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)NTROTO

(YDRO POWER
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(YDROPOWERISBASEDONSIMPLECONCEPTS-OVINGWATER
TURNSATURBINE THETURBINESPINSAGENERATOR ANDELECTRICITY
IS PRODUCED -ANY OTHER COMPONENTS MAY BE IN A SYSTEM
BUTITALLBEGINSWITHTHEENERGYALREADYWITHINTHEMOVING
WATER

7HAT-AKES7ATER0OWER
7ATER POWER IS THE COMBINATION OF HEAD AND FLOW "OTH
MUST BE PRESENT TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITY #ONSIDER A TYPICAL
HYDRO SYSTEM 7ATER IS DIVERTED FROM A STREAM INTO A
PIPELINE WHERE IT IS DIRECTED DOWNHILL AND THROUGH THE
TURBINE FLOW  4HE VERTICAL DROP HEAD CREATES PRESSURE
AT THE BOTTOM END OF THE PIPELINE 4HE PRESSURIZED WATER
EMERGING FROM THE END OF THE PIPE CREATES THE FORCE THAT
DRIVESTHETURBINE-OREFLOWORMOREHEADPRODUCESMORE
ELECTRICITY %LECTRICAL POWER OUTPUT WILL ALWAYS BE SLIGHTLY
LESS THAN WATER POWER INPUT DUE TO TURBINE AND SYSTEM
INEFFICIENCIES
(EADISWATERPRESSURE WHICHISCREATEDBYTHEDIFFERENCE
INELEVATIONBETWEENTHEWATERINTAKEANDTHETURBINE(EAD
CAN BE EXPRESSED AS VERTICAL DISTANCE FEET OR METERS OR AS
PRESSURE SUCHASPOUNDSPERSQUAREINCHPSI .ETHEADIS
THEPRESSUREAVAILABLEATTHETURBINEWHENWATERISFLOWING
WHICHWILLALWAYSBELESSTHANTHEPRESSUREWHENTHEWATERIS
TURNEDOFFSTATICHEAD DUETOTHEFRICTIONBETWEENTHEWATER
ANDTHEPIPE0IPELINEDIAMETERHASANEFFECTONNETHEAD
&LOW IS WATER QUANTITY AND IS EXPRESSED AS hVOLUME
PER TIME v SUCH AS GALLONS PER MINUTE GPM CUBIC FEET
PER SECOND CFS OR LITERS PER MINUTE $ESIGN FLOW IS THE
MAXIMUM FLOW FOR WHICH YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM IS DESIGNED
)T WILL LIKELY BE LESS THAN THE MAXIMUM FLOW OF YOUR
STREAM ESPECIALLY DURING THE RAINY SEASON MORE THAN
YOURMINIMUMFLOW ANDACOMPROMISEBETWEENPOTENTIAL
ELECTRICALOUTPUTANDSYSTEMCOST
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HOMEPOWEROCTOBERNOVEMBER

HYDROINTRO
(EAD AND FLOW ARE THE TWO MOST IMPORTANT THINGS
YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT YOUR SITE 9OU MUST HAVE THESE
MEASUREMENTS BEFORE YOU CAN SERIOUSLY DISCUSS YOUR
PROJECT HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY IT WILL GENERATE OR THE COST
OF COMPONENTS %VERY ASPECT OF A HYDRO SYSTEM REVOLVES
AROUND HEAD AND FLOW )N 0ART  OF THIS SERIES WE WILL
DISCUSSHOWTOMEASURETHEM

5SEFUL(YDRO
#ONVERSIONS
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0OWER#ONVERSION%FFICIENCY

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4HE GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY IS SIMPLY THE CONVERSION


OFONEFORMOFENERGYTOANOTHER4HETURBINECONVERTSTHE
ENERGY IN THE MOVING WATER INTO ROTATIONAL ENERGY AT ITS
SHAFT WHICH IS THEN CONVERTED TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY BY THE
GENERATOR
%NERGY IS NEVER CREATED IT CAN ONLY BE CONVERTED
FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER 3OME OF THE ENERGY WILL BE LOST
THROUGH FRICTION AT EVERY POINT OF CONVERSION %FFICIENCY IS
THEMEASUREOFHOWMUCHENERGYISACTUALLYCONVERTED4HE
SIMPLEFORMULAFORTHISIS

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7HILESOMELOSSESAREINEVITABLEASTHEENERGYINMOVING
WATER GETS CONVERTED TO ELECTRICITY THEY CAN BE MINIMIZED
WITHGOODDESIGN%ACHASPECTOFYOURHYDROSYSTEMFROM
WATERINTAKETOTURBINE GENERATORALIGNMENTTOTRANSMISSION
WIRE SIZEAFFECTS EFFICIENCY 4URBINE DESIGN IS ESPECIALLY
IMPORTANT ANDMUSTBEMATCHEDTOYOURSPECIFICHEADAND
FLOWFORBESTEFFICIENCY
!HYDROSYSTEMISASERIESOFINTERCONNECTEDCOMPONENTS
7ATERFLOWSINATONEENDOFTHESYSTEM ANDELECTRICITYCOMES
OUT THE OTHER (ERE IS AN OVERVIEW OF THESE COMPONENTS
FROMTHEWATERSOURCETOTHEELECTRICALCONTROLS

