE THE STREAM IS
MINUTE #OMMON EXAMPLES ARE GALLONS OR LITERS PER SECOND
FAIRLY CONSISTENT IN WIDTH AND DEPTH
OR MINUTE AND CUBIC FEET OR CUBIC METERS PER SECOND OR
3TEP -EASURE THE AVERAGE DEPTH OF THE STREAM 3ELECT
MINUTE %ACH CAN BE EASILY CONVERTED TO ANOTHER AS FOLLOWS
A BOARD ABLE TO SPAN THE WIDTH OF THE STREAM AND MARK IT AT
FOOT M INTERVALS ,AY THE BOARD ACROSS THE STREAM AND
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4HREE POPULAR METHODS ARE USED
FOR MEASURING FLOWCONTAINER FLOAT
4HE &LOAT -ETHOD OF
AND WEIR %ACH WILL BE DESCRIBED IN
DETAIL BELOW
%STIMATING &LOW
#ONTAINER &ILL -ETHOD
4HE CONTAINER FILL METHOD IS THE
MOST COMMON METHOD FOR DETERMINING
FLOW IN MICROHYDRO SYSTEMS &IND A
LOCATION ALONG THE STREAM WHERE ALL
THE WATER CAN BE CAUGHT IN A BUCKET
)F SUCH A SPOT DOESNT EXIST BUILD A
TEMPORARY DAM THAT FORCES ALL OF THE
WATER TO FLOW THROUGH A SINGLE OUTLET
5SING A BUCKET OR LARGER CONTAINER OF
A KNOWN VOLUME USE A STOPWATCH
TO TIME HOW LONG IT TAKES TO FILL THE
CONTAINER 4HEN DIVIDE THE CONTAINER
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FOOT
WIDE STREAM WITH AN AVERAGE DEPTH OF FEET WOULD YIELD A
CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA OF SQUARE FEET
3TEP -EASURE THE SPEED ! GOOD WAY TO MEASURE
SPEED IS TO MARK OFF A
FOOT M LENGTH OF THE STREAM THAT
INCLUDES THE POINT WHERE YOU MEASURED THE CROSS
SECTION
2EMEMBER YOU ONLY WANT TO KNOW THE SPEED OF THE WATER
WHERE YOU MEASURED THE CROSS
SECTION SO THE SHORTER THE
LENGTH OF STREAM YOU MEASURE THE BETTER
5SE A WEIGHTED FLOAT THAT CAN BE CLEARLY SEENAN ORANGE
OR GRAPEFRUIT WORKS WELL 0LACE IT WELL UPSTREAM OF YOUR
MEASUREMENT AREA AND USE A STOPWATCH TO TIME HOW LONG IT
TAKES TO TRAVEL THE LENGTH OF YOUR MEASUREMENT SECTION 4HE
STREAM SPEED PROBABLY VARIES ACROSS ITS WIDTH SO RECORD THE
TIMES FOR VARIOUS LOCATIONS AND AVERAGE THEM
4HE 7EIR -ETHOD
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! WEIR IS PERHAPS THE MOST ACCURATE WAY TO MEASURE
SMALL
AND MEDIUM
SIZED STREAMS !LL THE WATER IS DIRECTED
THROUGH AN AREA THAT IS EXACTLY RECTANGULAR MAKING IT
VERY EASY TO MEASURE THE HEIGHT AND WIDTH OF THE WATER TO
COMPUTE FLOW
4HIS KIND OF WEIR IS A TEMPORARY DAM WITH A RECTANGULAR
SLOT OR GATE 4HE BOTTOM OF THE GATE SHOULD BE EXACTLY
LEVEL AND THE WIDTH OF THE GATE SHOULD ALLOW ALL THE WATER
TO PASS THROUGH WITHOUT SPILLING OVER THE TOP OF THE DAM
! NARROWER GATE WILL INCREASE THE DEPTH OF THE WATER AS IT
PASSES THROUGH MAKING IT EASIER TO MEASURE
7EIR &LOW 4ABLE
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HEAD FLOW
%XAMPLE 3ITE !NALYSIS
