World History PDF

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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh7:IndustrialRevolution,Capitalism
Mrunalhttp://mrunal.org
[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh7]IndustrialRevolution,
Capitalism,TheirEffectonSociety,RiseofTradeUnions&
Socialism
PostedBySupportStaffOn13/07/2013@1:18pmInHistory|39Comments
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Prologue
IntroductiontoChapter
Capitalism
CapitalismandColonization
IndustrialRevolution
FactorySystem
WhyIndustrialRevolutionstartedinEngland?
1. TextileIndustry:Therevolution
2. Powerloom
3. CottonGin
4. SteamEngine
5. BlastFurnace
6. TRANSPORTRevolution
7. PostalRevolution
8. AgricultureRevolution
IndustrialRevolutioninOtherCountries
Tariffbarriers
Race4rawmaterial
FromVillagetoCity
IndustrialCapitalism
1. Industrialcapitalism:Consequencesof
2. LabourLaws
3. TradeUnions
Laissezfaire
Socialism
EXERCISES
Prologue
UntilnowweveseenOldNCERTs,Class10,Ch.9to13.(=StoryofcivilizationVolumeIIby
ArjunDev.)Inthosechapterswegotanoverview/foundationoffollowingtopics(fromUPSC
syllabuspointofview):
1. colonization,decolonization
2. Twoworldwars
3. (Politicalphilosophieslike)Communismanditseffectonthesociety
NowmovingtoOldNCERTClass9,chapter7.Inthischapter,wellseeIndustrialrevolution,
politicalphilosophieslikeCapitalismandtheireffectonthesociety.
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych7industrialrevolutioncapitalismtheireffectonsocietyriseoftradeunionssocialism.html/print/
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IntroductiontoChapter
TOWARDStheendofthemiddleAges,feudalismasaneconomicsystemhadstarted
declining.ThisprocesswasfurtheredbytheRenaissanceandotherdevelopments.The
riseoftownsandcitiesandthegrowthintradestimulatedtheproductionofmanufactured
goods.
Therewasanincreaseinthedemandforgoodswhichpreviouslyhadbeenconsidered
luxurygoods.Lifeinthenewtownsandcitieshadcreatedadesireformanynewgoods
also.Allthesefactorsprovidedagreatstimulustotheproductionofmanufacturedgoods.
Foralongtime,however,thetechniquesandorganizationofproducinggoodsdidnot
undergoanysignificantimprovement.Thetraditionalmethodswereinadequatetomeet
thegrowingdemandforgoods.
Duringthelaterhalfofthe18thcenturytherebeganaseriesofchangeswhich
revolutionizedthetechniquesandorganizationofproduction.Thesedevelopments
resultedintheriseofanewtypeofeconomyanindustrialeconomy.
ThetermIndustrialRevolutionisusedtodescribethesedevelopmentsbecausethe
changescamerapidlyandtheyhadfarreachingeffectsonthehistoryoftheworld.
Capitalism
ThenewsystemofsocietywhichhadbeenemerginginEuropefromthe15thcenturyiscalled
capitalism.Undercapitalism
1. Theinstrumentsandthemeansbywhichgoodsareproducedareownedbyprivate
individualsandtheproductioniscarriedoutformakingprofit.
2. Theworkersunderthissystemdonotownanythingbutworkforawage.
3. Theownersofwealthundercapitalismwhoarecalledcapitalistsdonotkeeptheirwealth
orconsumeitoruseitforpurposesofdisplaybutinvestittomakeprofit.
4. Goodsareproducedforsaleinthemarketwithaviewtomakingprofit.
5. Thissystemisinmarkedcontrastwiththefeudalsysteminwhichgoodswereproduced
forlocaluseandtheinvestmentofwealthformakingprofitdidnottakeplace.
Feudalism
Economiclifeunderfeudalismwasstaticasgoods
wereproducedforlocalconsumptionandtherewas
noincentivetoproducemorebyemployingbetter
meansofproducinggoodsforabiggermarket.
Capitalism
Economylifeundercapitalismwasfast
movingwiththeaimofproducing
moreandmoregoodsforbigger
marketssothatmoreprofitscouldbe
made.
CapitalismandColonization
Thediscoveryofnewlandsandtheestablishmentofcolonieshadresultedin
unprecedentedexpansionoftradeandaccumulationofwealthbymerchants.
Thetradeincludedalsothetradeinhumanbeings,thatis,slavetrade.(Mrunal:We
alreadysawtheslavetradeandtriangulartradeunderthe[Worldhistory]Colonizationof
Africa.)
Thecolonizationwasaccompaniedbytheplunderofthewealthofthepeoplewhowere
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colonized.Forexample,thetreasuresoftheIncaandtheAzteccivilizationswere
plunderedbytheSpaniards.
MinesinthenewlyconqueredareasintheAmericaswerealsoexploitedforprecious
metalslikegoldandsilver.Largenumbersofnativepeoplewereworkedtodeathin
thesemines.
YouhavealsoreadabouttheuseofslavelabourintheplantationsintheAmericas.
ColonizationofAsiacausedsimilarhavocanddevastation.Duringafewdecadesof
Dutchrule,thepopulationofaprovinceofJavainIndonesiawasreducedtolessthanone
fourthofitsformersize.
ThedefeatoftheNawabofBengalbytheEnglishin1757wasfollowedbyyearsof
nakedplunderofthewealthofBengal.AccordingtoestimatesoftheEnglishgovernment
atthattime,theEnglishCompanyanditsofficialsreceived6,000,000poundsasgifts
duringtheperiodof17571766.
TheplunderbytheEnglishcontributedtoafaminein176970inwhichaboutaquarterof
thepopulationofBengalperished.ThusalotofwealthwasaccumulatedinEuropefor
investmenttomakemoreprofit.
InthewordsofKarlMarx,
ThetreasurescapturedoutsideEuropebyundisguisedlooting,enslavement,andmurder,
floatedbacktothemothercountryandwerethereturnedintocapital.
IndustrialRevolution
ThedesiretoproducemoregoodsatlowcosttomakehigherprofitsledtotheIndustrial
Revolutionandfurthergrowlhofcapitalism.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinEnglandin
about1750.Itwasthenthatmachinesbegantotakeoversomeoftheworkofmenandanimals
intheproductionofgoodsandcommodities.ThatiswhyweoftensaythattheIndustrial
Revolutionwasthebeginningofamachineage.
Ofcourse,thereweremanymachinesinusebefore1750.Theplough,airpump,printingpress
andspinningwheelareonlyafewofthemanyexamplesthatcouldbelisted.Forhundredsof
yearseachcivilizationhadbeentryingtoperfectoldtechnicalskillsanddevelopnewones.But
after1750,newinventionscamefaster,andtheywereofakindthatbroughtmornrapid
changesinmorepeopleslives.TheIndustrialRevolutionchangedmenswaysoflivingand
thinkingallovertheworld.
Theguildsystemhadgivenwaytothedomesticorthe`puttingoutsystem.Inthe18th
century,thedomesticsystemhadbecomeobsolete.Itstartedgivingwaytoanewsystemcalled
thefactorysystem.Inplaceofsimpletoolsandtheuseofanimalandmanualpower,new
machinesandsteampowercametobeincreasinglyused.Manynewcitiessprangupand
artisansanddispossessedpeasantswenttheretowork.
FactorySystem
Productionwasnowcarriedoutinafactory(inplaceofworkshopsinhomes),withthe
helpofmachines(inplaceofsimpletools).Facilitiesforproductionwereownedand
managedbycapitalists,thepeoplewithmoneytoinvestinfurtherproduction.
Everythingrequiredforproductionwasprovidedbythecapitalistsfortheworkerswho
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werebroughttogetherunderoneroof.
Everythingbelongedtotheownerofthefactory,includingthefinishedproduct,and
workersworkedforwages.
Thissystem,knownasthefactorysystem,broughtontheIndustrialRevolutionTheearly
formofcapitalismaboutwhichyouhavereadbeforewasnowtransformedtoindustrial
capitalism.
WhyIndustrialRevolutionstartedinEngland?
Englandinthe18thcenturywasinthemostfavorablepositionforanindustrialrevolution,
Becauseoffollowingreasons
1. Throughheroverseastrade,includingtradeinslaves,shehadaccumulatedvastprofits
whichcouldprovidethenecessarycapital.InthetraderivalriesofEuropeancountries,she
hademergedasanunrivalledpower.Shehadacquiredcolonieswhichensuredaregular
supplyofrawmaterials.
2. Afterthedisappearanceofserfdom,peoplewerenolongertiedtothelandandwerefree
todotoanyjobtheycouldfind.Theenclosuremovementhadbeguninthe18thcentury.
Biglandownerswantedconsolidatetheirlargelandholdings.Inisprocess,small
peasantswhohadallholdingsinlandwereoustedandlargearmyoflandlessunemployed
peoplewascreated.Thustherewasnoshortagelabourforcetoworkinthefactories.
3. Asresultoftherevolutionoffthe17thcentury,astablesystemofgovernmenthadbeen
established,whichwasnolongerunderthedominationofthefeudalclasses.Commercial
classeshadacquiredmorepoliticalpowerandtherewasnodangerofgovernment
interference.
4. Englandhadplentyofnaturalresources,suchasironandcoal,essentialforindustries.
ThesourcesofironandcoalexistedsidebysideandthissavedEnglandfrommany
difficultiesthatothercountriesfaced.
5. Englanddevelopedalargeshippingindustryandhadnoproblemoftransportation.
Noothercountryenjoyedalltheseadvantagesatthisperiod.Somesufferedfromalackof
capitalornaturalresourcesandsomefromanunfavorablepoliticalsystem.Thesefactorsmade
EnglandanaturalplacefortheIndustrialRevolutiontobegin.AlmostallotherEuropean
countrieshadagrarianeconomiesandlivedunderbackwardpoliticalsystems.Manyofthem,
suchasItalyandGermany,werenotevenunitedandsufferedfrommanyeconomicrestrictions.
TextileIndustry:Therevolution
Inthe1700stheEnglishEastIndiaCompanywassendingcottonclothfromIndiatoEngland.
Soon,calicoclothmadeinCalicutandDaccamuslinandKashmirshawlswereingreatdemand
inEngland.ShrewdEnglishbusinessmenthenbegantoimportcottonandmakeitintoclothin
England.Whentheworkersusingoldfashionedspinningwheelsandhandloomscouldnotkeep
upwiththeincreasingdemand,aseriesofinventionscamealongtomakefasterspinningand
weavingpossible.
Powerloom
Hargreavesinventedamachinewhichspeededupspinning.Arkwrightadaptedthismachinefor
runningwithwater.Crompton,sometimelater,combinedtheadvantagesofthemachines
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inventedbyHargreavesandArkwright.Thesethreeinventionsalonemadeitpossiblefor
Englandtoproducethreadthatwasfinerandcheaperthananythatcouldbeproducedbyothers
orwitholdertechniques.Thenin1785.Cartwrightinventedapowerloom.Thismachinecould
herunbyhorsesorbullocksandlater,whenfactoriesweresetupalongriversandcanals,water
powerwasusedtooperateit.
CottonGin
Butenoughrawcottonforfeedingthesemachineswasstillnotavailablebecausetheprocessof
separatingthefibresfromtheseedswasveryslow.Aworkercouldcleanonlyfiveorsix
poundsofcottonaclaybyhand.In1793,EliWhitney,anAmerican,unventedacottongin
Thismachinemadeitpossibletoseparatetheseedsfromcottonthreehundredtimesfasterthan
byhand.
SteamEngine
Year
1760
1815
1840
CottonImportbyEngland(kg.)
1million
50million
250million
Suchatremendousincreaseinrawcottonimportswouldnothavetakenplacebutforthe
inventionthesteamenginebyJamesWattin1769.Itwasthismachinethatmadeitpossibleto
producegoodsonareallybigsealMachinesrunbythemusclesofmenanimals,orbywater
power,couldnotcompetewiththosedrivenbythesteamengine.Thisinventionrevolutionized
production.
BlastFurnace
Withsteampoweravailable,thereademandformoremachinery.Englandhadplentyofiron
andcoaltomakesteelandmanufacturemachinery,butnewandcheaperwaysofprocessing
ironhadtobefound.Thedevelopmentoftheblastfurnaceand,later,themethodofturning
lowgradeironintosteel,enabledtheEnglishindustriestoproducesteelcheaply.Thusthey
couldhavemoreandbettermachines.
TRANSPORTRevolution
Railways
Roads
In1814,GeorgeStephensondevelopedsteamenginetohaulcoal
fromminestoportsbyrailways.
In1830,thefirstrailwaytrainbegantocarrypassengersandfreight
fromLiverpooltoManchester.
Theseeventswerefollowedbyagreatwaveofrailroadconstruction
inEnglandandtheUnitedStates.Asearlyas1853inLord
Dalhousiestime,thefirstrailroadwaslaidinIndia.
Theneedtotransportrawmaterialsandmanufacturedproductsled
totheimprovementofroadsandthediggingofcanalsinEngland
andothercountries.
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McAdamdevisedthemethodofmakingpakkaormacadamized
roads.
Canals
Toexpandfacilitiesfortransportbywatermuchcheaperthan
overlandEnglandbeganconnectingriversandlakeswithcanals.
CanalbuildingspreadtoEuropeandAmericaandwasabighelpin
providingcheapertransportation,especiallyaftersteamboatscame
intouse.
PostalRevolution
Improvedtransportationhelpedincarryingmessagesaswellaspeopleandgoods.Rawland
Hillsideaofthepennypostfastandcheapcommunicationbyletterbegantooperatein
Englandintheearly19thcentury.Soonitwasadoptedinothercountries,includingIndia.
Peoplecouldthussendletterstoandfromallpartsofthecountryatthesamelowrate
regardlessofthedistance.Businessconcernstookadvantageofthepennypostintheirbuying
andsellingtransactionsfarandnear.
AgricultureRevolution
FarmMechanization
Therewasarevolutioninagriculturealso.Therevolutioninagricultureinfacthadstarted
beforetheIndustrialRevolution.Naturally,therewerechangesinfarmingmethodstoproduce
morefood,andmoreimportantly,toproducecashcropsforthemarketandrawmaterialsfor
industries.Newfarmmachineryincludedthesteelploughandharrowforbreakingtheground,
themechanicaldrillforseedingandthehorsedrawncultivatortoreplacethehoe.There
werealsomachinesforreapingandthreshing.
CropRotation
Farmersadoptedintensivemanuringandthepracticeofcroprotationtomaintainsoilfertility.
Thelatteristhepracticeofchangingthecroponapieceoflandeachyear,forexample,wheat,
barley,clover,andsooninsteadoflettingthelandliefalloweverythirdyearaswasdonein
theMiddleAges.Croprotationiseffectivebecausedifferentcropstakedifferentelementsfrom
thesoil.Moreover,plantingacroplikeclovercanactuallybebetterforthesoilthanlettingitlie
fallow,becausecloverisoneoftheplantsthataddfertilitytothesoil.
LandConsolidation
LandownersinEnglandalsobegantoenlargetheirfarms.Theyhadalreadyconsolidated
theirholdingsthroughtheenclosuremovement,asyouhavereadbefore.Thestripsof
landthatlayscatteredaboutthevillageweresoconsolidatedthattheycouldholdalltheir
landinonepiece.Indoingso,thebiglandownerquiteunfairlygotpossessionofthe
peasantssmallholdingalongwithhisown.
Sometimesbiglandholderstookoverthecommonmeadowinavillagealsoleavingthe
smalllandownersandtenantswithnopasture.Butthebiglandownerscontrolled
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Parliamentinthosedaysandgotlawspassedthatenabledthemtodothesethings.