7ATER$IVERSION)NTAKE
4HE INTAKE IS TYPICALLY THE HIGHEST POINT OF YOUR HYDRO
SYSTEM WHERE WATER IS DIVERTED FROM THE STREAM INTO THE
PIPELINE THAT FEEDS YOUR TURBINE ! DIVERSION CAN BE AS
SIMPLEASASCREENEDPIPEDROPPEDINTOAPOOLOFWATER OR
ASBIGANDCOMPLEXASADAMACROSSANENTIRECREEKORRIVER
! WATER DIVERSION SYSTEM SERVES TWO PRIMARY PURPOSES
4HE FIRST IS TO PROVIDE A DEEP ENOUGH POOL OF WATER TO
CREATEASMOOTH AIR FREEINLETTOYOURPIPELINE!IRREDUCES
HORSEPOWERANDCANDAMAGEYOURTURBINE 4HESECONDISTO
REMOVEDIRTANDDEBRIS
4RASHRACKSANDROUGHSCREENSCANHELP
STOP LARGER DEBRIS SUCH AS LEAVES AND
LIMBS WHILE AN AREA OF QUIET WATER
WILL ALLOW DIRT AND OTHER SEDIMENT TO
SETTLE TO THE BOTTOM BEFORE ENTERING
YOUR PIPELINE 4HIS HELPS REDUCE
ABRASIVEWEARONYOURTURBINE!NOTHER
APPROACH IS TO USE A FINE SELF CLEANING
SCREEN THAT FILTERS BOTH LARGE DEBRIS AND
SMALLPARTICLES

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4HE PIPELINE OR PENSTOCK NOT ONLY MOVES THE WATER
TOYOURTURBINE BUTISALSOTHEENCLOSURETHATCREATESHEAD
PRESSUREASTHEVERTICALDROPINCREASES)NEFFECT THEPIPELINE
FOCUSESALLTHEWATERPOWERATTHEBOTTOMOFTHEPIPE WHERE
THE TURBINE IS )N CONTRAST AN OPEN STREAM DISSIPATES THE
ENERGYASTHEWATERTRAVELSDOWNHILL
0IPELINE DIAMETER LENGTH MATERIAL AND ROUTING ALL
AFFECT EFFICIENCY 'UIDELINES ARE AVAILABLE FOR MATCHING
THE SIZE OF YOUR PIPELINE TO
THE DESIGN FLOW OF YOUR
SYSTEM !S YOULL SEE IN THE
NEXT ARTICLE IN THIS SERIES
ASMALL DIAMETERPIPELINE
CAN CONSIDERABLY REDUCE

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HYDROINTRO
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YOUR AVAILABLE HORSEPOWER EVEN THOUGH IT CAN CARRY ALL


AVAILABLEWATER,ARGERDIAMETERPIPELINESHAVELESSFRICTION
ASTHEWATERTRAVELSTHROUGH

THE WATER THAT OPERATE FULLY IMMERSED IN WATER AND ARE
TYPICALLYUSEDINLOWTOMODERATEHEADSYSTEMSWITHHIGH
FLOW%XAMPLESINCLUDE&RANCIS PROPELLER AND+APLAN
)MPULSETURBINESUSERUNNERSTHATOPERATEWITHOUTBEING
IMMERSED DRIVENBYONEORMOREHIGH VELOCITYJETSOFWATER
%XAMPLES INCLUDE 0ELTON AND TURGO )MPULSE TURBINES ARE
TYPICALLY USED WITH MODERATE TO HIGH HEAD SYSTEMS AND
USENOZZLESTOPRODUCETHEHIGH VELOCITYJETS3OMEIMPULSE
TURBINESCANOPERATEEFFICIENTLYWITHASLITTLEASFEETM
OFHEAD
4HE CROSSFLOW TURBINE IS A SPECIAL CASE !LTHOUGH
TECHNICALLY CLASSIFIED AS AN IMPULSE TURBINE BECAUSE THE
RUNNER IS NOT ENTIRELY IMMERSED IN WATER THIS hSQUIRREL
CAGEv TYPE OF RUNNER IS USED IN APPLICATIONS WITH LOW TO
MODERATE HEAD AND HIGH FLOW 4HE WATER PASSES THROUGH
ALARGE RECTANGULAROPENINGTODRIVETHETURBINEBLADES IN
CONTRASTTOTHESMALL HIGH PRESSUREJETSUSEDFOR0ELTONAND
TURGOTURBINES
2EGARDLESSOFTHETURBINETYPE EFFICIENCYISINTHEDETAILS
%ACHTURBINETYPECANBEDESIGNEDTOMEETVASTLYDIFFERENT
REQUIREMENTS 4HE TURBINE SYSTEM IS DESIGNED AROUND NET
HEAD AND DESIGN FLOW 4HESE CRITERIA NOT ONLY INFLUENCE
WHICHTYPEOFTURBINETOUSE BUTARECRITICALTOTHEDESIGNOF
THEENTIRETURBINESYSTEM
-INOR DIFFERENCES IN SPECIFICATIONS CAN SIGNIFICANTLY
IMPACT ENERGY TRANSFER EFFICIENCY 4HE DIAMETER OF THE
RUNNER FRONT AND BACK CURVATURES OF ITS BUCKETS OR BLADES
CASTING MATERIALS NOZZLE IF USED TURBINE HOUSING AND
QUALITYOFCOMPONENTSALLAFFECTEFFICIENCYANDRELIABILITY
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PROVIDEAPLACEFORTHESYSTEMCOMPONENTSTOBEMOUNTED
ANDTOPROTECTTHEMFROMTHEELEMENTS)TSDESIGNCANAFFECT
SYSTEM EFFICIENCY ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO HOW THE WATER
ENTERSANDEXITSYOURTURBINE&OREXAMPLE TOOMANYELBOWS
LEADINGTOTHETURBINECANCREATETURBULENCEANDHEADLOSS
,IKEWISE ANYRESTRICTIONSTOWATEREXITINGTHETURBINEMAY
INCREASERESISTANCEAGAINSTTHETURBINESMOVINGPARTS

4URBINE
4HE TURBINE IS THE HEART OF THE HYDRO SYSTEM WHERE
WATER POWER IS CONVERTED INTO THE ROTATIONAL FORCE THAT
DRIVES THE GENERATOR &OR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY THE TURBINE
SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO MATCH YOUR SPECIFIC HEAD AND FLOW
4HERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF TURBINES AND PROPER
SELECTION REQUIRES CONSIDERABLE EXPERTISE ! 0ELTON DESIGN
FOR EXAMPLE WORKS BEST WITH MEDIUM TO HIGH HEADS !
CROSSFLOW DESIGN WORKS BETTER WITH LOWER HEAD BUT HIGHER
FLOW /THER TURBINE TYPES SUCH AS &RANCIS TURGO AND
PROPELLER EACHHAVEOPTIMUMAPPLICATIONS
4URBINESCANBEDIVIDEDINTOTWOMAJORTYPES2EACTION
TURBINES USE RUNNERS THE ROTATING PORTION THAT RECEIVES