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4HE DEPTH MEASUREMENT IS NOT TAKEN AT THE GATE ITSELF
BECAUSE THE WATER DEPTH DISTORTS AS IT MOVES THROUGH THE
GATE )NSTEAD INSERT A STAKE WELL UPSTREAM OF THE WEIR GATE
AND MAKE THE TOP OF THE STAKE EXACTLY LEVEL WITH THE BOTTOM
OF THE WEIR GATE -EASURE THE DEPTH OF THE WATER FROM THE
TOP OF THE STAKE
/NCE THE WIDTH AND DEPTH OF THE WATER ARE KNOWN A
WEIR TABLE IS USED TO COMPUTE THE FLOW 4HE WEIR TABLE SHOWN
HERE IS BASED ON A GATE THAT IS INCH MM WIDE 3IMPLY
MULTIPLY THE TABLE AMOUNT BY THE WIDTH IN INCHES OF YOUR
GATE &OR EXAMPLE ASSUME YOUR WEIR GATE IS INCHES WIDE
AND THE DEPTH OF THE WATER PASSING OVER IT IS INCHES /N
THE LEFT SIDE OF THE TABLE FIND hv AND MOVE ACROSS THE ROW
UNTIL YOU FIND THE COLUMN FOR hv 4HE TABLE SHOWS
CFM FLOW FOR A
INCH GATE WITH INCHES OF WATER FLOWING
THROUGH IT 3INCE YOUR GATE IS INCHES WIDE SIMPLY MULTIPLY
THE BY TO GET CFM
! WEIR IS ESPECIALLY EFFECTIVE FOR MEASURING FLOW DURING
DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE YEAR /NCE THE WEIR IS IN PLACE IT IS
EASY TO QUICKLY MEASURE THE DEPTH OF THE WATER AND CHART THE
FLOW AT VARIOUS TIMES
$ESIGN &LOW
%VEN THOUGH YOUR FLOW MAY BE VERY HIGH AFTER
EXCEPTIONALLY RAINY PERIODS IT PROBABLY WONT BE COST
EFFECTIVE TO DESIGN YOUR TURBINE SYSTEM TO HANDLE ALL THAT
WATER FOR JUST A FEW DAYS OF THE YEAR )NSTEAD IT MAKES SENSE
TO BUILD A SYSTEM THAT USES FLOW YOU CAN COUNT ON FOR MUCH
OF THE YEAR 4HIS IS CALLED DESIGN FLOW AND IT IS THE MAXIMUM
FLOW YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM IS DESIGNED TO ACCOMMODATE
.EXT 3TEPS
$ETERMINING THE POTENTIAL OF YOUR WATER RESOURCE IS THE
FIRST STEP FOR A WELL
DESIGNED AND VIABLE HYDROPOWER SYSTEM
!S YOU CAN SEE MEASURING HEAD AND FLOW ARE NOT DIFFICULT
OR COMPLEX TASKS 7ITH YOUR NET HEAD AND DESIGN FLOW YOU
HAVE ENOUGH INFORMATION TO BEGIN THE NEXT STEPTALKING
WITH TURBINE SUPPLIERS ABOUT POTENTIAL DESIGNS "UT THERE
ARE STILL A FEW MORE ISSUES TO CONSIDER .EXT TIME )LL DISCUSS
LOSSES EFFICIENCY TRANSMISSION AND PREDICTING THE ELECTRICAL
OUTPUT OF YOUR SYSTEM /NCE YOU HAVE THAT INFORMATION
YOULL BE READY TO INSTALL YOUR HYDROPOWER SYSTEM
!CCESS
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#OMPUTING 7ATER 0OWER
.ET HEAD IS THE VERTICAL DROP FROM YOUR PIPELINE INTAKE
TO YOUR TURBINE ADJUSTED FOR PIPE FRICTION LOSSES CAUSED
BY WATER MOVING THROUGH A PIPELINE $ESIGN FLOW IS THE
AMOUNT OF WATER YOU HAVE TO WORK WITH 3EE h)NTRO TO
(YDROPOWER 0ART v IN (0 TO LEARN HOW TO MEASURE
THESE TWO IMPORTANT SITE VARIABLES /NCE YOUVE DETERMINED
NET HEAD AND DESIGN FLOW YOU CAN BEGIN TO ESTIMATE THE
POTENTIAL OUTPUT OF A HYDRO SYSTEM 4HESE COMPUTATIONS