Theresultwasthatthepeasantswereforcedofftheland.Withnoothermeansof
livelihood,theymovedtothenewindustrialtownsandcitieswheretheygotjobsat
whateverwagethefactoryownerwouldpay.Industriesthusbenefited,butatthesmall
farmersexpense.
PeakofIndustrialrevolutioninEngland
ClicktoEnlarge
Inalittlemorethanfiftyyearsaftertheuseofmachinesbegan,Englandhadbecomethe
worldsleadingindustrialnation.Between1813and1855,forexample,hertextileexportsto
Indiajumpedfrom50,000kilogramstowellover2.5million.Duringthesameperiod,the
amountofcoalminedrosefrom15to64milliontonnesandbecameanimportantexport.
Meanwhile,Englandsproductionofpigironincreasedfrom690,000tonnestoover3million
enoughtosupplyallthemachineryandhardwaresheneededathome,besidessendingvast
quantitiestoothercountries.
IndustrialRevolutioninOtherCountries
InthecontinentofEurope,theIndustrialRevolutionbegantomakesomeheadwayafter1815,
afterthedefeatofNapoleonandtheendof23yearsofwar.Thenmachineswereintroducedin
France,Belgium,SwitzerlandandGermany.However,unstablegovernmentsandunrestamong
thepeopleinsomeofthesecountriesslowedthegrowthofindustriesforsometime.
1. France,by1850,wasdevelopingtheironindustrythoughshehadtoimportbothironore
andcoal.
2. Germanyhad,by1865,occupiedsecondplaceasaproducerofsteel,butwithEngland
faraheadinthelead.Afteralatestart,Germanysindustrialdevelopmenttookan
amazingleapafter1870whentheGermanstateswerefinallyweldedintoonenation.
SoonGermanywastobecomeEnglandsrival.
3. RussiawasthelastofthebigEuropeanpowerstohaveanindustrialrevolution.Shewas
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richinmineralresourcesbutlackedcapitalandfreelabour.Aftershefreedtheserfsin
1861,sheobtainedcapitalfromforeigncountriesandRussianindustrymovedahead.
However,itwasonlyafterRussias1917Revolutionthatrapidindustrialdevelopment
started.
4. TheUnitedStateshadintroducedmachinesandstartedfactoriesbefore1800after
gainingindependencefromEngland.By1860shehadwellestablishedtextile,steel,and
shoeindustries.TheAmericanindustriesgrewveryrapidlyafter1870.
5. JapanwasthefirstcountryinAsiatoindustrialize.Traditionally,Japanproducedmainly
sucharticlesassilk,porcelainandtoys.Bytheendofthe19thcentury,Japanese
productionincludedsteel,machinery,metalgoodsandchemicalsandinquantitieslarge
enoughforexport.
Tariffbarriers
AsEnglandwasthefirstcountrywhereindustriesdeveloped,shegainedalmostcomplete
controloverworldmarkets.Evenwhenpeopleinothercountriesbegantousemachinesthey
foundtheycouldnotcompetewithEnglandslowprices.Tohelpkeeptheselowpriced
productsfromcomingintotheirmarketsmanycountriesintroducedprotectivetariffs,thatis
governmentspassedlawsthatrequiredthepaymentofsuchaHightaxonimportedBritish
manufacturesthatsimilarproductsmadelocallysoldmoreastheywerecheaper.Thelevyof
tariffstoprotectnewindustriesbecameawidespreadpractice.
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Thesearchtormarketsandsourcesofrawmaterialsresultedininternationalrivalries.
FirstEnglandlater,otherWesterncountriesbegantolookfornewsourcesofraw
materialsandmarketsfortheirmanufactures.
Towardstheendofthe19thcenturyJapanwasindustrializedandjoinedtherace.Inthis
race,almosttheentirenonindustrializedworldwascarvedupintocoloniesspheresof
influenceorterritoriesforeconomicandpoliticaldominationbyindustrialized
countries.
Thusaroseimperialism,underwhichstrongnationssubordinatedtheeconomiesofthe
countriesundertheirdominationtotheirowninterests.Theyforcedthemtobuyandsell
ontheirownterms.
Theraceforcoloniescausedmanyaninternationalconflict.Thecountrieswhichhadbeen
industrializedlateandhadnocolonies,wantedtowrestthemfromthosethathad.
Countrieswhichhadcolonieswantedstillmore.
FromVillagetoCity
BeforetheIndustrialRevolution,mostofthepopulationoftheworldlivedinvillagesand
wasdependentonagricultural.Almostalleconomicneedsofmanweremetwithinthe
villageitself.Almosttheentirepopulationwas,inonewayortheother,connectedwith
land.
ThetownsandCitiesthathadarisensincethebeginningofcivilizationwere,asyouhave
seen,centresofcraftandofpoliticalandadministrativecontrol.Tradewascarriedon
betweentownsandcitiesofthesamecountryandofothercountriesandaffectedonlya
verysmallpercentageofthepopulation.
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Withthegrowthofindustrializationthepicturewascompletelytransformed.Thecentre
ofeconomiclifeshiftedtothecities.Thenewcitiesandtownsthatgrewwereimportant
moreascentresofindustrythanaspoliticalandadministrativecentres.
Alargepartofthepopulationnowstartedlivingincitieswherethousandsofpeople
workedinindustrialestablishments.Thispopulationwasnotconnectedwithland.Nowin
someindustrializedcountries,lessthan20percentofthepopulationisconnectedwith
land.
Inourcountry,thoughstillanoverwhelmingmajoritylivesinvillagethereisagradual
increaseinthepopulationdependentonindustry.
Inhighlyindustrializedcountries,theshareofindustrialproductioninthetotalnational
incomeisfarlargerthanthatofagriculture.Urbanandruraleconomieshavebecome
mutuallydependentandcomplementary.
Thecrowdingofpeopleintocitieshasalwaysproducedproblemsofhousing,health,and
sanitation.ThequickeningpaceofindustrializationinEnglandcreateddeplorableliving
conditions,concentrationinsmokyindustrialtowns,andcityslumsgrewworse.
Eventhoughthemovementofpeoplefromvillagetocitieshasbeengoingonsincecivilization
began,ithasalwaysarousedsadness.Lifeforavillagerinthecityresultedinmanysocial
strains.Manysocialbondsweredissolved.Manymoralrestraintswhichlifeinavillage
communityimposedbrokedown.
Ontheotherhand,menbecamefreertodeveloptheircapabilities.
TheIndustrialRevolutionbroughtcountriesandpeoplestogether.Therelationsbetween
countriesandpeoples,however,werenotbasedonequalityastheindustriallydeveloped
countriesbegantocontroltheeconomyofcountrieswhichwerenotindustriallydeveloped.In
spiteofthis,theIndustrialRevolutioncreatedaninternationalconsciousnessamongpeoples
becausethedevelopmentsinoneplacebegantoinfluencethedevelopmentsinotherplaces.
IndustrialCapitalism
Thesystemofsocietywhichcameintobeingasaresultoftheindustrialrevolutionmaybe
termedindustrialcapitalism.Themainclassesinthissocietywere
1. Capitalist theownersofthemeansofproduction.
2. Workers
workerswhoworkedforawage
Industrialcapitalism:Consequencesof
1. Itresultedintheconcentrationofeconomicpowerinafewhands.
2. Theindependentcraftsmanbecamerare.
3. Asmallnumberofcapitalistscametocontrolthelivesofnotonlyalargenumberof
workerswhomtheyemployedbutalso,directlyorindirectly,theeconomiclifeofthe
entiresociety.
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4. Theconcentrationofeconomicpowerinafewhandsresultedinshockingsocial
inequalitiesandcreatedawidegulfbetweencapitalistsandtherestofthepopulation.
5. TheseinequalitiesweresoobviousandsogreatthatDisraeli,aBritishPrimeMinisterof
the19thcentury,spokeoftheexistenceoftwonationsinEnglandtherichandthepoor.
6. TheIndustrialRevolutionproducedavastnumberoflandless,toollessworkers,whowere
whollydependentonanemployer.
7. Theyhadtoacceptwhateverwagetheemployeroffered,fortherewereusuallymore
workersthanjobs.
8. Womenandchildrenwereemployedeveninminesbecausetheycouldbehiredforless
money.
9. Oftentheyhadtoworkfrom15to18hoursadaywithnorestperiods.Ifperchancethey
fellasleeponduty,theymightbebeatenbyaheartlessoverseer.
10. Workingsurroundingswereunsafeanddirty.
housing
Thehousesprovidedforworkerswerenobetter.Wholeareasoftheindustrialcitieswhere
workerslivedwerecrowdedslums.Accidents,diseaseandepidemicswerecommon.Areport
ontheslumsofManchesterin1837mentions,amongotherthings,thatalmostallinhabitantsof
manystreetsperishedincholera.
NoSocialsecurity
Ifanemployerwasdispleasedwithaworkerforanyreason,hecoulddismisstheworkeratwill.
Aworkerhadlittlechoicebuttoacceptanemployersterms,orbejobless.Ifhewasilland
unabletowork,hegotnopay,andhemightbedischarged.Ifhesufferedanaccidentonthejob,
hegotnohelpfromtheemployer.Whenbusinesswasslack,afactoryownerregularly
dismissedasmanyemployeesaspossibleleavingthemwithnomeansoflivelihood.Itwasthe
industrialworkersinEnglandwhofirstenduredconditionssuchasthosejustdescribedbutthe
workersinothercountriesfarednobetter.
ChildLaborers
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Thehorribleconditionofchildlabourersisstatedintheevidencecollectedbyacommitteeof
BritishParliamentin1816.Thefollowinginformationwascollectedfromaonetimemasterof
apprenticesinacottonmill.Hewasaskedquestionsbythecommitteeontheconditionofchild
labourersinhisfactory.
Atwhatageweretheytaken?.
ThosethatcamefromLondonwerefromabouteightortentofifteen.
Uptowhatperiodweretheyapprenticed?
Oneandtwenty.
Whatwerethehoursofwork?
Fromfiveoclockinthemorningtilleightatnight.
Werefifteenhoursinthedaytheregularhoursofwork?
Yes.
Whentheworkswerestoppedfortherepairofthemill,orforanywantofcotton,didthe
childrenafterwardsmakeupforthelossofthattime?
Yes.
Didthechildrensitorstandtowork?Stand.
Thewholeoftheirtime?
Yes.
Werethereanyseatsinthemill?None.Ihavefoundthemfrequentlyuponthemillfloors,
afterthetimetheyshouldhavebeeninbed.
Wereanychildreninjuredbythemachinery?
Veryfrequently.
LabourLaws
Afewhumanitarianreformersandsomelandownerswhowerejealousofbig
businessmencombinedwithEnglishworkerstogetthefirstlawstoimproveconditionsof
work.
In1802,EnglandpasseditsfirstFactoryAct,limitingthehoursofworkforchildrento
twelveaday.
In1819,lawforbadetheemploymentofchildrenundernine.
Laterlawsregulatedtheemploymentofwomenandchildreninmines.
TradeUnions
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Manyofthelawstoprotectworkershavebeenduetothepressurefromworkerstradeunions.
WhentheEnglishworkersfirstformedtradeunions,employerscalledthemùnlawful
combinationsandlawswerepassedtocurbsuchèvils.
Butby1824theworkerssucceededingettinglawsagainstunionsrepealedandtherewas
aremarkablegrowthinunionsforallthetrades.
Itmaybehardtobelievetoday,butitistrue,thattheEnglishindustrialworkersdidnot
havetherighttovoteinthosedays.Inthebeginninginfact,thepopulationofnew
industrialcitieshadnorepresentationinParliamentatall.
Inthethirtiesandfortiesofthe19thcentury,amovementknownastheChartist
Movement,waslaunchedtogettherightofvoteforworkers.
Thoughthemovementdeclinedbythefiftiesofthe19thcentury,leftitsinfluenceand
throughtheActsof1867,1882,1918and1929alladultcitizenswereenfranchised.
TheEnglishworkersalsowontherightnotonlytoorganizetradeunionsbutalsotheright
tostriketoforceemployerstoconcedetheirdemands.
TradeUnionsinothercountries
Theideathattheworkerscasemustbeheardinanydisputemetwithoppositioneverywhere.
Germanygottherighttoformlabourunionsinthelate19thcentury.
IntheUnitedStates,whereunionswerefrowneduponforalmostacentury,workersdidnot,
gainfulllegalrightsuntiltheearly20thcentury.Thentherighttoformunions,tostrike,andto
bargainwithemployersontheconditionsofworkwaslegalizedandthiswasfollowedbyother
lawsthatbroughtmorebenefitstoemployees.
Themanybenefitsthatworkersandallsalariedpeopleenjoyinmostindustrializedcountries
todayareduedirectlyorindirectlytotheeffortstocorrecttheterribleconditionsthatthe
IndustrialRevolutionbroughtabout.
Laissezfaire
Protectionforindustrialworkerscouldnothavetakenplacewithoutachangeintheideas
oftheresponsibilitiesofgovernments.
WhentheIndustrialRevolutionwasgainingstrengthinEnglandandthesamewas
generallytrueinothercountriesthegrowingbeliefwasthatgovernmentsshouldnot
interferewithbusinessandindustry.
Thetheoryknownaslaissezfaireorletusalone,wasthenakindofreligionamong
capitalists.
laissezfaireandCapitalism
Accordingtothelaissezfaireidea,thebusinessmanshouldbefreetolookafterhisown
interests.Onlytheunwrittenlawofsupplyanddemandshoulddeterminethesizeofhisprofits.
Thesameunwrittenlawwoulddeterminethefateoftheworker,whetherhehadajob,what
wouldbehisworkingconditionsandsalary.ThefamouseconomistAdamSmithvoicedthis
ideain1776inabookcalledTheWealthofNations,andithadmanysupporters,too.
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Thelaissezfairedoctrinewasopposedbymanypeople.Gradually,almostallthecountries
cametoaccepttheideathatthestatehasalegitimaterightanddutytoregulatetheeconomy.
TheFactoryActsinEnglandandmanylawsdealingwiththeeconomyinallcountrieswerea
consequenceofthis.
Todayonerarelyhearsavoiceindefenceoflaissezfaire.Gradually,thestatesrolein
economicdevelopmenthasalsocometoberecognized.Thisistrueparticularlyofthe
developingcountriesthatcannotmodernizetheireconomieswithoutacomprehensiveand
largescaleeffortonthepartofthestate.Infact,inthesecountries,itisthestate,ratherthanthe
privatecapitalist,thatisthemainagencyforeconomicdevelopment.
Socialism
Thegreatestchallengetolaissezfaire,andtocapitalismitself,hascomefromtheideaof
socialism,whichgrewinthebeginningasareactionagainsttheevilsofcapitalism.Theidea
appealedparticularlytoworkers.Throughtheirstruggles,theywereabletoachievemuch
improvementintheirlivingconditions.However,theycametobelievethat,forbasic
improvementintheirlife,socialismoracompletereorderingofsocietywasessential.Youwill
readaboutideasofsocialismandmovementsbasedonthoseideaslater.
TheIndustrialRevolutionthatbeganinEnglandinabout1750wasarevolutioninmansways
ofproducinggoodsandservices.Abolitionofmedieval,antiquatedsocial,economicand
politicalsystems,aridindustrializationtoleadtoaneraofsharedplentybecamethedeclared
aimsofonesocietyafteranotherwhoemergedasnations.
Eversince1750,manhasincreasinglyusedmachinesandmechanicalpowertodotheworkthat
heformerlydidwithhisownmusclesandthehelpofanimals.Meantime,themachines
inventedbymanhavebecomemoreandmorecomplexandprovidedhimwithgoodsand
servicesthatcouldnototherwisebeproducedatall.Also,machineshaveincreasedtheamount
ofgoodsmancanturnoutinagiventime,andenabledpeopletoraisetheirlevelofliving.