HOMEPOWEROCTOBERNOVEMBER

HYDROINTRO
$RIVE3YSTEM
4HE DRIVE SYSTEM COUPLES THE TURBINE TO THE GENERATOR
!T ONE END IT ALLOWS THE TURBINE TO SPIN AT THE RPM THAT
DELIVERSBESTEFFICIENCY!TTHEOTHER ITDRIVESTHEGENERATOR
AT THE RPM THAT PRODUCES CORRECT VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
FREQUENCYAPPLIESTOALTERNATINGCURRENT!# SYSTEMSONLY
4HEMOSTEFFICIENTANDRELIABLEDRIVESYSTEMISADIRECT 
COUPLINGBETWEENTHETURBINEANDGENERATOR
4HISISPOSSIBLEFORMANYSITES BUTNOTFORALLHEADAND
FLOW COMBINATIONS )N MANY SITUATIONS ESPECIALLY WITH
!# SYSTEMS IT IS NECESSARY TO ADJUST THE TRANSFER RATIO
SO THAT BOTH TURBINE AND GENERATOR RUN AT THEIR OPTIMUM
BUT DIFFERENT SPEEDS 4HESE TYPES OF DRIVE SYSTEMS CAN
USEEITHERGEARS CHAINS OR BELTS EACH OF WHICH INTRODUCES
ADDITIONAL EFFICIENCY LOSSES INTO THE SYSTEM "ELT SYSTEMS
TENDTOBEMOREPOPULARBECAUSEOFTHEIRLOWERCOST

'ENERATOR
4HE GENERATOR CONVERTS THE ROTATIONAL ENERGY FROM THE
TURBINESHAFTINTOELECTRICITY%FFICIENCYISIMPORTANTATTHIS
STAGE TOO BUT MOST MODERN WELL BUILT GENERATORS DELIVER
GOODEFFICIENCY$IRECTCURRENT$# GENERATORS ORALTERNATORS

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HYDROINTRO
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DEPENDINGONWHEREYOUAREINTHEWORLD ASDOTHEMAJOR
GRIDSTHATINTERCONNECTLARGEGENERATINGSTATIONS&REQUENCY
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HYDROSYSTEMS THEINVERTERPRODUCESAN!#WAVEFORMATA
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CONTROLLERREGULATESTHEFREQUENCY

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SYSTEMS AND ARE USUALLY AUGMENTED WITH BATTERIES FOR
RESERVE CAPACITY AS WELL AS INVERTERS FOR CONVERTING THE
ELECTRICITY INTO THE !# REQUIRED BY MOST APPLIANCES $#
GENERATORSAREAVAILABLEINAVARIETYOFVOLTAGESANDPOWER
OUTPUTS
!#GENERATORSARETYPICALLYUSEDWITHSYSTEMSPRODUCING
ABOUT  +7 OR MORE !# VOLTAGE IS ALSO EASILY CHANGED
USINGTRANSFORMERS WHICHCANIMPROVEEFFICIENCYWITHLONG
TRANSMISSION LINES $EPENDING ON YOUR REQUIREMENTS YOU
CANCHOOSEEITHERSINGLE PHASEORTHREE PHASE!#GENERATORS
INAVARIETYOFVOLTAGES



HOMEPOWEROCTOBERNOVEMBER

HYDROINTRO
!##ONTROLS
0URE !# HYDRO SYSTEMS HAVE NO BATTERIES OR INVERTER
!#ISUSEDBYLOADSDIRECTLYFROMTHEGENERATOR ANDSURPLUS
ELECTRICITYISBURNEDOFFINDUMPLOADSUSUALLYRESISTANCE
HEATERS
'OVERNORS AND OTHER CONTROLS HELP ENSURE THAT AN !#
GENERATOR CONSTANTLY SPINS AT ITS CORRECT SPEED 4HE MOST
COMMON TYPES OF GOVERNORS FOR SMALL HYDRO SYSTEMS
ACCOMPLISH THIS BY MANAGING THE LOAD ON THE GENERATOR
7ITH NO LOAD THE GENERATOR WOULD hFREEWHEEL v AND RUN
AT A VERY HIGH RPM "Y ADDING PROGRESSIVELY HIGHER LOADS
YOU CAN EVENTUALLY SLOW THE GENERATOR UNTIL IT REACHES THE
EXACT RPM FOR PROPER !# VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY !S LONG
AS YOU MAINTAIN THIS hPERFECTv LOAD KNOWN AS THE DESIGN
LOAD ELECTRICALOUTPUTWILLBECORRECT9OUMIGHTBEABLETO
MAINTAIN THE CORRECT LOAD YOURSELF BY MANUALLY SWITCHING
DEVICES ON AND OFF BUT A GOVERNOR CAN DO A BETTER JOB
AUTOMATICALLY
"YCONNECTINGYOURHYDROSYSTEMTOTHEUTILITYGRID YOU
CAN DRAW ENERGY FROM THE GRID DURING PEAK USAGE TIMES
WHEN YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM CANT KEEP UP AND FEED EXCESS
ELECTRICITY BACK INTO THE GRID WHEN YOUR USAGE IS LOW )N
EFFECT THEGRIDACTSASALARGEBATTERYWITHINFINITECAPACITY
)F YOU CHOOSE TO CONNECT TO THE GRID HOWEVER KEEP IN
MINDTHATSIGNIFICANTSYNCHRONIZATIONANDSAFEGUARDSMUST
BEINPLACE'RIDINTERCONNECTIONCONTROLSDOBOTH4HEYWILL
MONITORTHEGRIDANDENSURETHATYOURSYSTEMISGENERATING
COMPATIBLE VOLTAGE FREQUENCY AND PHASE 4HEY WILL ALSO