HOME POWER FEBRUARY MARCH
HYDRO INTRO
%FFICIENCY ,OSSES
)N ADDITION TO PIPELINE LOSSES SMALL AMOUNTS OF ENERGY WILL
BE LOST THROUGH FRICTION WITHIN THE TURBINE DRIVE SYSTEM
GENERATOR AND TRANSMISSION LINES !LTHOUGH SOME EFFICIENCY
LOSSES ARE INEVITABLE DONT UNDERESTIMATE THE IMPORTANCE
OF GOOD DESIGN %FFICIENT SYSTEMS PRODUCE GREATER OUTPUT
OFTEN AT A LOWER COST PER WATT ! SYSTEM THAT IS CAREFULLY
MATCHED TO YOUR SITES HEAD AND FLOW USUALLY WONT COST ANY
MORE THAN A LESS SUITABLE DESIGN "UT IT WILL BE MUCH MORE
EFFICIENT PRODUCING MORE ELECTRICITY FROM YOUR AVAILABLE
RESOURCE /THER IMPROVEMENTS SUCH AS LARGER PIPELINE
DIAMETER OR A BETTER DRIVE SYSTEM MAY YIELD ENOUGH ADDED
POWER TO JUSTIFY THEIR HIGHER COST
"ECAUSE OF THE MANY VARIABLES IN SYSTEM DESIGN IT IS
IMPOSSIBLE TO ESTIMATE EFFICIENCY WITHOUT FIRST KNOWING YOUR
HEAD AND FLOW !S A GENERAL GUIDELINE HOWEVER YOU CAN
EXPECT A HOME
SIZED SYSTEM GENERATING DIRECT !# POWER TO
OPERATE AT ABOUT TO PERCENT hWATER
TO
WIREv EFFICIENCY
MEASURED BETWEEN TURBINE INPUT AND GENERATOR OUTPUT
3MALLER $# SYSTEMS GENERALLY HAVE LOWER EFFICIENCIES OF
TO PERCENT THOUGH RECENT TESTING BY (OME 0OWER SHOWS
THAT SOME SMALL TURBINES CAN ACHIEVE EFFICIENCIES IN THE LOW
PERCENT RANGE DEPENDING ON THE SYSTEM AND ELECTRONICS
)F YOU HAVE ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS FOR YOUR HEAD AND
FLOW YOUR TURBINE SUPPLIER WILL BE ABLE TO PROVIDE SOME
PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES OF EFFICIENCY AS WELL AS IDEAS FOR
OPTIMIZATION
! 2OUGH &ORMULA
9OU CAN GET PRETTY NERDY WITH POWER CALCULATIONS FOR HYDRO
SYSTEMS &OR LARGER SYSTEMS THIS IS CERTAINLY JUSTIFIED AND
ANY SUPPLIER WORTH DEALING WITH CAN CRUNCH THE NUMBERS
"UT WHEN YOURE JUST GETTING AN IDEA OF THE POTENTIAL OF YOUR
SITE WHATS NEEDED IS A SIMPLE FORMULA
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)F YOU MULTIPLY THE NET HEAD IN FEET BY THE FLOW IN GALLONS
PER MINUTE AND DIVIDE BY AN ADJUSTMENT FACTOR YOULL GET
THE CONTINUOUS POTENTIAL POWER OUTPUT OF THE TURBINE IN
WATTS 5SE A FACTOR OF FOR !# SYSTEMS AND A FACTOR OF TO
FOR $# SYSTEMS
3O IF YOU HAVE FEET M OF HEAD AND GALLONS
L PER MINUTE USING AS THE FACTOR YOULL GET ROUGHLY
WATTS OR +7 -ULTIPLY THAT BY HOURS IN A DAY AND
YOU HAVE +7( PER DAY WHICH IS A LOT
4RANSMISSION
4HE LAST IMPORTANT MEASUREMENT IS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN
YOUR GENERATOR AND EITHER YOUR BATTERY BANK FOR $#
SYSTEMS OR WHERE YOULL BE USING THE ELECTRICITY FOR !#
SYSTEMS !S WITH YOUR PIPELINE ALL YOU NEED TO DO IS
MEASURE THE DISTANCE ALONG THE ROUTE YOU PLAN TO RUN YOUR
WIRING