Industrializationandcapitalismbroughtbenefitsaswellashardshipsandevilstoman
unemployment,smoky,crowdedcities,unhealthylivingandworkingconditions,rivalryand
conflictbetweennations.Asworkingmengottherighttovoteandelecttheirrepresentativesin
government,theyforcedthepassageoflawsthateliminatedmanyoftheearlyevilsthat
industrializationhadbroughtabout.Ideasofsocialismalsoarosewhich,whilerecognizingthe
importanceofMachinesandmakingthemevenbetter,aimedatsolvingtheproblemscreatedby
capitalism,bybuildinganewsocialorder.Butmanyproblemremain.Theunsolvedproblems
areachallengetoallnations.
EXERCISES
1. Explainthemeaningofthefollowingterms:IndustrialRevolution,capital,capitalism,
socialism,protectivetariff,laissezfaire.
2. Whatconditionsaremostfavourableoressentialforindustrialization?
3. GiveexamplestoshowthattheIndustrialRevolutionwithitsdemandforrawmaterials
andmarketsmadenationsmoredependentononeanother.
4. DescribetheconditionswhichprevailedinindustrialcitiesandfactoriesastheIndustrial
Revolutionspread.Howtheseconditionswereslowlyimproved?
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5. MakeaTimeLineshowingthemostimportantinventionsfrom1750to1870.
6. Makeabulletinboarddisplayofpicturesofmachinesthatrevolutionizedmanufacturing,
farming,transportationandcommunicationduringthefirsthundredyearsafterthe
IndustrialRevolutionbegan.
7. Writeapaperof250400wordsonthesubject:TheIndustrialRevolutionwasamixed
blessing.
8. Whatarethemainfeatureswhichdistinguishcapitalismfromfeudalism?
9. Howdidthegrowthoftradeunionshelptoputonendtotheideaoflaissezfaire?
10. Whydoesindustrializationaffectfarming,transportation,communication,tradeandhow
doesitresultintheneedformoreeducation?
11. Howdoesindustrializationhelpinraisingthelevelorthestandardofliving?
12. Studytheweaknessesanddisadvantagesofproducinggoodsandservicesunderthe
capitalistsystemofproduction.Whataretheadvantagesthatasocialistsystemcanhave
overasocietybasedoncapitalism?
13. Wouldyousaythatindustrializationwasanaturalstepinmansprogress?Whyorwhy
not?
FormoreonWorldHistory,visitMrunal.org/history
ArticleprintedfromMrunal:http://mrunal.org
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych7industrial
revolutioncapitalismtheireffectonsocietyriseoftradeunionssocialism.html
Copyright2014Mrunal.Allrightsreserved.
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8:AmericanRevolution
[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]AmericanRevolution:
Causes,BostonTeaParty,DeclarationofIndependence(Part1
of4)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
IntroductionoftheChapter
FeudalismtoNationStates
MiddleClass
TheRenaissance
WhatisaRevolution?
THEAMERICANREVOLUTION
1. TheEnglishColoniesinAmerica
2. CausesoftheWarofAmericanIndependence
3. Notaxationwithoutrepresentation
4. BostonTeaParty
5. DeclarationofIndependence
6. TheWarofIndependence
7. TheAmericanConstitution
8. SignificanceoftheAmericanRevolution
9. TheGrowthofaNation
The8thChapterofoldNCERTClass9(Storyofcivilization),dealswithfollowingtopics
1.
2.
3.
4.
Americanrevolution
FrenchRevolution
UnificationofGermany,ItalyRevolutionselsewhereinEurope
TheriseofSocialism
Inthisfirstpart,wellseetheAmericanrevolution,andremainingtopicsinseparateparts.
Inthepreviouschapter,youlearnedabouttheriseofaneweconomicsystemintheworld.In
thischapteryouwillreadofthedevelopmentsthattransformedthepoliticalsystemsofmany
countriesofEuropeandoftheAmericasinthe18thand19thcenturies.Thebasicfeaturesof
thesedevelopmentswerethegrowthofdemocraticpoliticalsystems,nationalismandsocialism.
TogetherwiththeindustrialRevolution,theybroughtaboutgreatchangesandhelpedto
determinepeoplesthoughtandconditionsoflifeforalongtimetocome.Thesedevelopments
beganfirstincertainpartsofEurope.Sincethen,particularlyfromthe19thcentury,the
establishmentofdemocraticpoliticalsystemsandofindependentstatesbasedonnationalism
havebeenamongtheprimaryaimsofpeoplestheworldover.Simultaneouslywiththesein
somecountriesandlaterinothercountriesideasofsocialismhaveinspiredmovementsofsocial
equality.
FeudalismtoNationStates
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Underfeudalism,societiesweredividedintoclassessomeofwhichwereprivilegedwhile
theotherswereexploited.Amansentirelifewasdeterminedatthetimeofhisbirth,
dependingontheclassintowhichhewasborn.Youhavereadthatthetwomainclassesin
thefeudalsocietywerefeudallordsandserfs.
Thepoliticalsystemsofthetimewerealsodeterminedbytheprevailingsocialand
economicsystem.Mostofthepopulationwasexcludedfromhavinganyshareinthe
governanceofthecountry.
Manykingsclaimeddivinerights,thatis,thattheirpowerwasderivedfromGodandnot
fromanycapabilitytorule.Theirwordwaslaw.AFrenchkingdeclared,Iamthe
State.
Theboundariesofstatesalsowereirrational.Ifyouseeoldmapsyouwillbeableto
recognizeveryfewstatesofmodernEurope.Therewereallkindsofstatesempires,
feudalestates,citystates.
Theterritorieswithinastatewerenotnecessarilycontiguous.Thepeopleinhabitingthese
stateswerenothomogeneous.Empires,forexample,includedterritoriesfarapartfrom
eachotherandinhabitedbypeopleofdifferentnationalities.
Similarly,theterritoriesinhabitedbyahomogeneouspeopleweredividedintoanumber
ofstates,someunderalocalruler,someundertheChurchandsomeaspartsofanempire.
Asaresultofmanyfactorsnationstateshadbeguntobeformed.However,thisprocess
waslimitedtoafewareas.MostoftheEuropeanstatesforalongtimetocomehadno
rationalbasis.
MiddleClass
YouhavereadoftheriseofnewsocialgroupsandclassesduringthelaterMiddleAges
andabouttheroleplayedbythemiddleclassinbringingabouttheRenaissanceinEurope.
Ineconomiclife,thisclassgraduallybecameveryimportant.However,itwasobstructed
initsgrowthbytheoutdatedpoliticalsystemsbasedonprivilege.
Itcouldgrowonlyifitalsoheldthepoliticalpower.WiththeIndustrialRevolution,the
strengthofthisclassincreasedfurtherandtheremovaloftheoutdatedpoliticalsystems
acquiredurgency.ThespreadoftheIndustrialRevolutioninmanycountrieswasslow
becauseofthebackwardpoliticalsystemthatprevailedthere.Anotherimportantnew
classthatarose,particularlyaftertheIndustrialRevolution,wastheworkingclass,orthe
industrialworkers.Thisclassalsowasopposedtotheautocraticpoliticalsystems.
SerfdomhaddeclinedinsomecountriesbutinmostothercountriesofEurope,itwasstill
thedominantfeatureofthesocialsystem.Thereweremanyrevoltsoftheserfsbutthey
weresuppressed.However,duringtheperiodfromthe17thtothe19thcenturies,there
arosemovementsindifferentpartsofEuropetooverthrowtheexistingpoliticalsystems.
Thefirstsuccessfulrevolutionwhichoverthrewtheautocraticmonarchytookplacein
Englandinthe17thcentury.
Simultaneously,therewasalsotheriseandgrowthofnationalconsciousnessand
movementstounitethedifferentterritoriesinhabitedbythepeopleofanationifthey
weredividedintodifferentstates,andtooverthrowforeignimperialruleiftheterritories
ofanationwerepartofalargerempireruledbyanalienemperor.
TheRenaissance
TheRenaissancehadinauguratedaneraofquestioningtheestablishedbeliefs.Gradually,
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thisquestioningcoveredeveryaspectofthoughtandbelief.Theperiodafterthe16th
century,witnessedanintellectualrevolutionwhenalltheexistingbeliefsbasedonfaith
cameunderheavyattack.
Greatprogresswasmadeinvarioussciences,whichalsounderminedtheexistingbeliefs.
Thenewideaswerecharacterizedbyrationalismandwereincreasinglyconcernedwith
secularaffairs.Becauseofthegrowingemphasisonreason,theperiodofthe18thcentury
inEuropeanhistoryiscalledtheAgeofreasonortheAgeofEnlightenment.
Graduallythebeliefsthatpermittedpeopletobedividedintohigherorlowergroupson
thebasisofbirth,andintoprivilegedgroupsandothers,andtheholdoftheChurchinthe
sphereofideas,wereundermined.
Thenewideaswereideasofliberty,equalityandfraternity.Thusaroseideasoffreedom,
democracyandequality,whichbecametherallyingslogansofpeopleseverywhere.
Simultaneously,therealsoaroseideasofnationalismwhichbroughtasenseofunityand
onenesstothepeopleforminganationandthedesiretoorganizethemselvesinto
independentstateswiththeirdistinctivenationalidentities.
MovementsaroseinmanypartsofEuropeandinNorthAmericatooverthrowtheexisting
autocraticpoliticalsystemsandreplacethembydemocraticpoliticalsystemandto
abolishprivilegesandestablishtheequalityofpoliticalrights.Thesemovementswhich
beganearlierbecamepowerfulforcesinthe19thcenturyEurope.
Inthischapteryouwillreadaboutsomerevolutionsthatledtotheoverthrowofautocratic
governmentsandtheirreplacementbydemocraticformsofgovernment.Youwillalso
readaboutsomesuccessfulmovementsofnationalindependenceandnationalunification.
Inthelastsection,youwillreadabouttheemergenceofideasofsocialismandaboutthe
movementsbasedonthoseideaswhichtookshape.
WhatisaRevolution?
Changesinpoliticalandsocialsystemshaveoftenbeenbroughtaboutbyrevolutions.A
revolution,asyouknowfromyourstudyoftheIndustrialRevolution,meansadrasticor
radicalchange.
Arevolutioncanbethesuddenoverthrowofanestablishedgovernmentorsystemby
forceandbloodsheditcanalsobeagreatchangethatcomesslowlyandpeacefully.The
developmentsdescribedinthischapterwere,insomeaspects,rapidandaccompaniedby
violencebutmanyofthelastingchangestheybroughtabouthavetakenplacegradually
andwithoutbloodshed.
However,youshouldrememberthateverychangeofgovernmentisnotarevolution.A
revolutioninvolvesafundamentalchangeintheentirepoliticalsystemofacountry,a
changeinthenatureofgovernment,intheclassorclassesthatholdpoliticalpower,and
alsointheaimsofthegovernment.
Peopledonotusuallyrevoltagainstagovernmentoracertainsystemunlesstheybelieve
thatitisnolongerpossibletoliveintheoldway.Revolutionsoccurwhenanexisting
systembecomesunbearabletoavastmajorityofthepeople.This,initself,makes
conditionsripeforsettingupanewsystem.
Revolutionsarecontagious.Revolutionaryideasoriginatinginoneplacemayspreadto
otherplacesveryfastandinfluencethethinkingandactionsofpeoplessufferingunder
oppressivegovernmentsinotherlands.Revolutionshaveplayedanessentialroleinthe
developmentofhumansocieties.Withoutthem,onekindofsystem,howeverunsuitable
forthetimesitmightbe,wouldcontinueforeverandtherewouldbenoprogress.
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THEAMERICANREVOLUTION
WhilesomeEnglishmenwerebattlingathomeforimprovementsinParliamentand
reformsinreligion,otherswereadventuringacrosstheAtlantictoestablishcoloniesand
tradeintheAmericas.
Inthe16thcentury,Europeancountriesbegantomakesettlementsthere.InNorth
America,colonieswereestablishedbyFrance,HollandandSpainaswellasbyEngland.
Inthe18thcentury,EnglanddroveFranceoutoftheeasternpartofthecontinentand
Canada.ShehadearliertakenNewNetherlandsfromtheDutch,changingitsnameto
NewYork.
TheEnglishColoniesinAmerica
Bythemiddleofthe18thcenturytherewere13EnglishcoloniesinNorthAmericaalong
theAtlanticCoast.Landlesspeasants,peopleseekingreligiousfreedom,traders,and
profiteershadsettledthere.Thebulkofthepopulationconsistedofindependentfarmers.
Infantindustrieshaddevelopedinsuchproductsaswool,flax,andleather.
Inthenorththerewerefishingandshipbuilding.Inthesouth,largeplantationslikefeudal
manorshadgrownupwheretobaccoandcottonweregrownwithslavelabourbrought
fromAfrica.
Eachcolonyhadalocalassemblyelectedbyqualifiedvoters.Theseassembliesenacted
lawsconcerninglocalmatters,andleviedtaxes.However,theywereundertheruleofthe
mothercountry.
Bythe18thcentury,thecolonistsfoundthelawswhichtheEnglishgovernmentimposed
uponthemmoreandmoreobjectionable.Theideaofbeinganindependentnationgrew
anddevelopedintotheRevolutionaryWarinwhichthecolonistsgainedtheir
independence.
CausesoftheWarofAmericanIndependence
Economic
ThecolonialpolicyofEnglandineconomicmatterswastheprimarycauseofresentment
intheAmericancolonies.EnglandspoliciesdidnotencouragetheAmericancoloniesto
developaneconomyoftheirown.
TheEnglishParliamenthadforbiddenthemtousenonBritishshipsintheirtrade.
Certainproducts,suchastobacco,cottonandsugar,couldbeexportedonlytoEngland.
Heavydutieswereimposedontheimportofgoodsinthecoloniesfromotherplaces.
Thecolonieswerealsoforbiddentostartcertainindustries,forexample,ironworksand
textiles.
TheywereforcedtoimportthesegoodsfromEngland.
Thus,ineverypossibleway,thegrowthofindustryandtradeinthecolonieswas
impeded.
Rent
TheEnglishalsoangeredthecolonistsbyissuingaproclamationtopreventthemfrommoving
westintonewlands.EnglisharistocratshadboughtlandsinAmericaandgotrentsfromthe
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farmers.Theywantedtokeepthecolonistsasrenters.
Taxestofinancewars
AsaresultofcontinuouswarsinEurope,theEnglishgovernmentwasburdenedwith
debt.Itneededmoney.
In1765,theEnglishParliamentpassedtheStampActwhichimposedstamptaxesonall
businesstransactionsintheAmericancolonies.
Revenuestampsupto20shillingsweretobeaffixedtolegaldocumentsandotherpapers.
ThisActarousedviolentresentmentamongallsectionsofthecolonistsandledthemto
boycottEnglishgoods.Therewereuprisingsinmanytownsandtaxcollectorswere
killed.
Thecolonistsclaimedthat,sinceEnglishParliamenthadnorepresentativesfromthe
colonies,ithadnorighttolevytaxesonthem.Therevenuefromthesetaxeswasused
notintheinterestsofthecoloniesbutofEnglish.
Philosophers
TheAmericanrevolutionarieswereinspiredbytheideasoftheEnglishphilosophersof
the17thcentury.ThesephilosophersLocke,Harrington,Miltonbelievedthatmenhad
certainfundamentalrightswhichnogovernmenthadtherighttoinfringe.