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INSTANTLY DISCONNECT FROM THE GRID IF MAJOR FLUCTUATIONS


OCCUR ON EITHER END !UTOMATIC DISCONNECTION IS CRITICAL
TO THE SAFETY OF ALL PARTIES !T THE SAME TIME EMERGENCY
SHUTDOWNSYSTEMSINTERRUPTTHEWATERFLOWTOTHETURBINE
CAUSING THE SYSTEM TO COAST TO A STOP AND PROTECTING THE
TURBINEFROMOVERSPEED

$##ONTROLS
!$#HYDROSYSTEMWORKSVERYDIFFERENTLYFROMAN!#
SYSTEM4HEALTERNATORORGENERATOROUTPUTCHARGESBATTERIES
!DIVERSIONCONTROLLERSHUNTSEXCESSENERGYTOADUMPLOAD
!N INVERTER CONVERTS $# ELECTRICITY TO !# ELECTRICITY FOR
HOMEUSE$#SYSTEMSMAKESENSEFORSMALLERSTREAMSWITH
POTENTIALOFLESSTHAN+7
!#SYSTEMSARELIMITEDTOAPEAKLOADTHATISEQUIVALENT
TOTHEOUTPUTOFTHEGENERATOR7ITHABATTERYBANKANDLARGE
INVERTER $#SYSTEMSCANSUPPLYAHIGHPEAKLOADFROMTHE
BATTERIESEVENTHOUGHTHEGENERATINGCAPACITYISLOWER
3ERIES CHARGE CONTROLLERS LIKE THOSE USED WITH SOLAR
ELECTRIC SYSTEMS ARE NOT USED WITH HYDRO SYSTEMS SINCE
THE GENERATORS CANNOT RUN WITHOUT A LOAD OPEN CIRCUIT 
4HIS CAN POTENTIALLY DAMAGE THE ALTERNATOR WINDINGS AND
BEARINGSFROMOVERSPEEDING)NSTEAD ADIVERSIONORSHUNT
CONTROLLERMUSTBEUSED4HESENORMALLYDIVERTENERGYFROM
THEBATTERYTOARESISTANCEHEATERAIRORWATER TOKEEPTHE
WWWHOMEPOWERCOM



HYDROINTRO


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BATTERY VOLTAGE AT THE DESIRED LEVEL WHILE MAINTAINING A


CONSTANTLOADONTHEGENERATOR
4HEINVERTERANDBATTERYBANKINA$#HYDROSYSTEMARE
EXACTLYTHESAMEASTHOSEUSEDINBATTERY BASED SOLAR ELECTRIC
OR WIND ELECTRIC SYSTEMS .O OTHER SPECIAL EQUIPMENT IS
NEEDED#HARGECONTROLLERSETTINGSMAYBELOWERTHANUSED
IN TYPICAL 06 AND WIND SYSTEMS SINCE HYDRO SYSTEMS ARE
CONSTANT AND TEND TO RUN WITH FULL BATTERIES MUCH OF THE
TIME

STRAIGHTTOYOURBOTTOMLINE9OURTURBINEMANUFACTURERCAN
GIVE YOU GUIDANCE ON THE MOST EFFICIENT DESIGN AS WELL AS
GRIDINTERCONNECTIONCONTROLSANDSAFEGUARDS)FYOUREOFF
GRID ANDYOURSITEDOESNTHAVELOTSOFHEADANDFLOW HIGH
EFFICIENCYCANMAKETHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENAMPLEELECTRICITY
FOR YOUR NEEDS AND HAVING TO USE A BACKUP GASOLINE
POWEREDGENERATOR
7HETHER A HYDRO SYSTEM GENERATES A FEW WATTS OR
HUNDREDS OF MEGAWATTS THE FUNDAMENTALS ARE THE SAME
(EAD AND FLOW DETERMINE HOW MUCH RAW WATER POWER
IS AVAILABLE AND THE SYSTEM EFFICIENCY AFFECTS HOW MUCH
ELECTRICITY WILL COME OUT THE OTHER END %ACH COMPONENT
OF A HYDRO SYSTEM AFFECTS EFFICIENCY SO ITS WORTHWHILE TO
OPTIMIZEYOURDESIGNEVERYSTEPOFTHEWAY
)SHYDROPOWERFEASIBLEFORYOU4HENEXTARTICLEINTHIS
SERIESWILLHELPYOUANSWERTHISQUESTION)LLDISCUSSMETHODS
FOR MEASURING HEAD AND FLOW OFFER TIPS FOR DETERMINING
PIPELINESIZE ANDPROVIDEFORMULASFORCALCULATINGELECTRICAL
OUTPUTANDEFFICIENCY

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(EAD &LOW %FFICIENCY


)F YOU EXPECT TO SELL ELECTRICITY BACK TO THE UTILITY PAY
EXTRA ATTENTION TO THE EFFICIENCY OF YOUR HYDRO SYSTEM
BECAUSE HIGHER OUTPUT AND A LOWER COST PER WATT WILL GO

h&ROM7ATERTO7IRE"UILDINGA-ICROHYDRO3YSTEM vBY
0ETER4ALBOT (0

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(YDRO 0OWERFOR(OME5SE

Introducing a new adjustable


Permanent Magnetic Brushless Alternator
25 - 30% more efficient than Hi Output Alternator
Marine Grade Construction throughout
Re-connectable Stator
Retrofittable on existing turbine

632 Swanton Road


Davenport, CA 95017
831-425-7652



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HOMEPOWEROCTOBERNOVEMBER

)NTROTO

(YDROPOWER

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3MALL SCALE HYDRO IS THE ONLY RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE


THAT WORKS FOR YOU  HOURS A DAY  DAYS A WEEK )N
THE FIRST ARTICLE IN THIS SERIES (0 ) EXPLAINED THE
BASICSOFHYDROELECTRICSYSTEMTHEORY ANDREVIEWEDSYSTEM
COMPONENTS 4HIS ARTICLE FOCUSES ON MEASURING A STREAMS
HEADANDFLOW"EFOREYOUCANBEGINDESIGNINGYOURHYDRO
SYSTEMORESTIMATINGHOWMUCHELECTRICITYITWILLPRODUCE
YOULLNEEDTOMAKEFOURESSENTIALMEASUREMENTS

PIPELINESIZE TURBINETYPE ROTATIONALSPEED ANDGENERATOR


SIZE %VEN ROUGH COST ESTIMATES WILL BE IMPOSSIBLE UNTIL
YOUVEMEASUREDHEADANDFLOW
7HEN MEASURING HEAD AND FLOW KEEP IN MIND THAT
ACCURACYISIMPORTANT)NACCURATEMEASUREMENTSCANRESULT
INAHYDROSYSTEMDESIGNEDTOTHEWRONGSPECS ANDONETHAT
PRODUCESLESSELECTRICITYATAGREATEREXPENSE

s (EAD THE VERTICAL DISTANCE BETWEEN THE INTAKE AND


TURBINE
s &LOWHOWMUCHWATERCOMESDOWNTHESTREAM
s 0IPELINEPENSTOCK LENGTH
s %LECTRICALTRANSMISSIONLINELENGTHFROMTURBINETOHOME
ORBATTERYBANK
4HISARTICLEWILLDISCUSSHOWTOMEASUREHEADANDFLOW
(EADANDFLOWARETHETWOMOSTIMPORTANTFACTSYOUNEED
TO KNOW ABOUT YOUR HYDRO SITE 9OU SIMPLY CANNOT MOVE
FORWARDWITHOUTTHESEMEASUREMENTS9OURSITESHEADAND
FLOWWILLDETERMINEEVERYTHINGABOUTYOURHYDROSYSTEM



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HOMEPOWERDECEMBERJANUARY

HEADFLOW
-EASURING(EAD
(EAD IS WATER PRESSURE CREATED BY THE DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION BETWEEN THE INTAKE OF YOUR PIPELINE AND YOUR
WATER TURBINE (EAD CAN BE MEASURED AS VERTICAL DISTANCE
FEET OR METERS OR AS PRESSURE POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH
NEWTONS PER SQUARE METER ETC  2EGARDLESS OF THE SIZE OF
YOUR STREAM HIGHER HEAD WILL PRODUCE GREATER PRESSURE
ANDTHEREFOREHIGHEROUTPUTATTHETURBINE
!N ALTIMETER CAN BE USEFUL IN ESTIMATING HEAD FOR
PRELIMINARY SITE EVALUATION BUT SHOULD NOT BE USED FOR
THE FINAL MEASUREMENT )T IS QUITE COMMON FOR LOW COST
BAROMETRIC ALTIMETERS TO REFLECT ERRORS OF  FEET  M
OR MORE EVEN WHEN CALIBRATED '03 ALTIMETERS ARE OFTEN
EVEN LESS ACCURATE 4OPOGRAPHIC MAPS CAN ALSO BE USED
TO GIVE YOU A VERY ROUGH IDEA OF THE VERTICAL DROP ALONG
A SECTION OF A STREAMS COURSE "UT ONLY TWO METHODS OF
HEAD MEASUREMENT ARE ACCURATE ENOUGH FOR HYDRO SYSTEM
DESIGNDIRECTHEIGHTMEASUREMENTANDWATERPRESSURE

$IRECT(EIGHT-EASUREMENT
4OMEASUREHEAD YOUCANUSEALASERLEVEL ASURVEYORS
TRANSIT A CONTRACTORS LEVEL ON A TRIPOD OR A SIGHT LEVEL
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HEADFLOW
PERCENTOFTHEGROSSTOTAL HEADISLOST
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SCALE HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEMS ARE ALMOST ALWAYS THE
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-OST PEOPLE DONT HAVE A STREAM WITH ADEQUATE FLOW AND
VERTICALDROP BUTIFYOUDO PATYOURSELFONTHEBACK9OURE
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TO YOUR TURBINE ADJUSTED FOR PIPE FRICTION LOSSES CAUSED
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AMOUNT OF WATER YOU HAVE TO WORK WITH 3EE h)NTRO TO
(YDROPOWER 0ART v IN (0 TO LEARN HOW TO MEASURE
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POTENTIAL OUTPUT OF A HYDRO SYSTEM 4HESE COMPUTATIONS



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WAYTOINCREASEPOWERGENERATIONBECAUSEITHASMINIMAL
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!CCURACY IS IMPORTANT 4HE DESIGN OF YOUR SYSTEM
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WIRESALLCONTRIBUTETOENERGYLOSSES9OUCANMINIMIZETHESE
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SOMEWHATLESSTHANWHATYOURSYSTEMISGENERATING
4HERE ARE THREE WAYS TO REDUCE OR COMPENSATE FOR
TRANSMISSIONLINELOSSES
s 5SEASHORTERTRANSMISSIONLINE
s 5SELARGERWIRES
s )NCREASETHEVOLTAGEONTHETRANSMISSIONLINE
3HORTER LINES AND LARGER WIRES WILL REDUCE LINE LOSSES
FORANYSYSTEM BUTVOLTAGECONSIDERATIONSARESIGNIFICANTLY
DIFFERENT BETWEEN $# AND !# SYSTEMS 4RANSFORMERS MAY
BEUSEDTOREDUCEWIRESIZEINLONGTRANSMISSIONLINES AND
STEP DOWN -004 CONTROLLERS CAN ALLOW YOUR TURBINE TO
RUNATHIGHVOLTAGEWHILECHARGINGYOURBATTERYATALOWER
VOLTAGE9OURTURBINESUPPLIERCANHELPYOUDETERMINETHE
BESTSOLUTIONFORYOURSITE