4RANSMISSION LINES ARE A LOT LIKE PIPELINES )NSTEAD OF
MOVING WATER THEY MOVE ELECTRICAL ENERGY BUT THE SAME
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRICTION LOSSES APPLY ,ONGER TRANSMISSION
LINES HIGHER CURRENT LOWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND SMALLER
%XAMPLE $# SYSTEM
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WIRES ALL CONTRIBUTE TO ENERGY LOSSES 9OU CAN MINIMIZE THESE
LOSSES BUT THE ELECTRICITY YOU CAN ACTUALLY USE WILL ALWAYS BE
SOMEWHAT LESS THAN WHAT YOUR SYSTEM IS GENERATING
4HERE ARE THREE WAYS TO REDUCE OR COMPENSATE FOR
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
s 5SE A SHORTER TRANSMISSION LINE
s 5SE LARGER WIRES
s )NCREASE THE VOLTAGE ON THE TRANSMISSION LINE
3HORTER LINES AND LARGER WIRES WILL REDUCE LINE LOSSES
FOR ANY SYSTEM BUT VOLTAGE CONSIDERATIONS ARE SIGNIFICANTLY
DIFFERENT BETWEEN $# AND !# SYSTEMS 4RANSFORMERS MAY
BE USED TO REDUCE WIRE SIZE IN LONG TRANSMISSION LINES AND
STEP
DOWN -004 CONTROLLERS CAN ALLOW YOUR TURBINE TO
RUN AT HIGH VOLTAGE WHILE CHARGING YOUR BATTERY AT A LOWER
VOLTAGE 9OUR TURBINE SUPPLIER CAN HELP YOU DETERMINE THE
BEST SOLUTION FOR YOUR SITE
WWWHOMEPOWERCOM
HYDRO INTRO
4URBINE 2UNNER
%XAMPLE !# 3YSTEM
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4HE RUNNER IS THE HEART OF THE TURBINE 4HIS IS WHERE WATER
POWER IS TRANSFORMED INTO THE ROTATIONAL FORCE THAT DRIVES
THE GENERATOR 2EGARDLESS OF THE RUNNER TYPE ITS BUCKETS
OR BLADES ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR CAPTURING THE MOST POSSIBLE
ENERGY FROM THE WATER 4HE CURVATURE OF EACH SURFACE
FRONT AND REAR DETERMINES HOW THE WATER WILL PUSH ITS WAY
AROUND UNTIL IT FALLS AWAY !LSO KEEP IN MIND THAT ANY GIVEN
RUNNER WILL PERFORM MOST EFFICIENTLY AT A SPECIFIC HEAD AND
FLOW 4HE TYPE AND SIZE OF YOUR RUNNER SHOULD BE CLOSELY
MATCHED TO YOUR SITE CHARACTERISTICS
,OOK FOR ALL
METAL RUNNERS WITH SMOOTH POLISHED
SURFACES TO ELIMINATE WATER AND AIR TURBULENCE /NE
PIECE
CAREFULLY MACHINED RUNNERS TYPICALLY RUN MORE EFFICIENTLY
AND RELIABLY THAN THOSE THAT ARE BOLTED TOGETHER "RONZE
MANGANESE RUNNERS WORK WELL FOR SMALL SYSTEMS WITH CLEAN
WATER AND HEADS UP TO ABOUT FEET M (IGH
TENSILE
STAINLESS STEEL RUNNERS ARE EXCELLENT FOR LARGER SYSTEMS OR
ABRASIVE WATER CONDITIONS !LL RUNNERS SHOULD BE CAREFULLY
BALANCED TO MINIMIZE VIBRATION A PROBLEM THAT NOT ONLY
AFFECTS EFFICIENCY BUT CAN ALSO CAUSE UNNECESSARY WEAR ON
THE TURBINE OVER TIME
4URBINE (OUSING
7HAT -AKES A 1UALITY (YDRO 3YSTEM
4HINK OF A HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM IN TERMS OF EFFICIENCY AND
RELIABILITY )N A PERFECT WORLD EFFICIENCY WOULD BE PERCENT