Americanthinkers,especiallyThomasJefferson,werealsoinspiredbywhatFrench
philosophersweresayingandwritingatthattime.Jeffersonassertedthecolonistsright
torebellion,andencouragedtheirincreasingdesireforindependence.
SupportforindependencewasforcefullyexpressedbyThomasPaine,whodetestedthe
inequalitiesofEnglishsociety,andhadcometoAmerica.InapamphletentitledCommon
Sense,hewrote,Itwasrepugnanttoreasontosupposethatthiscontinentcanlong
remainsubjecttoanyexternalpowerthereissomethingabsurdinsupposinga
Continenttobeperpetuallygovernedbyanisland.
Notaxationwithoutrepresentation
TheleadersintheMassachusettscolonycalledtogetherrepresentativesfromother
coloniestoconsidertheircommonproblems.
InthisMassachusettsassembly,theyagreedanddeclaredthattheEnglishParliamenthad
norighttolevytaxesonthem.Notaxationwithoutrepresentationwasthesloganthey
adopted.
AndtheythreatenedtostoptheimportofBritishgoods.ThethreatledEnglishtorepeal
theStampAct,butParliamentstillinsistedthatithadtherighttolevytaxes.Then
Parliamentimposedataxonconsumergoodscomingintothecolonies,suchaspaper,
glass,teaandpaint.
Againthecoloniesobjectedsayingthatonlytheirownassemblieshadtherighttoraise
moneythroughtaxes.InprotestthecoloniescutdowntheEnglishimportsbyonehalf.
TheEnglishwithdrewtheplanleavingonlythetaxonteatoasserttheirrighttolevy
taxes.
BostonTeaParty
Thetaxontealedtotrouble.In1773,severalcoloniesrefusedtounloadtheteacomingin
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Englishships.
InBoston,whenthegovernororderedashiptobeunloaded,agroupofcitizens,dressed
asAmericanIndians,boardedtheshipanddumpedthecratesofteaintothewater.
ThisincidentisknownastheBostonTeaParty.
TheEnglishgovernmentthenclosedtheportofBostontoalltradeandprecipitatedthe
uprisingofthecolonies.
DeclarationofIndependence
Therepresentativesofthe13AmericancoloniesmetasagroupinwhatiscalledtheFirst
ContinentalCongressatPhiladelphiain1774.ThisCongressappealedtotheEnglish
Kingtoremoverestrictionsonindustriesandtradeandnottoimposeanytaxeswithout
theirconsent.
TheKingdeclaredtheiractionamutinyandorderedtroopstobesenttosuppressit.The
coloniesthenplannedformilitarydefencewithlocaltroopsormilitia.
In1775,thefirstbattleoftherevolutionwasfoughtwhenathousandsoldiersmetthe
colonialmilitiainIndependence.
TheDeclarationOn4July1776,theSecondContinentalCongressassertedthatallmen
arecreatedequal,CongressadoptedtheDeclarationofthattheyareendowedbytheir
Creatorwithcertaininalienablerights,thatamongtheserightsarelife,libertyandthe
pursuitofhappiness.
TheDeclarationadvancedtheprinciplethatthepeoplearethesourceofauthorityand
affirmedthepeoplesrighttosetuptheirowngovernment.
TheDeclarationalsostatedthattheAmericancolonieshadbeenoppressedbytheEnglish
governmentandthattheseUnitedColoniesare,andofrightoughttobe,freeand
independentstates.
UptothistimethecolonistshadbeenfightingfortheirrightsasEnglishmen.Afterthe
Declarationin1776,theyfoughtfortheirrighttobeanindependentnation.
TheWarofIndependence
GeorgeWashingtonwasputincommandoftheAmericanforces.Thefirstbattlestook
placeinandaroundBoston.ThenEnglishsentaforcetoCanadawiththeplantomarchit
southtomeetanotherEnglishforce,andsocuttheAmericancoloniesinhalf.
ButanEnglishgeneralspoiledtheplan.AstheEnglishmarchedsouth,theAmericansmet
anddefeatedthem.
ThisvictoryoftheroughAmericanmilitiamenagainstatrainedBritishforcegavethe
Americansconfidence.
TheFrenchgovernmentnowdecidedtohelpthecolonieswithtroops,suppliesandfunds
toembarrasstheEnglish,Francesoldenemy.OtherenemiesofEnglishSpainand
HollandweresoonfightingtheEnglishelsewhere
Meanwhile,troublewasbrewingforBritainathome.Therewasathreatofrebellionin
Irelandsomeleadersin
Parliamentwereopposingthewarwiththecolonists.
Thewarendedin1781whentheEnglishcommander,Cornwallis,latertobecome
governorgeneralinIndia,surrendered.
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Twoyearslater,in1783,theTreatyofPariswassignedandtheEnglishrecognizedthe
independenceofits13formercolonies.
TheAmericanConstitution
Whenthewarofindependencestarted,eachofthe13colonieswasaseparatestatewith
itsownarmy,boundaries,customsdutiesandfinances.Buttheycooperatedagainsta
commonenemy.
In1781,asstatesoftheUnitedStates,theyunitedthroughaplanforanational
government.AconstitutionalconventionwascalledinPhiladelphiatoframeanew
constitution,whichcameintoeffectin1789.
TheAmericanconstitutionestablishedarepublicanformofgovernmentatatimewhen
statesinotherpartsoftheworldweregovernedbymonarchies.
TheAmericanConstitutionsetupafederalsystemunderwhichpowersweredivided
betweenacentralorfederalgovernmentandthestategovernments.
Jefferson,theauthoroftheDeclarationofIndependence,andhisfollowerscampaigned
fortheadditionofaBillofRightstothefederalconstitution.
ThiswasdonethroughtenamendmentswhichguaranteedmanyrightstotheAmerican
people.Themostnotedofthesearefreedomofspeech,pressandreligion,andjustice
underlaw.
TheconstitutionmarkedtheemergenceoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaasanationin
worldhistory.Itwasthefirstwrittenrepublicanconstitutioneverframedinhistory,which
isstillinoperation.
SignificanceoftheAmericanRevolution
ThewordsoftheDeclarationofIndependenceregardingtheequalityofallmenandthe
inalienablerightsofmanelectrifiedtheatmosphereinAmericaandoutside.Lafayette,
theFrenchgeneralwhofoughtonthesideofAmericanrevolutionaries,wassoonto
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becomeaherooftheFrenchRevolution.ThomasPainealsoparticipatedintheFrench
Revolution.
Byitsexample,theAmericanRevolutioninspiredmanyrevolutionariesinEuropelaterin
the19thcentury.ItencouragedSpanishandPortuguesecoloniesinCentralandSouth
Americatorebelandgaintheirindependence.
ThemainachievementoftheAmericanRevolutionwastheestablishmentofarepublic.
Thisrepublicwas,however,nottrulydemocratic.Therighttovotewaslimited.Negroes
mostofthemstillslavesAmericanIndians,andwomenhadnovote.
Electionlawsinallstatesfavoredmenofpropertyformanyyears.Butprogresstowards
democracyhadbegun.Insomestates,statereligionwasabolished,alongwithreligious
qualificationsforholdingpublicoffices.
TheGrowthofaNation
Earlyinthe19thcentury,manynewareaswereaddedtotheUnitedStates.Thevast
territoryinthemiddleofthecontinent,knownasLouisiana,waspurchasedfromFrance.
FloridawasacquiredfromSpain.
Bythe1850s,afterawarwithMexico,theUnitedStateshadextendeditsboundariesto
thePacificOcean.Peoplehadcontinuedtomovewest.Thewestwardexpansionofthe
UnitedStateswasattheexpenseofthe
AmericanIndianswhoweredrivenoutoftheirterritoriesandinthecourseofafew
decadestheirpopulationwasreducedtoaninsignificantnumber.
Increasingsettlementsinthewestbroughtaboutincreasingconflictsbetweenthesouthern
statesthatwantedtoextendslaverytothewesternterritoriesandthenorthernstatesthat
objectedtoaslaveeconomy.
AchangeofrevolutionarysignificancecamewiththeCivilWarwhenslaveowningstates
ofthesouthsecededfromtheUnionandsetupaseparategovernment.TheCivilWar
ragedfrom1861to1865andendedinthedefeatofthesouthernstates.
Itwasavictoryforthecapitalisticindustrialstatesofthenorthovertheslaveowning
statesofthesouth.Thefederalgovernmentabolishedslavery.Theabolitionofslavery,
however,didnotenddiscriminationagainsttheBlackpeopleandtheirstruggletomake
equalrightsarealitycontinued.
IntheNextthreeparts,wellsee
FrenchRevolution
UnificationofGermanyandItalyRevolutionarymovementsinotherpartsofEurope
RiseofSocialism
ForarchiveofallWorldhistoryrelatedarticlesvisitMrunal.org/history
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8american
revolutioncausesbostonteapartydeclarationofindependencepart1of4.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8:FrenchRevolution
[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]FrenchRevolution:Causes,
Consequences,Rise&FallofNapoleon(Part2of4)
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9.
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12.
SocialConditionsinthe18thcenturyFrance
FirstandSecondEstate
ThirdEstate
TheMonarchy
TheIntellectualMovement
1. Rationalism:theAgeofReason
2. AttackontheClergy
3. PhysiocratesandLaissezFaire
4. Democracy:JeanJacquesRousseau
OutbreakoftheRevolution
AfterFallofBastille
WarandEndofMonarchy
NapoleonicWars
ConsequencesoftheRevolution
ImpactofFrenchRevolutionontheWorld
RevolutionsinCentralandSouthAmerica
TheFrenchRevolutionwasbrewingwhiletheWarofAmericanIndependencewasbeing
fought.ConditionsinFrancewerevastlydifferentfromthoseintheNewWorld,butmanyof
thesamerevolutionaryideaswereatwork.TheFrenchRevolution,however,wasmoreworld
shakingthantheAmerican.Itbecameawidespreadupheavaloverwhichnoonecouldremain
neutral.
SocialConditionsinthe18thcenturyFrance
TounderstandhowandwhytheFrenchRevolutionoccurred,wehavetounderstand
Frenchsocietyofthattime.WehavetorealizealsothatconditionsinFrancewereno
worsethantheconditionsthatexistedinotherpartsofEurope.
Autocratic,extravagantrulers,privilegednoblesandclergy,landlesspeasants,jobless
workers,unequaltaxationthelistofhardshipsenduredbythecommonpeopleisavery
longone.
Francewasastrongandpowerfulstateinthe18thcentury.Shehadseizedvastterritories
inNorthAmerica,islandsintheWestIndies.However,despiteitsoutwardstrength,the
Frenchmonarchywasfacingacrisiswhichwastoleadtoitsdestruction.
FirstandSecondEstate
Frenchsocietywasdividedintoclasses,orestates.Thereweretwoprivilegedclasses
Privilegedclass Alsoknownas Population
Clergy
Firstestate
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Nobility
Secondestate
80thousandfamilies
Peopleinthesetwoclasseswereexemptedfromalmostalltaxes!
Theycontrolledmostoftheadministrativepostsandallthehighrankingpostsinthe
army.
Inapopulationof25,000,000people,thesetwoclassestogetherownedabout40percent
ofthetotallandofFrance.Theirincomescameprimarilyfromtheir,largelandholdings.
Aminorityofthesealsodependedonpensionsandgiftsfromtheking.Theyconsideredit
beneaththeirdignitytotradeortobeengagedinmanufactureortodoanywork.
Thelifeofthenobilitywaseverywherecharacterizedbyextravaganceandluxury.There
were,ofcourse,poorersectionsinthesetwotopestates.Theywerediscontentedand
blamedtherichermembersoftheirclassfortheirmisery.
ThirdEstate
TherestofthepeopleofFrancewerecalledtheThirdEstate.Theywerethecommonpeople
andnumberedabout95percentofthetotalpopulation.PeopleoftheThirdEstatewerethe
unprivilegedpeople.However,thereweremanydifferencesintheirwealthandstyleofliving.
ThePeasants
ThelargestsectionoftheThirdEstateconsistedofthepeasants,almost80percentofthe
totalpopulationofFrance.Thelivesofthisvastclasswerewretched.Mostofthepeasants
werefree,unliketheserfsintheMiddleAges,andunliketheserfsineasternEuropein
the18thcentury.Manyownedtheirownlands.ButagreatmajorityoftheFrench
peasantswerelandlessorhadverysmallholdings.
Theycouldearnhardlyenoughforsubsistence.Theplightofthetenantsandshare
cropperswasworse.Afterrents,thepeasantssharewasreducedtoonethirdorone
fourthofwhatheproduced.Thepeoplewhoworkedonlandforwageslivedonevenless.
Certainchangesinagricultureinthe18thcenturyFrancefurtherworsenedthecondition
ofthepeasant.Hecouldnolongertakewoodfromtheforestsorgrazehisflockson
uncultivatedland.Theburdenoftaxationwasintolerable.Besidestaxes,therewasalso
forcedlabourwhichhadbeenafeudalprivilegeofthelordandwhichwasmoreand
moreresortedtoforpublicworks.Thereweretaxesforlocalroadsandbridges,the
church,andotherneedsofthecommunity.Abadharvestundertheseconditions
inevitablyledtostarvationandunrest.
TheMiddleClasses
NotallthepeoplebelongingtotheThirdEstateworkedontheland.Therewerethe
artisans,workersandpoorpeoplelivingintownsandcities.Thentherewasthemiddle
classorthebourgeoisie.
Thisclassconsistedoftheeducatedpeoplewriters,doctors,judges,lawyers,teachers,
civilservantsandthericherpeoplewhoweremerchants,bankers,andmanufacturers.
Economically,thisclasswasthemostimportantone.Itwastheforerunnerofthebuilders
oftheindustrieswhichweretotransformeconomicandsociallifeinthe19thcentury.
Themerchantbusinessgroups,thoughnewinhistory,hadgrownveryimportantandrich,
helpedbythetradewithFrenchcoloniesinAmerica.
Sincethesepeoplehadmoney,thestate,theclergyandthenobilitywereindebtedto
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them.However,themiddleclasshadnopoliticalrights.Ithadnosocialstatus,andits
membershadtosuffermanyhumiliations.
TheArtisansandCityWorkers
Theconditionofthecitypoorworkersandartisanswasinhumaninthe18thcentury
France.Theywerelookeduponasinferiorcreatureswithoutanyrights.
Noworkercouldleavehisjobforanotherwithouttheemployersconsentandacertificate
ofgoodconduct.
Workersnothavingacertificatecouldbearrested.Theyhadtotoilforlonghoursfrom
earlymorningtilllateatnight.
They,too,paidheavytaxes.Theoppressedworkersformedmanysecretsocietiesand
oftenresortedtostrikesandrebellion.
ThisgroupwastobecomethemainstayoftheFrenchRevolution,andthecityofParis
withapopulationofmorethan500,000wastoplayanimportantpartinit.Inthisnumber
wasanarmyofrebels,waitingforanopportunitytostrikeattheoldorder.
TheMonarchy
AttheheadoftheFrenchstatestoodtheking,anabsolutemonarch.LouisXVIwasthe
kingofFrancewhentherevolutionbrokeout.
Hewasamanofmediocreintelligence,obstinateandindifferenttotheworkofthe
government.Brainwork,itissaid,depressedhim.
Hisbeautifulbutemptyheadedwife,MarieAntoinette,squanderedmoneyon
festivitiesandinterferedinstateappointmentsinordertopromoteherfavorites.Louis,
too,showeredfavoursandpensionsuponhisfriends.
Thestatewasalwaysfacedbyfinancialtroublesasonewouldexpect.Keepinghuge
armiesandwagingwarsmademattersworse.Finally,itbroughtthestatetobankruptcy.