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HYDROINTRO
4URBINE2UNNER

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4HERUNNERISTHEHEARTOFTHETURBINE4HISISWHEREWATER
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OR BLADES ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR CAPTURING THE MOST POSSIBLE
ENERGY FROM THE WATER 4HE CURVATURE OF EACH SURFACE
FRONTANDREAR DETERMINESHOWTHEWATERWILLPUSHITSWAY
AROUNDUNTILITFALLSAWAY!LSOKEEPINMINDTHATANYGIVEN
RUNNERWILLPERFORMMOSTEFFICIENTLYATASPECIFICHEADAND
FLOW 4HE TYPE AND SIZE OF YOUR RUNNER SHOULD BE CLOSELY
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SURFACES TO ELIMINATE WATER AND AIR TURBULENCE /NE PIECE
CAREFULLY MACHINED RUNNERS TYPICALLY RUN MORE EFFICIENTLY
AND RELIABLY THAN THOSE THAT ARE BOLTED TOGETHER "RONZE
MANGANESERUNNERSWORKWELLFORSMALLSYSTEMSWITHCLEAN
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STAINLESS STEEL RUNNERS ARE EXCELLENT FOR LARGER SYSTEMS OR
ABRASIVE WATER CONDITIONS !LL RUNNERS SHOULD BE CAREFULLY
BALANCED TO MINIMIZE VIBRATION A PROBLEM THAT NOT ONLY
AFFECTS EFFICIENCY BUT CAN ALSO CAUSE UNNECESSARY WEAR ON
THETURBINEOVERTIME

4URBINE(OUSING
7HAT-AKESA1UALITY(YDRO3YSTEM
4HINK OF A HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM IN TERMS OF EFFICIENCY AND
RELIABILITY)NAPERFECTWORLD EFFICIENCYWOULDBEPERCENT
!LLTHEENERGYWITHINTHEWATERWOULDBETRANSFORMEDTOTHE
ROTATINGSHAFT4HEREWOULDBENOAIRORWATERTURBULENCE NO
MECHANICAL RESISTANCE FROM THE TURBINES BEARINGS OR DRIVE
SYSTEM AND THE RUNNER WOULD BE PERFECTLY BALANCED 4HE
SIGNS OF ENERGY LOSSHEAT VIBRATION AND NOISEWOULD
BE ABSENT /F COURSE THE PERFECT TURBINE WOULD ALSO NEVER
BREAKDOWNORREQUIREMAINTENANCE
/BVIOUSLY NO TURBINE SYSTEM WILL EVER ACHIEVE THIS
DEGREE OF PERFECTION "UT ITS GOOD TO KEEP THESE GOALS IN
MIND BECAUSEBETTEREFFICIENCYANDRELIABILITYTRANSLATEINTO
MOREPOWERANDALOWERCOSTPERWATT1UALITYCOMPONENTS
AND CAREFUL MACHINING MAKE A BIG DIFFERENCE IN TURBINE
EFFICIENCYANDRELIABILITY(EREAREJUSTAFEWOFTHETHINGSTO
CONSIDERWHENSELECTINGATURBINE

4HE TURBINE HOUSING MUST BE WELL BUILT AND STURDY SINCE
IT MANAGES FORCES OF THE INCOMING WATER AS WELL AS THE
OUTGOINGSHAFTPOWER)NADDITION ITSSHAPEANDDIMENSIONS
HAVEASIGNIFICANTEFFECTONEFFICIENCY&OREXAMPLE CONSIDER

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HOMEPOWERFEBRUARYMARCH

HYDROINTRO
A 0ELTON TYPE TURBINE !S AN IMPULSE TURBINE IT IS DRIVEN
BY ONE OR MORE JETS OF WATER BUT SPINS IN AIR 4HIS MEANS
THAT BOTH HYDRODYNAMIC AND AERODYNAMIC FORCES MUST BE
CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN OF THE HOUSING )T MUST MINIMIZE
THERESISTANCEFROMSPLASHANDSPRAY ANDSMOOTHLYEXHAUST
TAIL WATERS YET ALSO BE SIZED AND SHAPED PROPERLY TO
MINIMIZE LOSSES DUE TO AIR TURBULENCE 3IMILARLY HOUSINGS
FOR HIGH FLOW DESIGNS LIKE CROSSFLOW AND &RANCIS TURBINES
MUST BE PRECISELY ENGINEERED TO SMOOTHLY CHANNEL LARGE
VOLUMES OF WATER THROUGH THE TURBINE WITHOUT CAUSING
POCKETSOFTURBULENCE
,OOK FOR A SMOOTHLY WELDED HOUSING THAT IS CAREFULLY
MATCHED TO THE PROPER RUNNER FOR YOUR SITE +EEP IN MIND
THATBOTHTHEWATERFORCESANDTHERUNNERWILLBEPRODUCING
CONSIDERABLETORQUE SOTHEHOUSINGMATERIALANDALLFITTINGS
SHOULDBEHEAVYDUTY-ATINGSURFACES SUCHASPIPEFLANGES
AND ACCESS COVERS SHOULD BE MACHINED FLAT AND LEAK FREE
3INCE WATER PROMOTES RUST AND CORROSION MAKE SURE ALL
VULNERABLESURFACESAREPROTECTEDWITHHIGH QUALITYPOWDER
COATINGOREPOXYPAINT!LLBOLTSSHOULDBESTAINLESSSTEEL