!LL THE ENERGY WITHIN THE WATER WOULD BE TRANSFORMED TO THE
ROTATING SHAFT 4HERE WOULD BE NO AIR OR WATER TURBULENCE NO
MECHANICAL RESISTANCE FROM THE TURBINES BEARINGS OR DRIVE
SYSTEM AND THE RUNNER WOULD BE PERFECTLY BALANCED 4HE
SIGNS OF ENERGY LOSSHEAT VIBRATION AND NOISEWOULD
BE ABSENT /F COURSE THE PERFECT TURBINE WOULD ALSO NEVER
BREAK DOWN OR REQUIRE MAINTENANCE
/BVIOUSLY NO TURBINE SYSTEM WILL EVER ACHIEVE THIS
DEGREE OF PERFECTION "UT ITS GOOD TO KEEP THESE GOALS IN
MIND BECAUSE BETTER EFFICIENCY AND RELIABILITY TRANSLATE INTO
MORE POWER AND A LOWER COST PER WATT 1UALITY COMPONENTS
AND CAREFUL MACHINING MAKE A BIG DIFFERENCE IN TURBINE
EFFICIENCY AND RELIABILITY (ERE ARE JUST A FEW OF THE THINGS TO
CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A TURBINE
4HE TURBINE HOUSING MUST BE WELL BUILT AND STURDY SINCE
IT MANAGES FORCES OF THE INCOMING WATER AS WELL AS THE
OUTGOING SHAFT POWER )N ADDITION ITS SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS
HAVE A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON EFFICIENCY &OR EXAMPLE CONSIDER
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HYDRO INTRO
A 0ELTON
TYPE TURBINE !S AN IMPULSE TURBINE IT IS DRIVEN
BY ONE OR MORE JETS OF WATER BUT SPINS IN AIR 4HIS MEANS
THAT BOTH HYDRODYNAMIC AND AERODYNAMIC FORCES MUST BE
CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN OF THE HOUSING )T MUST MINIMIZE
THE RESISTANCE FROM SPLASH AND SPRAY AND SMOOTHLY EXHAUST
TAIL WATERS YET ALSO BE SIZED AND SHAPED PROPERLY TO
MINIMIZE LOSSES DUE TO AIR TURBULENCE 3IMILARLY HOUSINGS
FOR HIGH
FLOW DESIGNS LIKE CROSSFLOW AND &RANCIS TURBINES
MUST BE PRECISELY ENGINEERED TO SMOOTHLY CHANNEL LARGE
VOLUMES OF WATER THROUGH THE TURBINE WITHOUT CAUSING
POCKETS OF TURBULENCE
,OOK FOR A SMOOTHLY WELDED HOUSING THAT IS CAREFULLY
MATCHED TO THE PROPER RUNNER FOR YOUR SITE +EEP IN MIND
THAT BOTH THE WATER FORCES AND THE RUNNER WILL BE PRODUCING
CONSIDERABLE TORQUE SO THE HOUSING MATERIAL AND ALL FITTINGS
SHOULD BE HEAVY DUTY -ATING SURFACES SUCH AS PIPE FLANGES
AND ACCESS COVERS SHOULD BE MACHINED FLAT AND LEAK FREE
3INCE WATER PROMOTES RUST AND CORROSION MAKE SURE ALL
VULNERABLE SURFACES ARE PROTECTED WITH HIGH
QUALITY POWDER
COATING OR EPOXY PAINT !LL BOLTS SHOULD BE STAINLESS STEEL
/THER 4URBINE #ONSIDERATIONS
!LL SURFACES THAT CARRY WATER CAN IMPACT EFFICIENCY FROM THE
INTAKE TO YOUR PIPELINE TO THE RACEWAY THAT CARRIES THE TAIL
WATERS AWAY FROM YOUR TURBINE ,OOK FOR SMOOTH SURFACES
WITH NO SHARP BENDS *ETS AND FLOW CONTROL VANES SHOULD BE
FINELY MACHINED WITH NO DISCERNABLE RIPPLES OR PITS
%FFICIENCY IS IMPORTANT BUT SO ARE DURABILITY AND