TheIntellectualMovement
Discontentorevenwretchednessisnotenoughtomakeasuccessfulrevolution.Someonemust
helpthediscontentedtofocusonanenemyandprovideidealstofightfor.Inotherwords,
revolutionarythinkingandideasmustprecederevolutionaryaction.Franceinthe18thcentury
hadmanyrevolutionarythinkers.Withouttheideasspreadbythesephilosophers,theFrench
Revolutionwouldsimplyhavebeenanoutbreakofviolence.
Rationalism:theAgeofReason
BecauseoftheideasexpressedbytheFrenchintellectuals,the18thcenturyhasbeen
calledtheAgeofReason.Christianityhadtaughtthatmanwasborntosuffer.
TheFrenchrevolutionaryphilosophersassertedthatmanwasborntobehappy.They
believedthatmancanattainhappinessifreasonisallowedtodestroyprejudiceand
reformmansinstitutions.
TheyeitherdeniedtheexistenceofGodorignoredHim.InplaceofGodtheyassertedthe
doctrineofNatureandtheneedtounderstanditslaws.
Theyurgedfaithinreason.Thepowerofreasonalone,theysaid,wassufficienttobuilda
perfectsociety.
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AttackontheClergy
TheclergywerethefirsttofeelthebruntoftheFrenchphilosophers.Alongseriesof
scientificadvancesdatingfromtheRenaissancehelpedintheircampaignagainstthe
clergy.
Voltaire,oneofthemostfamousFrenchwritersofthetime,thoughnotanatheist,
believedallreligionsabsurdandcontrarytoreason.
AfterVoltaire,otherphilosophers,atheistsandmaterialists,gainedpopularity.They
believedthatmansdestinylayinthisworldratherthaninheaven.
WritingsattackingreligionfedthefiresofrevolutionbecausetheChurchgavesupportto
autocraticmonarchyandtheoldorder.
PhysiocratesandLaissezFaire
TheFrencheconomistsofthetimewerecalledphysiocrats.TheybelievedinLaissez
faireaboutwhichyouvealreadyreadinchapter7(clickme)
Accordingtothistheory,apersonmustbeleftfreetomanageanddisposeofhisproperty
inthewayhethinksbest.LiketheEnglishandAmericanrevolutionariesbeforethem,the
physiocratssaidthattaxesshouldbeimposedonlywiththeconsentofthoseonwhom
theywerelevied.Theseideaswereadirectdenialoftheprivilegesandfeudalrightsthat
protectedtheupperclasses.
Democracy:JeanJacquesRousseau
Thephilosopherwriter,Montesquieu,thoughtaboutthekindofgovernmentthatisbest
suitedtomanandoutlinedtheprinciplesofconstitutionalmonarchy.
However,itwasJeanJacquesRousseauwhoassertedthedoctrineofpopular
sovereigntyanddemocracy.Hesaid,Manisbornfree,yeteverywhereheisinchains.
Hetalkedofthestateofnaturewhenmanwasfree,andsaidthatfreedomwaslost
followingtheemergenceofproperty.
Herecognizedpropertyinmodernsocietiesasanecessaryevil.
Whatwasneeded,saidRousseau,wasanewsocialcontracttoguaranteethefreedom,
equalityandhappinesswhichmanhadenjoyedinthestateofnature.
RousseaustheoriesalsocontainedaprinciplethathadbeenwrittenintotheAmerican
DeclarationofIndependence:nopoliticalsystemcanmaintainitselfwithouttheconsent
ofthegoverned.
OutbreakoftheRevolution
In1789,LouisXVIsneedformoneycompelledhimtoagreetoameetingoftheStates
Generaltheoldfeudalassembly.Louiswantedtoobtainitsconsentfornewloansand
taxes.AllthreeEstateswererepresentedinitbuteachoneheldaseparatemeeting.
On17June1789,membersoftheThirdEstate,claimingtorepresent96percentofthe
nationspopulation,declaredthemselvestheNationalAssembly.
On20June,theyfoundtheirmeetinghalloccupiedbyroyalguardsbut,determinedto
meet,theymovedtothenearbyroyaltenniscourttoworkoutaconstitution.
LouisthenmadepreparationstobreakuptheAssembly.Troopswerecalled:rumours
spreadthatleadingmembersoftheAssemblywouldsoonbearrested.Thisenragedthe
people,whobegantogatherintheirthousands.
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Theyweresoonjoinedbytheguards.TheysurroundedtheBastille,astateprison,
On14July.Afterafourhoursiege,theybrokeopenthedoors,freeingalltheprisoners.
ThefalloftheBastillesymbolizedthefallofautocracy.July14iscelebratedeveryyear
asanationalholidayinFrance.
AfterFallofBastille
After14July1789,LouisXVIwaskingonlyinname.TheNationalAssemblybeganto
enactlaws.
FollowingthefalloftheBastille,therevoltspreadtoothertownsandcitiesandfinally
intothecountryside.TheNationalAssemblyadoptedthefamousDeclarationofthe
RightsofManandCitizen.Itspecifiedtheequalityofallmenbeforethelaw,eligibility
ofallcitizensforallpubicoffices,freedomfromarrestorpunishmentwithoutproven
cause,freedomofspeechandfreedomofthepress.
Mostimportantofall,tothemiddleclass,itrequiredequitabledistributionoftheburdens
oftaxationandrightsofprivateproperty.
TherevolutionaryimportanceofthisdeclarationforEuropecannotbeoverestimated.
EverygovernmentinEuropewasbasedonprivilege.Iftheseideaswereapplied,the
entireoldorderofEuropewouldbedestroyed.
WarandEndofMonarchy
ThepeopleofFranceweresooninvolvedinawartodefendtheRevolutionandthe
nation.Manynoblesandclericsfledthecountryandencouragedforeigngovernmentsto
interveneinFranceagainsttheRevolution.Thekingandqueentriedtoescapefrom
Franceindisguisebuttheywererecognizedandbroughtbackascaptivesandtraitors.
TheoldNationalAssemblywasreplacedbyaLegislativeAssembly.ThisAssemblytook
overthepropertyofthosepeoplewhohadfled.ItsentwordtotheAustrianemperor,who
wasmobilizingsupportagainstFrancetorenounceeverytreatydirectedagainstthe
Frenchnation.Whentheemperorrefused,theLegislativeAssemblydeclaredwar.
SoonFrancewasfightingAustria,Prussia,andSavoyinItaly.Thethreeweresupported
byanarmyoftheFrenchexiles.
Francehaddestroyedfeudalismandmonarchyandfoundednewinstitutionsbasedon
libertyandequality,whereasinthesecountriestheoldwayofliferemained.The
commanderinchiefoftheAustroPrussianforcesstatedthattheaimwastosuppress
anarchyinFranceandtorestorethekingsauthority.TheFrenchrevolutionariesreplied
byofferingfraternityandassistancetoallpeoplewishingtodestroytheoldorderin
theircountries.
Thekingandqueenweretriedandexecutedin1793.Thiswasfollowedbyadeclaration
ofwaragainstBritain,Holland,SpainandHungary.
Then,aradicalgroup,theJacobins,believingindirectdemocracy,tametopower.
FearingthattheRevolutionwasindanger,thisgrouptooktostrongmeasurestocrush
forcesinimicaltotheRevolution.In14months,some17,000people,includingthosewho
wereinnocent,weretriedandexecuted.SomepeoplehavecalledittheReignof
Terror.Later,anewconstitutionwasdrawnup.Butthearmybecameincreasingly
powerfulandthisledtotheriseofNapoleon,whowassoontodeclarehimselfEmperor
oftheFrenchRepublic.
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NapoleonicWars
From1792to1815,Francewasengagedinwaralmostcontinuously.Itwasawar
betweenFranceandotherstates.Somehistorianshavetermeditasaninternationalcivil
warbecauseitwasfoughtbetweenrevolutionaryFranceandcountriesupholdingtheold
order.Inthiswar,Francewasalone.
However,untilNapoleonbecameemperor,almosteveryenlightenedpersonintheworld
sympathizedwiththeFrenchRevolution.
Between1793and1796FrencharmiesconqueredalmostallofwesternEurope.When
NapoleonpressedontoMalta,EgyptandSyria(179799),theFrenchwereoustedfrom
Italy.
AfterNapoleonseizedpower,Francerecoveredtheterritoriesshehadlostanddefeated
Austriain1805,Prussiain1806,andRussiain1807.OntheseatheFrenchcouldnot
scoreagainstthestrongerBritishnavy.
Finally,anallianceofalmostallEuropedefeatedFranceatLeipzigin1813.Theseallied
forceslateroccupiedParis,andNapoleonwasdefeated.Hisattemptatrecoverywas
foiledatthebattleofWaterlooinJune1815.Thepeacesettlement,whichinvolvedall
Europe,tookplaceattheCongressofVienna.
AfterthedefeatofNapoleon,theoldrulingdynastyofFrancewasrestoredtopower.
However,withinafewyears,in1830,therewasanotheroutbreakofrevolution.
In1848,themonarchywasagainoverthrownthoughitsoonreappeared.
Finally,in1871,theRepublicwasagainproclaimed.
MindmapofFrenchRevolution(ClicktoEnlarge)
1. AmajorresultoftheRevolutionwasthedestructionoffeudalisminFrance.Allthelaws
oftheoldfeudalregimewereannulled.Churchlandsandlandsheldincommonbythe
communitywereboughtbythemiddleclasses.Thelandsofnobleswereconfiscated.
Privilegedclasseswereabolished.
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2. AfterNapoleonseizedpower.TheNapoleonicCodewasintroduced.Manyelementsof
thisCoderemainedinforceforalongtimesomeofthemexisteventothisday.
3. AnotherlastingresultoftheRevolutioninFrancewasthebuildingupofaneweconomic
systeminplaceofthefeudalsystemwhichhadbeenoverthrown.Thissystemwas
capitalismaboutwhichyouhavereadinChapter7.Eventherestoredmonarchycouldnot
bringbackthefeudalsystemordestroytheneweconomicinstitutionsthathadcomeinto
being.
4. TheFrenchRevolutiongavethetermnationitsmodernmeaning.Anationisnotthe
territorythatthepeoplebelongingtoitinhabitbutthepeoplethemselves.Francewasnot
merelytheterritoriesknownasFrancebuttheFrenchpeople.
5. Fromthisfollowedtheideaofsovereignty,thatanationrecognizesnolaworauthority
aboveitsown.Andifanationissovereign,thatmeansthepeopleconstitutingthenation
arethesourceofallpowerandauthority.Therecannotbeanyrulersabovethepeople,
onlyarepublicinwhichthegovernmentderivesitsauthorityfromthepeopleandis
answerabletothepeople.ItisinterestingtorememberthatwhenNapoleonbecame
emperorhecalledhimselftheEmperoroftheFrenchRepublic.Suchwasthestrengthof
theideaofpeoplessovereignty.
6. ItwasthisideaofthepeoplebeingthesovereignthatgaveFrancehermilitarystrength.
Theentirenationwasunitedbehindthearmywhichconsistedofrevolutionarycitizens.In
awarinwhichalmostallofEuropewasrangedagainstFrance,shewouldhavehadno
chancewithjustamercenaryarmy.
7. UndertheJacobinconstitution,allpeopleweregiventherighttovoteandtherightof
insurrection.Theconstitutionstatedthatthegovernmentmustprovidethepeoplewith
workorlivelihood.Thehappinessofallwasproclaimedastheaimofgovernment.
Thoughitwasneverreallyputintoeffect,itwasthefirstgenuinelydemocratic
constitutioninhistory.
8. ThegovernmentabolishedslaveryintheFrenchcolonies.
9. Napoleonsrisetopowerwasastepbackward.However,thoughhedestroyedthe
Republicandestablishedanempire,theideaoftherepubliccouldnotbedestroyed.
10. TheRevolutionhadcomeaboutwiththesupportandbloodofcommonpeoplethecity
poorandthepeasants.In1792,forthefirsttimeinhistory,workers,peasantsandother
nonpropertiedclassesweregivenequalpoliticalrights.
11. Althoughtherighttovoteandelectrepresentativesdidnotsolvetheproblemsofthe
commonpeople.Thepeasantsgottheirlands.Buttotheworkersandartisansthe
peoplewhowerethebackboneoftherevolutionarymovementtheRevolutiondidnot
bringrealequality.Tothem,realequalitycouldcomeonlywitheconomicequality.
12. Francesoonbecameoneofthefirstcountrieswheretheideasofsocialequality,of
socialism,gaverisetoanewkindofpoliticalmovement.
ImpactofFrenchRevolutionontheWorld
TheFrenchRevolutionhadbeenaworldshakingevent.Foryearstocomeitsdirect
influencewasfeltinmanypartsoftheworld.Itinspiredrevolutionarymovementsin
almosteverycountryofEuropeandinSouthandCentralAmerica.
ForalongtimetheFrenchRevolutionbecametheclassicexampleofarevolutionwhich
peopleofmanynationstriedtoemulate.
TheimpactoftheFrenchRevolutioncanbesummedup,inthewordsofT.Kolokotrones,
oneoftherevolutionaryfightersintheGreekwarofindependence:Accordingtomy
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judgment,theFrenchRevolutionandthedoingsofNapoleonopenedtheeyesofthe
world.Thenationsknewnothingbefore,andthepeoplethoughtthatkingsweregods
upontheearthandthattheywereboundtosaythatwhatevertheydidwaswelldone.
Throughthispresentchangeitismoredifficulttorulethepeople.
EventhoughtheoldrulingdynastyofFrancehadbeenrestoredtopowerin1815,andthe
autocraticgovernmentsofEuropefoundthemselvessafeforthetimebeing,therulers
founditincreasinglydifficulttorulethepeople.
SomeofthechangesthattookplaceinmanypartsofEuropeandtheAmericasinthe
early19thcenturyweretheimmediate,directconsequencesoftheRevolutionandthe
Napoleonicwars.
ThewarsinwhichFrancewasengagedwithotherEuropeanpowershadresultedinthe
FrenchoccupationofvastareasofEuropeforsometime.
TheFrenchsoldiers,wherevertheywent,carriedwiththemideasoflibertyandequality
shakingtheoldfeudalorder.Theydestroyedserfdominareaswhichcameundertheir
occupationandmodernizedthesystemsofadministration.
UnderNapoleon,theFrenchhadbecomeconquerorsinsteadofliberators.Thecountries
whichorganizedpopularresistanceagainsttheFrenchoccupationcarriedoutreformsin
theirsocialandpoliticalsystem.TheleadingpowersofEuropedidnotsucceedin
restoringtheoldordereitherinFranceorinthecountriesthattheRevolutionhadreached.
Thepoliticalandsocialsystemsofthe18thcenturyhadreceivedaheavyblow.Theywere
soontodieinmostofEuropeundertheimpactoftherevolutionarymovementsthat
sprangupeverywhereinEurope.
RevolutionsinCentralandSouthAmerica
TheimpactoftheRevolutionwasfeltonthefarawayAmericancontinent.Revolutionary
Francehadabolishedslaveryinhercolonies.TheformerFrenchcolonyofHaitibecame
arepublic.Thiswasthefirstrepublicestablishedbytheblackpeople,formerlyslaves,in
theAmericas.
Inspiredbythisexample,revolutionarymovementsaroseintheAmericastooverthrow
foreignrule,toabolishslaveryandtoestablishindependentrepublics.
ThechiefEuropeanimperialistpowersinCentralandSouthAmericawereSpainand
Portugal.SpainhadbeenoccupiedbyFrance,andPortugalwasinvolvedinaconflictwith
France.