/THER4URBINE#ONSIDERATIONS
!LLSURFACESTHATCARRYWATERCANIMPACTEFFICIENCY FROMTHE
INTAKE TO YOUR PIPELINE TO THE RACEWAY THAT CARRIES THE TAIL
WATERS AWAY FROM YOUR TURBINE ,OOK FOR SMOOTH SURFACES
WITHNOSHARPBENDS*ETSANDFLOWCONTROLVANESSHOULDBE
FINELYMACHINEDWITHNODISCERNABLERIPPLESORPITS
%FFICIENCY IS IMPORTANT BUT SO ARE DURABILITY AND
DEPENDABILITY 9OUR HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT SHOULD DELIVER
CLEAN ELECTRICITY WITHOUT INTERRUPTION 4HE QUALITY OF
COMPONENTSANDTHEIRINSTALLATIONCANMAKEABIGDIFFERENCE
ON THE QUALITY OF YOUR LIFE IN THE YEARS TO COME ,OOK FOR
QUALITY WORKMANSHIP IN THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
SEALSYSTEMS SHAFTMATERIALANDMACHINING ANDALLRELATED
COMPONENTS 0AY PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO THE SELECTION AND
MOUNTINGOFBEARINGSTHEYSHOULDSPINSMOOTHLY WITHOUT
GRATINGORBINDING

!LTERNATOR
)N THE PAST MOST SMALL BATTERY CHARGING HYDROELECTRIC
TURBINES RELIED ON OFF THE SHELF ALTERNATORS WITH BRUSHES
4HESE ALTERNATORS WORK WELL ESPECIALLY WHEN A SPECIFIC
STATORISCHOSEN BASEDONTHEPARAMETERSOFAGIVENHYDRO
SITE 3WAPPING OUT THE STATOR OPTIMIZES THE ALTERNATORS
RPM ANDINCREASESTHETURBINESOUTPUT7HILETHESETYPES
OF ALTERNATORS ARE STILL USED DUE TO THEIR LOW COST THEY
ARE NOT IDEAL 4HE MAJOR DRAWBACK IS THAT THE ALTERNATORS
BRUSHES NEED REGULAR REPLACEMENT 4HESE DAYS BRUSHLESS
PERMANENT MAGNET 0- ALTERNATORS ARE AVAILABLE AND ARE
A BETTER CHOICE SINCE THEY ELIMINATE THE NEED FOR BRUSH
REPLACEMENT )N ADDITION BRUSHLESS PERMANENT MAGNET
ALTERNATORS PERFORM AT HIGHER EFFICIENCIES INCREASING YOUR
HYDROSYSTEMSOUTPUT
2EGARDLESS OF TYPE AN ALTERNATORS OUTPUT IS ALWAYS
!# 4HE FREQUENCY OF THE !# WILL VARY DEPENDING ON THE
ROTATIONALSPEEDOFTHEALTERNATOR WHICHISADIRECTFUNCTION
OF THE PRESSURE AVAILABLE AT THE TURBINE 4HIS !# OUTPUT IS
NOT USABLE AS IS BECAUSE !# APPLIANCES ARE DESIGNED TO

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RUN AT A SPECIFIC FREQUENCY ,ARGER !# DIRECT TURBINES ARE


DESIGNED TO RUN AT A SPECIFIC SPEED AND THEREFORE A FIXED
FREQUENCY WITH GOVERNORS TO REGULATE THE SPEED 4HE !#
OUTPUTOFSMALLER BATTERYCHARGINGUNITSISALWAYSRECTIFIED
TO$# SOTHEENERGYGENERATEDBYTHETURBINECANBESTORED
INBATTERIES4HESYSTEMSINVERTERCONVERTSTHIS$#TO!#AT
AFIXEDFREQUENCY
!LTERNATIVE 0OWER AND -ACHINE %NERGY 3YSTEMS AND
$ESIGN AND (ARRIS (YDROELECTRIC ALL MANUFACTURE TURBINES
WITH BRUSHLESS 0- ALTERNATORS 4HESE ALTERNATORS ARE VERY
FLEXIBLEINTERMSOFTHEIROUTPUTVOLTAGE4HE!#OUTPUTOF
THE TURBINE CAN BE RECTIFIED TO $# AT THE TURBINE FOR SHORT
TRANSMISSIONRUNS(IGH VOLTAGEUNITSOPERATINGAT6!#
OR HIGHER CAN TRANSMIT THE !# OUTPUT OF THE TURBINE OVER
LONGER DISTANCES 4HIS !# OUTPUT IS THEN STEPPED DOWN
AT THE BATTERIES TO MATCH THE NOMINAL BATTERY VOLTAGE AND
RECTIFIED TO $# )N ADDITION TRANSFORMERS CAN BE USED TO
FURTHERSTEPUPTHEOUTPUTVOLTAGEFORTRANSMISSION&INALLY
THE SPECIFIC WIRING CONFIGURATION DELTA WYE ETC OF THE
ALTERNATOR IS FLEXIBLE ALLOWING THE OUTPUT TO BE OPTIMIZED
FORASPECIFICHYDROSITE
&OR LARGER !# DIRECT TURBINES GOOD QUALITY ALTERNATORS
AREAVAILABLEFROMANUMBEROFSOURCES ANDTHEREPUTATION
OFTHEGENERATORMANUFACTURERISANEXCELLENTPLACETOBEGIN
YOURSELECTIONPROCESS-ARATHON%LECTRIC +ATO%NGINEERING
AND 3TAMFORD .EWAGE ARE ALL WELL KNOWN AND RESPECTED
SMALLGENERATORBUILDERSSERVINGANINTERNATIONALMARKET
&ORAHOUSEHOLD ORRANCH SIZED!# DIRECTTURBINEUNDER
+7 YOUWOULDNORMALLYCHOOSEASINGLE PHASEOUTPUT
TWOBEARINGALTERNATOR1UALITYALTERNATORSAREAVAILABLEINA
VARIETYOFVOLTAGES PHASES ANDOUTPUTFREQUENCIESTOMATCH
YOURLOCALUTILITYELECTRICITY4HREE PHASEUNITSARESELECTED
FOR LARGER PROJECTS FOR LARGE MOTOR LOADS OR COMPLEX
DISTRIBUTIONSCHEMES
)FYOUAREABLETOMATCHYOURTURBINESPEEDTOACOMMON
GENERATOR SYNCHRONOUS SPEED THEN USE A DIRECT DRIVE
COUPLING BETWEEN THE TURBINE SHAFT AND GENERATOR SHAFT IF