DEPENDABILITY 9OUR HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT SHOULD DELIVER
CLEAN ELECTRICITY WITHOUT INTERRUPTION 4HE QUALITY OF
COMPONENTS AND THEIR INSTALLATION CAN MAKE A BIG DIFFERENCE
ON THE QUALITY OF YOUR LIFE IN THE YEARS TO COME ,OOK FOR
QUALITY WORKMANSHIP IN THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
SEAL SYSTEMS SHAFT MATERIAL AND MACHINING AND ALL RELATED
COMPONENTS 0AY PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO THE SELECTION AND
MOUNTING OF BEARINGS THEY SHOULD SPIN SMOOTHLY WITHOUT
GRATING OR BINDING
!LTERNATOR
)N THE PAST MOST SMALL BATTERY
CHARGING HYDROELECTRIC
TURBINES RELIED ON OFF
THE
SHELF ALTERNATORS WITH BRUSHES
4HESE ALTERNATORS WORK WELL ESPECIALLY WHEN A SPECIFIC
STATOR IS CHOSEN BASED ON THE PARAMETERS OF A GIVEN HYDRO
SITE 3WAPPING OUT THE STATOR OPTIMIZES THE ALTERNATORS
RPM AND INCREASES THE TURBINES OUTPUT 7HILE THESE TYPES
OF ALTERNATORS ARE STILL USED DUE TO THEIR LOW COST THEY
ARE NOT IDEAL 4HE MAJOR DRAWBACK IS THAT THE ALTERNATORS
BRUSHES NEED REGULAR REPLACEMENT 4HESE DAYS BRUSHLESS
PERMANENT MAGNET 0- ALTERNATORS ARE AVAILABLE AND ARE
A BETTER CHOICE SINCE THEY ELIMINATE THE NEED FOR BRUSH
REPLACEMENT )N ADDITION BRUSHLESS PERMANENT MAGNET
ALTERNATORS PERFORM AT HIGHER EFFICIENCIES INCREASING YOUR
HYDRO SYSTEMS OUTPUT
2EGARDLESS OF TYPE AN ALTERNATORS OUTPUT IS ALWAYS
!# 4HE FREQUENCY OF THE !# WILL VARY DEPENDING ON THE
ROTATIONAL SPEED OF THE ALTERNATOR WHICH IS A DIRECT FUNCTION
OF THE PRESSURE AVAILABLE AT THE TURBINE 4HIS !# OUTPUT IS
NOT USABLE AS IS BECAUSE !# APPLIANCES ARE DESIGNED TO
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POSSIBLE )T MAY BE WORTH THE INVESTMENT IN A SLOWER SPEED
GENERATOR TO MAKE THIS POSSIBLE )F IT IS NECESSARY TO USE A BELT
DRIVE BETWEEN THE MAJOR COMPONENTS THEN AVOID TWO
POLE
GENERATORS AND PAY THE EXTRA MONEY TO INSTALL A FOUR
POLE
GENERATOR &OUR
POLE UNITS HAVE A
(ERTZ SYNCHRONOUS
SPEED OF RPM HALF THE SPEED OF THE TWO
POLE UNITS FOUR
TIMES THE WEIGHT AND SIX TIMES THE LIFE ! STANDARD FEATURE
IN MOST INDUSTRIAL
QUALITY GENERATORS WILL BE AN AUTOMATIC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR !62 4HE !62 WILL MAINTAIN STEADY
VOLTAGE OVER A BROAD RANGE OF GENERATOR LOADS
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7HEN IT COMES TO SUPPLIERS THERE IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR
EXPERIENCE 7HILE THE PRINCIPLES OF HYDROPOWER CAN BE
MASTERED INDOORS IT IS REAL WORLD EXPERIENCE THAT TEACHES
BOTH THE HIGHLIGHTS AND PITFALLS OF DIVERTING WATER FROM A
STREAM PRESSURIZING IT AND FORCING IT THROUGH A TURBINE !