Duringtheearly19thcentury,thesetwoimperialistcountrieswerecutofffromtheir
colonies,withtheresultthatmostofthePortugueseandSpanishcoloniesinCentraland
SouthAmericabecameindependent.
Themovementsforindependenceinthesecountrieshadearlierbeeninspiredbythe
successfulWarofAmericanIndependence.TheFrenchRevolutionensuredtheirsuccess.
Bythethirddecadeofthe19thcentury,almostentireCentralandSouthAmericahad
beenliberatedfromtheSpanishandthePortugueseruleandanumberofindependent
republicswereestablished.Intheserepublicsslaverywasabolished.
It,however,persistedintheUnitedStatesforafewmoredecadeswhereitwasfinally
abolishedfollowingtheCivilWaraboutwhichyouhavereadbeforeinthischapter.
SimonBolivar,BernardoOHigginsandSanMartinwerethegreatleadersinSouth
Americaatthistime.
IntheNextparts,wellsee
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UnificationofGermanyandItalyRevolutionarymovementsinotherpartsofEurope
RiseofSocialism
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8frenchrevolution
causesconsequencesrisefallofnapoleonpart2of4.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8:UnificationofGermany&Italy
[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]UnificationofGermany,
UnificationofItaly,Bismarck,Blood&Iron(Part3of4)
1. RevolutionaryMovementsinEurope
1. HolyAlliance
2. Revolutionsof1848
3. GrowthofDemocracyinEngland
2. UnificationofGermany
1. Prussia
2. ProblemsofdividedGermany
3. Bismarck:Policyofblood&iron
4. FallofLouisBonaparte
3. UnificationofItaly
1. YoungItalymovement
2. Italyaftertherevolutionof1848.
3. UprisinginSicilies
4. RomebecometheCapital
4. Aftertherevoltsandunifications
RevolutionaryMovementsinEurope
Theperiodafter1815sawtheemergenceofrevolutionaryactivityineverycountryin
Europe.Insomecountries,theaimoftherevolutionarieswastheoverthrowofautocratic
rulersandtheabolitionofserfdominsomeitwastheoverthrowofforeignruleandin
someothersitwassocial,politicalandeconomicreforms.
Nationalismemergedasamajorforceinthisperiod.However,itisinterestingtoseethat
thisnationalismwasneitherexclusivenorchauvinistic.
Revolutionariesfightingforindependencedidnotfightfortheirindependencealoneor
againstthedespotismoftheirrulersonly.Theydidnotwanttheirnationtodominateother
nations.
Theywereinfactinspiredbytheaimoffightingagainstdespotismeverywhere.They
wereunitedintoakindofinternationalbrotherhoodofpeoplesagainstalldespots.
TheSouthAmericanrevolutionariesOHiggins,SimonBolivarandSanMartinfoughtfor
theindependenceofmanycountriesinSouthAmerica.
Mazzini,oneoftheforemostleadersofthestruggleforItalianunificationand
independence,formedanumberoforganizationssuchasYoungPoland,YoungGermany
andYoungItalyfortheliberationofthesecountries.
Garibaldi,anothergreatleaderoftheItalianrevolutionaries,foughtforthefreedomof
thepeoplesofSouthAmerica.
ThegreatEnglishpoetLordByronwasalsooneoftheserevolutionaries.Hefoughtfor
thefreedomofGreeceanddiedthere.Hedeclaredthathewouldwarwithevery
despotismineverynation.ThesewordsofByronbestsumuptheattitudeofalarge
numberofrevolutionariesofthetime.
However,astherevolutionarieswereunitedintheircommonaimofoverthrowing
despotismeverywhere,theautocraticgovernmentsalsowereunitedtosuppressevery
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8unificationofgermanyunificationofitalybismarckbloodironpart3of4.html/print/
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revoltandmovementagainstanydespotism.
HolyAlliance
In1815,therulersofAustria,Britain,RussiaandPrussiaformedanalliance.Oneofthe
majordeclaredaimsofthisalliancewastosuppressanyattemptbythepeopleto
overthrowarulerwhomthesecountriesconsideredthelegitimaterulerofthecountry.
ThenewrulerofFrancealsosoonjoinedthisalliance.Austria,RussiaandPrussiahad
formedanotheralliancewhichtheycalledtheHolyAlliance.
Thisalliancewhichmanyotherrulersalsojoinedwasevenmoreopenlyopposedto
democraticideasandmovementsthanthefirst.After1815therulersofEuropetriedto
suppressallmovementsforfreedomanddemocracyintheirownaswellasinother
countries.
In1821,forexample,AustriasentherarmiesintoNaplesandPiedmontinItalyto
suppresstheuprisingsthathadtakenplacethere.InmanycountriesofEurope,the
freedomofthepresswasabolishedandalargenumberofspieswererecruitedtokeep
watchontheactivitiesoftherevolutionaries.
Theoppressivemeasuresintroducedbytherulersfailedtocurbtherevolutionary
movementsinEurope.In1830revolutionsbrokeoutinanumberofcountries.TheFrench
monarchfledawaytoEnglandandwassucceededbyLouisPhilippewhopromisedtorule
accordingtothewishesofthepeople.
TherewasarevoltinBelgiumforfreedomfromHolland.Insurrectionsbrokeoutin
variousstatesofItalyandGermanyandinPoland.Althoughmostoftheserevoltswere
suppressed,theindependenceoftwonewnationswasrecognizedofGreecein1830
andofBelgiumin1839.
Revolutionsof1848
Withinafewyearsaftertherevoltsof1830hadbeensuppressed,therevolutionary
movementsinEuropeagaingainedmomentum.
In1848,revolutionsbrokeoutinalmosteverycountryofEurope,whichdealtamortal
blowtothecountriesoftheHolyAlliance.
Earlyin1848,therewasarevoltinItaly.
InFebruary,revolutionbrokeoutinFranceandLouisPhilippewhohadbeeninstalledas
kingafterthe1830revolutionfledaway.
FranceagainbecamearepublicforsometimebutpowerwasusurpedbyLouisNapoleon
Bonaparte,popularlyknownasNapoleonIII,anephewofNapoleon,in1852.
Francefinallybecamearepublicin1871whentheempireofLouisBonapartecollapsed.
TherevolutioninFrancewassoonfollowedbyuprisingsinmanytownsofGermany.The
rulersofmanyGermanstates,includingPrussiawhichwasamemberoftheHoly
Alliance,agreedtointroducemanyreforms.
Simultaneously,therewereuprisingsinVienna,thecapital,andinothertownsofthe
Austrianempire,anothermemberoftheHolyAlliance.Metternich,theChancellorofthe
empire,whowasthemosthatedmaninEurope,hadtoflee.
TheAustrianempireinthosedayswasalargeempirerulingovermanynationsofEurope.
ItruledoverAustria,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,Rumania,Poland,Yugoslaviaandmany
otherareas.
RevoltshadbrokenoutinallthesubjectnationsoftheempireaswellasinAustria.Even
thoughtheserevoltsdidnotsucceed,theempirewasbadlyshaken.
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Therevolutionsof1848failedtooverthrowtheestablishedoppressiveregimesofEurope
thoughtheyconsiderablyweakenedthem.Themostsignificantaspectofthe1848
revolutionswastheemergenceofanewpoliticalforceinEurope.
YouhavereadinChapter7abouttheriseofanewsocialclassinEuropefollowingthe
IndustrialRevolutiontheworkingclass.Theworkerswereamajorforceinthe
revolutionsof1848.Theiraimwasnotmerelytheoverthrowofautocraciesbutalsothe
destructionoftheeconomicsystemthathadgrownwiththeIndustrialRevolution
capitalism.Otherparticipantsintherevolutionsthecapitalists,themerchantsandother
peoplebelongingtothemiddleclasswantedconstitutionalreforms.
Theylookeduponthedemandsoftheworkersforsocialrevolutionwithhorror.Whenthe
revolutionarymovementswereattheirpeak,theydecidedtocompromisewiththerulers.
GrowthofDemocracyinEngland
Thefirstsuccessfulrevolutionthatoverthrewtheautocraticmonarchytookplacein
Englandintheseventeenthcentury.Thishadresultedintheestablishmentofthe
supremacyofParliamentinEngland.However,Parliamentatthattimewasnotatruly
democraticinstitution.
Therighttovotewaslimitedtoaverysmallpercentageofthepopulation.Throughoutthe
eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,thedemandformakingParliamentademocratic
institutiongrew.Campaignstoextendtherighttovotetoeverycitizenwerewaged.These
campaignswereledbyradicalleaderswhorepresentedtheinterestsofworkers,andthe
citypoor,andbythoserepresentingtheindustrialists.
Until1832,representationinParliamentwasbasednotonpopulationbutonelection
districtscountiesandboroughs.Manyofthesewerenolongerpopulatedexceptedfora
fewhouses,whilenewtownsandcitieswithlargepopulationshadnorepresentation.
UndertheActof1832,theoldunpopulatedareasorrottenboroughs,astheywere
called,wereabolishedandtheirseatsweregiventonewtownsandcities.
Atthistimealso,therighttovotewasextendedtothosewhoownedorrentedahouseofa
certainvalueinthetownsorinvillages.Thisformedonlyabout10percentofthe
population.
Inch.7,YouhavereadoftheChartistMovementwhichwaslaunchedtogettherightto
voteforworkers.Thoughthemovementdeclinedinthe1850s,itleftitsinfluenceand
throughtheActsof1867.1882,1918and1929,alladultcitizenswereenfranchised.
Thusitwasover200yearsafterParliamentbecamesupremethatitbecamealsoatruly
representativebodyoftheBritishpeople.
UnificationofGermany
Oneofthemajorfeaturesofthe19thcenturyhistoryofEuropewasthestrugglesfor
nationalunificationandindependence.TheachievementofindependencebyGreeceand
Belgiumhasbeenmentionedbefore.GermanyandItalyweretheothertwoimportant
nationswhichemergedasunited,independentstatesinthe19thcentury.
Inthe18thcentury,Germanywasdividedintoanumberofstates.Someofthesestates
wereverysmallanddidnotextendbeyondthelimitsofacity.DuringtheNapoleonic
wars,manyofthesestatesceasedtoexist.Attheendofthewarstherewerestillthirty
eightindependentstatesinGermany.AmongthemPrussia,Wurttemberg,Bavaria,and
Saxonywerefairlylarge.
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Prussia
wasthemostpowerfulinMilitarilyandinextent.Itwasalsothemostreactionary.The
biglandlordsofPrussiaknownasJunkersformedthedominantsectioninPrussian
society.PrussiawasalsooneoftheleadersoftheHolyAlliance.
ProblemsofdividedGermany
ThedivisionofGermanyintoanumberofstateshadhamperedtheeconomic
developmentofGermany.Thesocialandpoliticalsysteminthesestateswasalsovery
backward.
Withthegrowthofnationalconsciousness,particularlyaftertheFrenchRevolution,the
peopleofthesestateshadstarteddemandingthenationalunificationofGermany,
establishmentofdemocraticgovernmentandsocialandeconomicreforms.
In1815,theGermanstatesalongwithAustriawereorganisedintoaGermanic
Confederation.However,eachstatetriedtopreserveitsindependenceanditsoppressive
politicalandsocialsystem.
In1848revoltsoccurredineveryGermanstateandtherulerswereforcedtogrant
democraticconstitutions.TouniteGermanyandtoframeaconstitutionfortheunited
Germany,aconstituentassemblymetinFrankfurt.
TheinitialsuccessoftherevoltshadmadetheGermandemocratsandnationaliststhink
thatvictoryhadbeenachieved.
Whiletheydebatedtheclausesoftheconstitution,therulerspreparedthemselvesto
suppressthemovement.
TheFrankfurtAssemblyproposedtheunificationofGermanyasaconstitutional
monarchyundertheKingofPrussiawhowouldbecomeemperorofGermany.
However,theKingofPrussiadeclinedtheoffer.Hedidnotwishtoacceptthecrownfrom
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theelectedrepresentativesofthepeople.Repressionsoonfollowedandeventherights
thatpeoplehadwonintheinitialstagesoftherevolutionweretakenaway.Thousandsof
Germanrevolutionarieshadtofleethecountryandliveinexile.
Bismarck:Policyofblood&iron
Withthefailureoftherevolutionof1848tounifyGermany,onephaseinthestrugglefor
unificationcametoanend.NowGermanywastobeunifiednotintoademocraticcountry
bytheeffortsofrevolutionariesbutbytherulersintoamilitaristicempire.
TheleaderofthispolicywasBismarckwhobelongedtoaPrussianaristocraticfamily.
Hewantedtopreservethepredominanceofthelandedaristocratsandthearmyinthe
unitedGermanstateandtoachievetheunificationofGermanyundertheleadershipofthe
Prussianmonarchy.
Hedescribedhispolicyofunificationasoneofbloodandiron.
Thepolicyofbloodandironmeantapolicyofwar.Thefirstaimhepursuedwasthe
eliminationofAustriafromtheGermanicConfederation.
HealignedwithAustriainawaragainstDenmarkoverthepossessionofSchleswigand
Holstein.
AfterDenmarksdefeat,heenteredintoanalliancewithItalyagainstAustria,defeated
AustriaanddissolvedtheGermanicConfederation.
ThusAustriawasseparatedfromotherGermanstates.
InplaceoftheoldConfederation,heunited22statesofGermanyintoNorthGerman
Confederationin1866.TheconstitutionofthisConfederationmadethekingofPrussia
thehereditaryheadoftheConfederation.
TheunificationofGermanywascompletedasaresultofawarbetweenPrussiaand
France.
FallofLouisBonaparte
In1870,LouisBonaparte,whosepowerhadbeguntocollapse,declaredwaronPrussiain
thehopeofmaintaininghisempirethroughamilitaryvictory.Thewarwaspartly
provokedbyBismarck.ItproveddisastrousfortheempireofLouisBonaparte.
TheFrencharmiesweredefeatedandtheFrenchemperorwascaptured.Afterherdefeat,
Francefinallybecamearepublic.Germanysunificationwascompletedasaresultofthe
warwhichenabledBismarcktoabsorbtheremainingGermanstatesintoaunited
Germany.
TheformalceremonyatwhichKingWilliamIofPrussiatookthetitleofGerman
EmperorwasnotheldonGermansoil.IttookplaceatVersaillesinFrance,inthepalace
oftheFrenchkings.
Afterherunification,GermanyemergedasaverystrongpowerinEurope.Itunderwent
heavyindustrializationinaveryshortperiodandsoonjoinedthescrambleforcolonies.
However,themilitarismwhichmadeGermanyintoagreatpowerwastoprovedisastrous
tothepeopleofGermanyintheyearstocome.(Formoreonthat,refertoChapter12)
UnificationofItaly
LikeGermany,Italywasalsodividedintoanumberofstates.
Themajorstatesintheearly19thcenturyItalywereSardinia,Lombardy,Venetia,
KingdomoftheTwoSicilies(SicilyandNaples),PapalStates,Tuscany,Parmaand
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Modena.
OfthesethemostpowerfulwasthekingdomofSardinia.
VenetiaandLombardywereunderAustrianoccupation.
ThustheItalianpeoplewerefacedwiththetaskofexpellingtheAustriansandforcingthe
rulersofindependentstatestounite.
YoungItalymovement
ThestruggleforItalianindependenceandunificationwasorganizedbythetwofamous
revolutionariesofItalywhosenameshavebeenmentionedintheearlierpartofthis
chapterGiuseppeMazziniandGiuseppeGaribaldi.
ThemovementledbythemisknownastheYoungItalymovement.Itaimedatthe
independenceandunificationofItalyandtheestablishmentofarepublicthere.