WWWHOMEPOWERCOM



HYDROINTRO
4URBINE3UPPLIER

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POSSIBLE)TMAYBEWORTHTHEINVESTMENTINASLOWERSPEED
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GENERATORS AND PAY THE EXTRA MONEY TO INSTALL A FOUR POLE
GENERATOR &OUR POLE UNITS HAVE A  (ERTZ SYNCHRONOUS
SPEEDOF RPM HALFTHESPEEDOFTHETWO POLEUNITS FOUR
TIMESTHEWEIGHT ANDSIXTIMESTHELIFE!STANDARDFEATURE
IN MOST INDUSTRIAL QUALITY GENERATORS WILL BE AN AUTOMATIC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR !62  4HE !62 WILL MAINTAIN STEADY
VOLTAGEOVERABROADRANGEOFGENERATORLOADS

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7HEN IT COMES TO SUPPLIERS THERE IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR
EXPERIENCE 7HILE THE PRINCIPLES OF HYDROPOWER CAN BE
MASTERED INDOORS IT IS REAL WORLD EXPERIENCE THAT TEACHES
BOTH THE HIGHLIGHTS AND PITFALLS OF DIVERTING WATER FROM A
STREAM PRESSURIZINGIT ANDFORCINGITTHROUGHATURBINE!
TURBINESUPPLIERWITHMANYYEARSOFFIELDEXPERIENCEWILLBE
INVALUABLEASYOUDESIGNANDBUILDYOURHYDROSYSTEM
,OOK FOR AN EXPERIENCED SUPPLIER THAT SPECIALIZES IN
THE SIZE AND TYPE OF HYDRO SYSTEM YOU INTEND TO BUILD
! GOOD SUPPLIER WILL WORK WITH YOU BEGINNING WITH
YOUR MEASUREMENTS OF HEAD AND FLOW TO HELP YOU
DETERMINE THE RIGHT PIPELINE SIZE NET HEAD DESIGN FLOW
TURBINE SPECIFICATIONS DRIVE SYSTEM GENERATOR AND LOAD
MANAGEMENTSYSTEM9OUSHOULDBEABLETOCOUNTONYOUR
SUPPLIER TO MAKE SUGGESTIONS FOR OPTIMIZING EFFICIENCY
AND DEPENDABILITY INCLUDING THEIR EFFECTS ON COST AND
PERFORMANCE!GOODTURBINESUPPLIERISYOURPARTNER AND
SHOULDTAKEAPERSONALINTERESTINYOURSUCCESS!FTERALL A
SATISFIEDCUSTOMERISVERYGOODFORBUSINESS

.EXT3TEPS
!RMED WITH FOUR ESSENTIAL MEASUREMENTSHEAD FLOW
PIPELINELENGTH ANDTRANSMISSIONLINELENGTHYOUREREADY
TOBEGINEVALUATINGYOURSITEFORAHYDROELECTRICSYSTEM!S
WEDISCUSSEDIN0ARTOFTHISSERIES THEREAREMANYCHOICES
TOMAKEABOUT$#VS!# INTAKEDESIGNS TURBINETYPES ETC
-ANYOFTHESEDECISIONSWILLBECOMEOBVIOUSONCEYOURFOUR
MEASUREMENTSARECOMPLETE
!DVICE FROM TURBINE SUPPLIERS CAN BE INVALUABLE
DURINGYOURDESIGNPROCESS)FYOUPROVIDETHEMWITHYOUR
MEASUREMENTS MOST SUPPLIERS WILL PROPOSE A SYSTEM THAT
IS TAILORED TO YOUR SITE CHARACTERISTICS 9OU MAY FIND THAT
AGIVENSUPPLIERWILLSPECIALIZEINCERTAINTYPESOFSYSTEMS
LIKE$#OR!# BUTMOSTAREHAPPYTOREFERYOUTOSOMEONE
ELSEWHENAPPROPRIATE
%MPHASIZE EFFICIENCY 9OUR HEAD AND FLOW DETERMINE
HOW MUCH RAW WATER POWER IS AVAILABLE BUT EFFICIENCY
DETERMINESHOWMUCHOFITYOULLBEABLETOTRANSFORMINTO
USABLEELECTRICITY4HEREARECOSTTRADE OFFS OFCOURSE BUTIN
MANY CASES A MORE EFFICIENT SYSTEM WILL RESULT IN A LOWER
COSTPERWATT4HISISESPECIALLYIMPORTANTIFYOURETHINKING
OF CONNECTING TO THE GRID WHERE HIGHER EFFICIENCY MEANS
MOREDOLLARSINYOURPOCKET
) HOPE YOU HAVE FOUND THIS SERIES OF ARTICLES ON
HYDROPOWERHELPFUL)VEONLYSCRATCHEDTHESURFACEOFTHIS
SUBSTANTIALTOPIC BUT)HOPE)VEWHETTEDYOURAPPETITE!S
YOUVE SEEN THE CONCEPTS BEHIND HYDROPOWER ARE SIMPLE
7ATER TURNS A TURBINE THE TURBINE SPINS A GENERATOR AND
ELECTRICITYCOMESOUTTHEOTHERSIDE%VENANOVICEWITHLITTLE
OR NO EXPERIENCE COULD PRODUCE SOME HYDROELECTRICITY
GIVENENOUGHWATERPOWER
$O YOU HAVE A STREAM /F THE THREE MOST POPULAR
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES HYDROPOWER DELIVERS THE
MOSTWATTSFORTHEINVESTMENT ANDCANBEMOSTACCURATELY
ASSESSED ! FEW QUICK MEASUREMENTS WILL TELL YOU IF YOU
HAVEHYDROPOTENTIAL)NANYEVENT YOULLHAVEAGREATTIME
PLAYINGINTHEWATER

HOMEPOWERFEBRUARYMARCH

HYDROINTRO
!CCESS
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4HREE-ENANDA"ABY
)NTRODUCINGTHEh7ATER"ABYv
!NOTHERBREAKTHROUGHINWATERPOWEREDGENERATORS

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