TURBINE SUPPLIER WITH MANY YEARS OF FIELD EXPERIENCE WILL BE
INVALUABLE AS YOU DESIGN AND BUILD YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM
,OOK FOR AN EXPERIENCED SUPPLIER THAT SPECIALIZES IN
THE SIZE AND TYPE OF HYDRO SYSTEM YOU INTEND TO BUILD
! GOOD SUPPLIER WILL WORK WITH YOU BEGINNING WITH
YOUR MEASUREMENTS OF HEAD AND FLOW TO HELP YOU
DETERMINE THE RIGHT PIPELINE SIZE NET HEAD DESIGN FLOW
TURBINE SPECIFICATIONS DRIVE SYSTEM GENERATOR AND LOAD
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 9OU SHOULD BE ABLE TO COUNT ON YOUR
SUPPLIER TO MAKE SUGGESTIONS FOR OPTIMIZING EFFICIENCY
AND DEPENDABILITY INCLUDING THEIR EFFECTS ON COST AND
PERFORMANCE ! GOOD TURBINE SUPPLIER IS YOUR PARTNER AND
SHOULD TAKE A PERSONAL INTEREST IN YOUR SUCCESS !FTER ALL A
SATISFIED CUSTOMER IS VERY GOOD FOR BUSINESS
.EXT 3TEPS
!RMED WITH FOUR ESSENTIAL MEASUREMENTSHEAD FLOW
PIPELINE LENGTH AND TRANSMISSION LINE LENGTHYOURE READY
TO BEGIN EVALUATING YOUR SITE FOR A HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM !S
WE DISCUSSED IN 0ART OF THIS SERIES THERE ARE MANY CHOICES
TO MAKE ABOUT $# VS !# INTAKE DESIGNS TURBINE TYPES ETC
-ANY OF THESE DECISIONS WILL BECOME OBVIOUS ONCE YOUR FOUR
MEASUREMENTS ARE COMPLETE
!DVICE FROM TURBINE SUPPLIERS CAN BE INVALUABLE
DURING YOUR DESIGN PROCESS )F YOU PROVIDE THEM WITH YOUR
MEASUREMENTS MOST SUPPLIERS WILL PROPOSE A SYSTEM THAT
IS TAILORED TO YOUR SITE CHARACTERISTICS 9OU MAY FIND THAT
A GIVEN SUPPLIER WILL SPECIALIZE IN CERTAIN TYPES OF SYSTEMS
LIKE $# OR !# BUT MOST ARE HAPPY TO REFER YOU TO SOMEONE
ELSE WHEN APPROPRIATE
%MPHASIZE EFFICIENCY 9OUR HEAD AND FLOW DETERMINE
HOW MUCH RAW WATER POWER IS AVAILABLE BUT EFFICIENCY
DETERMINES HOW MUCH OF IT YOULL BE ABLE TO TRANSFORM INTO
USABLE ELECTRICITY 4HERE ARE COST TRADE
OFFS OF COURSE BUT IN
MANY CASES A MORE EFFICIENT SYSTEM WILL RESULT IN A LOWER
COST PER WATT 4HIS IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT IF YOURE THINKING
OF CONNECTING TO THE GRID WHERE HIGHER EFFICIENCY MEANS
MORE DOLLARS IN YOUR POCKET
) HOPE YOU HAVE FOUND THIS SERIES OF ARTICLES ON
HYDROPOWER HELPFUL )VE ONLY SCRATCHED THE SURFACE OF THIS
SUBSTANTIAL TOPIC BUT ) HOPE )VE WHETTED YOUR APPETITE !S
YOUVE SEEN THE CONCEPTS BEHIND HYDROPOWER ARE SIMPLE
7ATER TURNS A TURBINE THE TURBINE SPINS A GENERATOR AND
ELECTRICITY COMES OUT THE OTHER SIDE %VEN A NOVICE WITH LITTLE
OR NO EXPERIENCE COULD PRODUCE SOME HYDROELECTRICITY
GIVEN ENOUGH WATER POWER
$O YOU HAVE A STREAM /F THE THREE MOST POPULAR
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES HYDROPOWER DELIVERS THE
MOST WATTS FOR THE INVESTMENT AND CAN BE MOST ACCURATELY
ASSESSED ! FEW QUICK MEASUREMENTS WILL TELL YOU IF YOU
HAVE HYDRO POTENTIAL )N ANY EVENT YOULL HAVE A GREAT TIME
PLAYING IN THE WATER
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