In1848,asinotherpartsofEurope,revolutionaryuprisingshadbrokenoutinItalyand
therulerswereforcedtograntcertaindemocraticreformstothepeople.
However,thegoalofindependenceandunificationwasstilldistant.
Italyaftertherevolutionof1848.
ThekingofSardiniahadintroducedmanyreformsinthepoliticalsystemofhiskingdom
aftertherevolutionof1848.After1848,hisprimeminister,CountCavour,tookthe
initiativeofunitingItalyundertheleadershipofSardinia.
CavourspolicyinsomewayswassimilartothatfollowedbyBismarckinGermany.
HopingtogainthesupportofBritainandFrance,heenteredtheCrimeanwarin185356
againstRussiaeventhoughSardiniahadnodisputewithRussia.However,nothingcame
outofthiswar.
In1859,CavourenteredintoanalliancewithLouisBonaparteandwenttowarwith
Austria.AlthoughFrancesoonwithdrewfromthewar,Austriawasoustedfrom
Lombardy,whichwastakenoverbySardinia.
Tuscany,Modena,ParmaandthePapalStatesofthenorthalsojoinedSardinia.
Venetia,however,wasstillunderAustrianoccupation.Theotherstatesthatremainedto
beunitedwithSardiniaweretheKingdomoftheTwoSiciliesandRomewhichwasunder
theruleofthePope.
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UprisinginSicilies
MeanwhileanuprisinghadbrokenoutintheKingdomoftheTwoSicilies.Garibaldi
marchedintotheislandofSicilywithhisrevolutionaryfightersandliberateditfromthe
ruleofthekingwithinthreemonths.ThenhemarchedtoNaplesinsupportoftherevolt
thathadalreadybrokenoutthere.
BytheendOfNovember1860theentireKingdomoftheTwoSicilieshadbeenliberated.
TheItalianrevolutionarieswerenotperhapsstrongenoughtopushthevictoryofthe
peopleintheSiciliesfurtherwithaviewtoestablishingaunitedrepublicofItaly.
TheysurrenderedtheformerkingdomtotheKingofSardinia,VictorEmmanuelII,who
thentookthetitleofKingofItalyin1861.
Garibaldi,therevolutionarywhohadplayedsuchavitalroleintheliberationand
unificationofItaly,nowretiredtoleadalifeofobscurity.
RomebecometheCapital
RomewasstilloutsidethekingdomofItaly.ItwasruledoverbythePopewiththehelp
oftheFrenchsoldiersprovidedtohimbyLouisBonaparte.WhenthewarbetweenFrance
andPrussiabrokeoutin1870,BonapartewasforcedtowithdrawhistroopsfromRome.
ItaliansoldiersoccupiedthecityofRomein1870,andinJuly1871,Romebecamethe
capitalofunitedItaly.
Inspiteoftheimportantroleplayedbydemocraticandrevolutionaryleaderssuchas
MazziniandGaribaldiinthestruggleforItalysliberationandunification,Italyalso,like
Germany,becameamonarchy.
Aftertherevoltsandunifications
TheunificationofGermanyandItaly,inspiteofthefactthatdemocracywasnot
completelyvictoriousthere,markedagreatadvanceinthehistoryofthetwocountries.
Therevolutionsandmovementsdescribedabove,alongwiththeIndustrialRevolution,
deeplyinfluencedthecourseofthehistoryofmankind.Theforcesthatgeneratedthese
revolutionsandmovementswerealsoatworkinothercountries.Theirsuccessinone
placefedthefiresofrevoltandencouragedchangeintherestoftheworld.Theyarestill
beingfelttoday,transformingsocial,politicalandeconomiclifeeverywhere.
Oneoftheaspectsofthemovementsdescribedsofaristhegradualgrowthofpolitical
democracy,thatis,theeverincreasingparticipationofincreasingnumberofpeopleinthe
politicallifeofacountry.
Thishappenedincountrieswheretheformofgovernmentbecamerepublicanaswellasin
thosewhichremainedmonarchiessuchasEngland,GermanyandItaly.
Theperiodofautocraciesandprivilegedaristocracieswasgraduallycomingtoanend.
Alongside,therewerealsothemovementsfornationalunityandnationalindependence.
ThesemovementswerevictoriousinItaly,Germany,andsomeothercountriesofEurope
andinthe,Americas.InafewmoredecadestheyweretosucceedintherestaEuropeand
intherecentperiodinmostoftheworld.
Itisnecessarytorememberherethatthenewpoliticalandeconomicsystemthatwas
emerginginEuropeinthe19thcenturywasalsocreatingimperialism.
TheperiodofthetriumphofdemocracyandinEuropewasalsotheperiodoftheconquest
ofAsiaandAfricabytheimperialistpowersofEurope.The19thcenturysawthe
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beginningoftherevoltsagainstimperialisminAsiaandAfrica.Thereweretwomighty
revolts
1. 1857inIndia
2. TaipingrebellioninChina.
Later,nationalistmovementsinthemodemsensebegantobeorganizedinallcountriesofAsia
andAfrica.Wealreadysawseenabouttheminchapter13.
IntheNextpart(4of4)ofCh8,wellseeTheRiseofSocialism.
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8unificationof
germanyunificationofitalybismarckbloodironpart3of4.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8:SocialismBirth&Rise
[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]Socialism:TheBeginning
andRise,FirstInternational,SecondInternational(Part4of4)
1. SOCIALISTMOVEMENT
2. EarlySocialists
1. BabeufConspiracy
2. UtopianSocialists
3. Blanqui
3. CommunistLeague
4. MarxianSocialism
5. After1848revolution
6. TheFirstInternational,1864
7. TheParisCommune,1871
8. TheSecondInternational
1. 2ndinternational:achievements
2. 2ndInternational:cryagainstcolonialism
3. 2ndInternational:Limitations
9. EXERCISES
InthelastpartwesawunificationofGermanyandUnificationofItaly(clickme),now
continuingontothe4thandlastpart:
SOCIALISTMOVEMENT
YouhavereadinChapter7abouttheemergenceofanewsocialandeconomicsystemcalled
capitalism.Underthissystem,themeansofproductionsuchasfactoriesandthethings
producedbyfactorieswereownedandcontrolledbyafewpeople.Thevastmajorityofthe
peoplewhoworkedinthefactorieshadnorights.Theirconditionsofworkandlivingwere
miserable.Theywerefrequentlywithoutjobs.Theworkersgraduallybegantoorganize
themselvesintotradeunionstoprotecttheircommonrightsthoughforalongtimetherewere
lawsagainstworkerscombiningthemselvesintounions.Thegovernmentswerealsoforcedto
passlawsagainstsomeoftheworsefeaturesofcapitalism.ForexampleLawstoprotect
workersfromunsafeconditionsofworkwerepassedinmanycountries.Someprogresswas
alsomadeinregulatinghoursofwork.
Someworkershadbeguntothinkthatmachineswerethecauseoftheirmisery.InEngland,
therewasamovementtomachinesledtheLudditessonamedaftertheirleaderNedLudd.
However,theysoonrealizedthatthedestructionofmachineswouldnotputanendtotheir
misery.InEngland,anewpoliticalmovementstartedwhichaimedatwinningpoliticalrights
forworkers.ThiswastheChartistmovementaboutwhichyouhavereadbefore.
EarlySocialists
Thegreatestchallengetocapitalismcamefromtheideasofsocialismandthemovementsbased
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8socialismthebeginningandrisefirstinternationalsecondinternationalpart4of4.html/print/
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onthoseideas.Theideagrewthatcapitalismitselfisevilandthatitneedstobereplacedbya
differentkindandeconomicsysteminwhichthemeansaproductionwouldbeownedbythe
societyasawholeandnotbyafewindividuals.
Manyphilosophersandreformersinthepasthadexpressedtheirrevulsionagainstinequalities
insocietyandinfavourofasysteminwhicheveryonewouldbeequal.Howevertheseideas
hadremainedasmeredreams.TheFrenchRevolutiona1789withitspromiseofequalityhad
givenanewimpetustotheseideas.ButtheFrenchRevolution,whileitputanendtothe
autocraticruleoftheFrenchking,itdidnotdidnotusherinaneraofequalityineconomic,
socialandpoliticallife.ThewidegapbetweentheaimsoftheFrenchRevolutionandtheactual
conditionsinFranceaftertherevolutioncreatedseriousdiscontentamongthepeople.Itledto
anattempttooverthrowtheexistinggovernmentinFrancewithaviewtobuildingasociety
basedonsocialistideas.Thisattempt,knownasBabeufsConspiracy,isanAnimportantevent
inthehistoryofsocialism.
BabeufConspiracy
TheConspiracy,asthenameindicates,wastheworkofBabeuf.Hewasbornin1760andhad
participatedintheFrenchRevolution.HeorganizedasecretsocietycalledtheSocietyofthe
Equals.Babeuf,inamanifesto,haddeclared,Naturegaveeveryoneanequalrighttothe
enjoymentofallgoods..Inatruesociety,thereisnoroomforeitherrichorpoor.Hesaid
thatitwasnecessarytomakeanotherrevolutionwhichwoulddoawaywiththeterrible
contrastsbetweenrichandpoor,mastersandservants!Thetimehascometosetuptherepublic
ofequals,whosewelcomingdoorswillbeopentoallmankind.Thesocietyplannedan
uprisingbutthegovernmentcametoknowoftheplanandinMay1796,alargenumberof
leadersincludingBabeufwerearrested.Babeufwasexecutedin1797.ThoughBabeufsattempt
atoverthrowingthegovernmenthadfailed,hisideasexercisedanimportantinfluenceonthe
growthofsocialistmovement.
UtopianSocialists
Therewasanothergroupofsocialistsintheearlyhistoryofsocialismwhichincluded
1. SaintSimon(17601825)
2. CharlesFourier(17721837)
3. RobertOwen(17711858)
Theyviewedpropertyinrelationtoitsusefulnesstosociety.Theyrecognizedtheevilsof
capitalismandproposedtheestablishmentofanewandbettersystemofsocietyinitsplace.
SaintSimoncoinedtheslogan,fromeachaccordingtohiscapacity,toeachaccordingto
hiswork.Theyvisualizedasocietyfreefromexploitationofanykindandoneinwhichall
wouldcontributetheirbestandwouldsharethefruitsoftheirlabour.However,themethods
theyadvocatedfortheestablishmentofsuchasocietywereimpracticableandineffective.
Hencetheycametobecalledutopiansocialists.
Blanqui
Thereweremanyotherphilosophersandrevolutionarieswhohelpedinspreadingideasof
socialism.OneofthemostprominentamongthemwasLouisAugusteBlanqui(180581)who
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playedaleadingroleineveryuprisinginParisfromthe1830sto1871.Hebelievedthat
througharevolutionaryconspiracy,powercouldbecapturedtobringaboutsocialism.Whenhe
died.200,000workersjoinedthefuneralprocessioninParis.
CommunistLeague
Manygroupsandorganisationswerealsoformedtospreadsocialistideasandorganiseworkers.
OneofthesewastheLeagueoftheJustwhichhadmembersinmanycountriesofEurope.Its
sloganwasAllmenarebrothers.Thusinternationalismwasoneofitsimportantfeatures.In
1847,itsnamewaschangedtotheCommunistLeagueanditdeclaredasitsaim,thedownfall
ofthebourgeoisie,theruleoftheproletariat,theoverthrowoftheoldsocietyofmiddleclass,
basedonclassdistinction,andtheestablishmentofanewsocietywithoutclassesandwithout
privateproperty.Itsjournalcarriedtheslogan,Proletariansofalllands,unite!Itinstructed
KarlMarxandFrederickEngelstodraftamanifesto.
MarxianSocialism
TheCommunistManifestofirstappearedinGermaninFebruary1848.Theinfluenceofthis
documentinthehistoryofthesocialistmovementiswithoutarival.ItwastheworkofKarl
Marx(181883)andhislifelongassociateFrederickEngels(1820M).BothMarxandEngels
wereborninGermany,butspentmuchoftheirlifeoutsideGermany,mostlyinEngland.
Throughtheirworkinthesocialistmovementandthroughtheirnumerouswritings,theygavea
newdirectiontosocialistideologyandmovement.TheirphilosophyisknownasMarxismandit
hasinfluencedalmosteveryfieldofknowledge.Theirviewofsocialismiscalledscientific
socialism.
TheCommunistManifestostatedthattheaimofworkersallovertheworldwastheoverthrow
ofcapitalismandtheestablishmentofsocialism.Inplaceoftheoldbourgeoissociety,withits
classesandclassdifferences,itsaidappearsanassociationinwhichthefreedevelopmentof
eachistheconditionforthefreedevelopmentofall.Itpointedoutthatsocialismwasnot
merelydesirable,butalsoinevitable.Capitalism,itsaid,doesnotservetheneedsofmanand,
likeothersocialandeconomicsystemsinhistory,itwouldbereplacedbyasystem,better
suitedtohumanneeds.MarxanalysedtheworkingofcapitalisminhisfamousworkDas
Kapital(Capital)andpointedoutthecharacteristicsthatwouldleadtoitsdestruction.
Accordingtohim,
1. Workersproducemorevaluethantheygetintheformofwages,thedifferencebeing
appropriatedbythecapitalistsintheformofprofits.
2. Thisconstitutesthebasisofconflictincapitalistsociety.Profitscanbeincreasedatthe
costofworkerswagesand,therefore,theinterestsofworkersandcapitalistsare
irreconcilable.
3. Economiccriseswereinevitableundercapitalismbecauseofthediscrepancybetweenthe
purchasingpowerofworkersandtotalproduction.Thesecriseswouldberesolvedonlyif
theprivateownershipofthemeansofproductionisabolishedandtheprofitmotive
eliminatedfromthesystemofproduction.Withthis,productionwouldbecarriedonfor
socialgoodratherthanforprofitsforafew
4. Theexploitingclasseswoulddisappearandaclasslesssocietywouldemergeinwhich
therewouldbenodifferencebetweenwhatwasgoodfortheindividualandforsocietyas
awhole.
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MarxandEngelsbelievedthatthiswouldbeaccomplishedbytheworkingclasswhichwasthe
mostrevolutionaryclassincapitalistsociety.Theyadvocatedthattheemancipationofthe
workingclasswouldemancipatethewholehumanracefromalltracesofsocialinjustice.
AroundthetimetheCommunistManifestowaspublished,revolutionsbrokeoutinalmost
everycountryinEurope.Youhavereadabouttheserevolutionsof1848before.Theserevolts
aimedattheoverthrowofautocraticgovernments,establishmentofdemocracyandalso,in
countriessuchasItalyandGermany,atnationalunification.Oneofthemajorforcesinthese
revolutionsweretheworkerswhohadbeeninspiredbyideasofsocialism.TheCommunist
Leagueparticipatedintheserevolutionsinmanycountries.However,alltheserevolutionswere
suppressed.
After1848revolution
Withthefailureofthe1848revolutions,thesocialistmovementseemstohaveabated.
However,itwassoontoriseinstrengthagain.Oneoftheoutstandingfeaturesofthevarious
socialistgroupswastheirinternationalistcharacter.YouhavereadabouttheCommunist
Leaguebefore.InBritain,anorganisationcalledtheSocietyofFraternalDemocratshadbeen
formedin1846.IthadcloselinkswithothersimilarorganizationsinEuropeandwiththe
ChartistsinBritain.Alltheseorganisationsemphasizedtheideathatthecauseoftheworking
classinallcountrieswasthesame.AleaderoftheSocietyofFraternalDemocrats,forexample,
saidin1848,IappealtotheoppressedclassesineverycountrytoUniteforthecommon
cause.Thepeople,accordingtohim,weretheworkersandpeasants,andthecauseofthe
peoplewasthecauseoflabour,oflabourenslavedandexploited.Inallcountriesthereare
peoplewhogrowcornandeatpotatoes,whomakeclothesandwearrags,whobuildhousesand
liveinwretchedhovels.Donottheworkersofallnationshavethesamereasonforcomplaint
andthesamecausesofdistress?Havetheynot,therefore,thesamejustcause?Itwasthese
ideasofinternationalsolidaritythatweretoremainthefundamentalfeaturesofthesocialist
movementinthecomingyears.
TheFirstInternational,1864
Oneofthemostimportanteventsinthehistoryofthesocialistmovementwastheformationin
1864oftheInternationalWorkingMensAssociation,ortheFirstInternational,asitiscalled.
Withitsformation,ithasbeensaid,Socialismsteppedonthestageofhistoryasaworld
movement.ThemeetingatwhichitwasformedtookplaceinLondonandwasattendedby
delegatesfromBritain,France,Italy,Germany,PolandandSwitzerland.MarxdraftedAn
AddresstotheWorkingClasseswhichhasbecomefamousastheInauguralAddressofthe
InternationalWorkingMensAssociation.ThisAddressalongwiththeGeneralRules
outlinedtheprinciplesandaimsoftheInternational.Theemancipationoftheworkingclasses,it
wasdeclared,mustbewonbytheworkingclassesthemselves.Thecentralaimofthe
Internationalwasdeclaredtobethetotalabolitionofallclassrule.Theuniversalcharacterof
thestruggleoftheworkingclasswasemphasized.TheAddressendedwiththeslogan,asinthe
CommunistManifesto,Proletariansofalllands,unite!
Fromthetimeofitsformation,theInternationalwasconsideredbythegovernmentsofthetime
asamenaceandattemptsweremadetoexterminateit.Itwaspersecutedanddeclaredillegalin
manycountries.
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Duringtheshortperiodofitsexistence,theInternationalexercisedatremendousinfluenceon
workersmovementsinEuropeandNorthAmerica.Itplayedaparticularlyimportantrolein
creatingbondsofinternationalsolidaritybyarrangingaidfromworkersofmanycountriesin
supportoftheworkersstruggleinanyparticularcountry.Forexample,whenin1867,5000
bronzeworkersinPariswhohadformedaunionwerethreatenedwithdismissal,the
Internationalcollectedmoneyforthemfromworkersinothercountriesandforcedthefactory
ownerstowithdrawtheirthreats.Thoughitsmembershipwasnotverylarge,itwasfearedby
therulersforthesenseofworkerssolidaritythatithadsucceededincreating.
Oneofthefinestexamplesofworkerssolidaritywasevidencedatthetimeofthewarbetween
PrussiaandFrancein1870.Youhavereadaboutthiswarearlierinthecontextofthe
unificationofGermany.ThewarwascondemnedbothbytheGermanandFrenchworkersasa
crimecommittedbytheFrenchandPrussiandynasties.TheFrenchandGermanbranchesofthe
Internationalsentmessagesofgoodwishesandsolidaritytoeachother.TheSocialDemocratic
PartyinGermanyinamessagetotheFrenchworkers,said,
weshallneverforgetthattheworkersofallnationsareourfriendsandthedespotsofall
nationsareourenemies.AfterthedefeatoftheFrencharmy,theGermangovernment
announceditsintentiontoannexAlsaceLorrainefromFrance.TheGermanworkersprotested
againstthisandthereweremanydemonstrationsinvariouscitiesofGermany.Alltheleadersof
Germanworkerswerearrestedonchargesoftreason.
TheParisCommune,1871
ThewarbetweenFranceandPrussialedtoanotherimportantdevelopmentanuprisingbythe
workersofParisandtheseizureofpowerbythem.Thisisoneofthemostimportanteventsin
thehistoryofsocialism.WithinafewweeksofthewartheFrencharmyhadbeendefeatedand
theFrenchemperorLouisBonapartehadbeentakenprisoner.Anewgovernmenthadcomeinto
beingandhaddeclaredFrancearepublic.Thisgovernmentwasdominatedbythepropertied
classesandhadagreedtoBismarckstermsfortruceincludingthesurrenderofParis,cessionof
AlsaceLorraineandthepaymentofahugewarindemnity.TheworkersofParisregardedthe
surrenderbythegovernmentastreacherous.Theyrefusedtosurrender.Thegovernment
withdrewfromParison18February1871andaskedforGermanhelptocrushParis.The
workersofPariselectedacouncilwhichon28March1871assumedthetitleoftheParis
Commune.Itwaselectedbyuniversaladultfranchiseandrepresentedtheworkersandthe
lowermiddleclassesofParis.Itproclaimedasitsaimtheendingofexploitation,stock
exchangespeculation,monopoliesandprivilegestowhichtheproletariatattributesitsslavery,
andthefatherlanditsmiseryandruin.Allpublicofficeswereelectedbyuniversalsuffrage
withpeoplehavingtherighttorecall.
TheParisCommunewastheresultofanupsurgeinwhichtheworkershadplayedthedominant
role,theresultofthefirstworkersrevolutioninhistory.Itwassoondrownedinblood.The
FrenchgovernmentwhichhadestablisheditsheadquartersinVersaillesattackedPariswitha
hugearmy.InthistheyreceivedthehelpofGermanyalso.TheattacksonParishadbegunin
April.On21MaythetroopsenteredParis.ThebattlecontinuedinthecityofParisupto28
MaywhentheCommunewasfinallyexterminated.Thegovernmentwhichhadsurrenderedto
theGermaninvaders,however,turnedontheworkersofPariswithunusualferocity.Itis
estimatedthatbetween14,000to30,000defendersoftheCommunewereslaughteredinthe
streetsofParisorkilledbyfiringsquads.Thousandsweredeportedandimprisoned.TheFrench
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governmentcalleditthevictoryoforder,justiceandcivilization.TheInternationalsaddresson
theCommunetoitsmembers,writtenbyMarx,concludedwiththewords,WorkingMens
Paris,withitsCommune,willbeforevercelebratedasthegloriousharbingerofanewsociety.
Itsmartyrsareenshrinedinthegreatheartoftheworkingclass.Itsexterminatorshistoryhas
alreadynailedtothateternalpilloryfromwhichalltheprayersoftheirpriestswillnotavailto
redeemthem.
Thedemiseof1stinternational
TheexterminationoftheCommunewasfollowedbysystematicattemptstodestroythe
InternationalinalmosteverycountryofEurope.TheInternationalhadorganisedsupportforthe
CommuneandafteritsdestructionwasengagedinaidingtherefugeesfromParis.Itappearedto
gainstrengthinmanycountriesofEuropeinspiteofthefactthattherevolutioninParishad
beensuppressed.However,soonitcollapsedasaresultofinternaldifferences.The
Internationalwasnotahomogeneousorganisation.Itrepresentedmanydifferenttrendsin.the
workersmovement.Duetodifferencesonaimsandmethods,itwassplitin1872andwas
formallydissolvedin1876.Inthemeantime,however,thesocialistpartiesinmanycountriesof
Europehadbeguntogrowandafterafewyearstheyweretouniteandformanother
International.
TheSecondInternational
WhentheFirstInternationalwasformed,theredidnotexistwellorganisedsocialistparties:
therewereonlyafewgroups.However,inthe1870sandthe1880sinalmosteverycountryin
Europesocialistpartieswereformed.Someofthembecamequitestronghavinglakhsof
members.Theyparticipatedinnationalelectionsandinsomecountriescametohaveafairly
largerepresentationintheparliament.Similarly,thestrengthandmembershipofthetrade
unionsalsoincreasedandthereweremanystrikes.ForexampletheGermanSocialistPartyhad
polledover750,000votesin1887.ItwasthelargestsocialistpartyinEurope.InBritain,where
thetradeunionshadamembershipofamillionhadbeenformedtheSocialDemocratic
Federation,TheSocialistLeagueandtheFabianSociety.InFrancethereweremanysocialist
parties.ThereweresocialistpartiesineveryothercountryofEuropewithvaryingstrengthand
inUSAandsomeothercountriesintheAmericas.SocialistbegantotakerootinJapaninthe
1890s.ThusthoughtheFirstInternationalhadbeendissolved,themovementhadbecomea
massmovement.
Tounitethesocialistpartiesinvariouscountriesintoaninternationalorganisation,aCongress
washeldinParison14July1889,thecentenaryoftheFrenchRevolutionof1789.Theresultof
thiswaswhathascometobeknownastheSecondInternational.TheformationoftheSecond
Internationalanewstageinthehistoryofsocialism.AnimportantsteptakenattheCongress
wastomakethefirstMayeveryyearasadayofworkingclasssolidarity.Itwasdecidedto
organiseonthatdayagreatinternationaldemonstrationinsuchawaywhattheinalllandsand
citieswillsimultaneouslydemandfromthepowersthatbealimitationtheworkingdaytoeight
hours.
OnthefirstMay1890,millionsofworkersalloverEuropeandAmericaStruckworkandheld
massivedemonstrations.SincethenthefirstofMayisobservedastheinternationalclassdayall
overtheworld.
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TheperiodaftertheformationatheSecondInternationalsawasteadyincreaseinthestrength
ofthesocialistpartiesandoftradeunions.In1914,themembershipofthesocialistpartyof
Germanywasoveramillionandithadpolledover4millioninFrance,thesocialistshaspolled
about1.4millionvotesinAustria,overamillion.Thetotalnumberoftradeunionmembership
inGermany,BritainandFrancealonewasabout8million.Thesocialistandworkers
movementhadbecomeamajorforceinalmosteverycountryofEurope.
2ndinternational:achievements
ThemostsignificantachievementsoftheSecondInternationalwereitscampaignagainst
militarismandwarandinassertingtheprincipleofthebasicequalityofallpeoplesandtheir
righttofreedomandnationalindependence.Theperiodfromthelastdecadeofthe19thcentury
sawthegrowingmilitarizationofeverycountryinEurope.Itwasaperiodwhenwarseemed
imminentandeverycountrywasspendingincreasinglyhugesumsinpreparingforit.Europe
wasgettingdividedintogroupsofwarringblocs,thestruggleforcoloniesbeingthemaincause
ofconflictsbetweenthem.Thestruggleagainstmilitarismandthepreventionofwarbecamethe
majoraimsoftheSecondInternationalandofthesocialistpartiesaffiliatedtoit.They
expressedtheconvictionthatcapitalismwastherootcauseofwar.Theyalsoresolvedthat
whilewarscouldbeendedonlywiththedestructionofcapitalism,itwasthedutyofthe
socialiststopreventtheiroccurrenceand,iftheybrokeout,tobringabouttheirspeedyend.The
secondInternationalalsodecidedthatthesocialistsshouldutilizetheeconomicandpolitical
crisiscreatedbythewar,torousethemassesandtherebytohastenthedownfallofcapitalist
rule.Thesocialistmovementhadmadetheinternationalsolidarityofworkersasafundamental
principle.WhenRussiaandJapanwerewarringoneachother,theleaderoftheJapanese
socialistgroupandtheleaderoftheRussiansocialistsweremadethejointpresidentsofthe
SecondInternationalatitsCongressin1904.Thesocialistsinmanycountrieshadresolvedto
callforageneralstriketopreventtheircountriesfromparticipatinginwars.Theysufferedat
thehandsoftheirgovernmentswhowerepreparingforwar.JeanJaures,thegreatleaderofthe
FrenchsocialistswasassassinatedontheeveoftheFirstWorldWarforcampaigningagainst
war.
2ndInternational:cryagainstcolonialism
TheSecondInternationalalsocondemnedcolonialismandcommittedthesocialistpartiesto
opposetherobberyandsubjugationofcolonialpeoples.The1904Congresswasattendedbythe
GrandOldManoftheIndiannationalmovement,DadabhaiNaoroji,whopleadedthecauseof
Indiasfreedom.HewassupportedbytheBritishdelegatesattheCongress.ThePresident
askedtheCongresstotreatwiththegreatestreverencethestatementoftheIndiandelegate,an
oldmanofeighty,whohadsacrificedfiftyfiveyearsofhislifetothestruggleforthefreedom
andhappinessofhispeople.WhenDadabhaiNaorojiwenttotherostrum,hewasgreetedwith
tumultuouscheersandapplause.
2ndInternational:Limitations
Inspiteofitsmanyachievementsanditsgrowingstrength,theSecondInternationalsuffered
frommanyweaknesses.UnliketheFirstInternational,itwasaloosefederationofsocialist
partiesofmanycountries.Whilethesocialistpartiesinmanycountrieshadbecomemass
parties,basicdifferenceshadarisenamongthem.
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Whilesomesectionsbelievedinthenecessityofarevolutiontooverthrowcapitalism,others
begantobelievethatsocialismcouldbeachievedthroughgradualreforms.Thelatterwere
willingtosupporttheexistinggovernmentsincertaincircumstances.Somesectionsinthe
socialistpartiesevenfavouredcolonialism.
Onthequestionofwar,whiletheattitudeoftheSecondInternationalwasclear,manysocialist
partieshadseriousdifferences.Someofthemthoughtthatiftheyorganisedoppositiontothe
war,theywouldbecrushed.Theywerealsonotwilling,astheSecondInternationalhad
recommended,toutilizethewar,onceithadbrokenout,topromoterevolution.Itwasonthe
questionofthewarthattheSecondInternationalsufferedafatalblow.WhentheFirstWorld
Warbrokeout,mostofthesocialistpartiesextendedtheirsupporttotheirrespective
governments.Thishadseriousconsequencesforthesocialistmovement.TheSecond
Internationalceasedtofunctionandthesocialistmovementineverycountrywassplit.Withthe
outbreakoftheFirstWorldWar,animportantphaseinthehistoryofthesocialistmovement
cametoaclose.
Evaluation
1. Thoughthesocialistmovementdidnotsucceedinbringingaboutasocialistrevolutionin
anycountryinthe19thcentury,itbroughtaboutwidespreadawarenessoftheproblems
createdbycapitalismandtheinadequaciesofdemocracy.
2. Italsoemergedasapowerfulpoliticalmovementinanumberofcountries.Itwastoplay
anincreasinglyimportantroleinthecomingyearsallovertheworld,makingsocialism,
alongwithdemocracyandnationalism,thedominatingfactorinthehistoryoftheworld
inthe20thcentury.
EXERCISES
1. Explainthefollowingterms:ThirdEstate,Bourgeoisie,Proletariat,Junkers,Paris
Commune,MeansofProduction,Socialism,UtopianSocialists.
2. Identifythefollowingpeople,tellingtheparteachplayedintherevolutionsand
movementsdescribedinthischapter:Jefferson,Washington,ThomasPaine,LouisXVI,
Voltaire,Rousseau,Montesquieu,Napoleon,SimonBolivar,Mazzini,Garibaldi,Cavour,
Bismarck,Babeuf,KarlMarx.
3. ExplainbrieflytheconditionsthatbroughtabouttheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.
4. WhatwerethemainideasbehindtheFrenchRevolution?
5. Explainwhythefollowingdocumentswererevolutionarywhentheywerewritten:
DeclarationofIndependence,DeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen,Communist
Manifesto.
6. ExplaintheimpactoftheFrenchRevolutionontheSpanishcoloniesinAmerica.
7. DescribethedifferentstagesintheunificationofGermanyandItaly.
8. WhenwastheFirstInternationalformed?Whatwereitsmaincontributionstothegrowth
ofthesocialistmovement?
9. WhenwastheSecondInternationalformed?Forwhichothergreateventisthatyear
important?WhatwerethemainaimsoftheSecondInternational?
10. Selectasuitablescaletoshoweventsonatimelinebeginningwith1774andendingwith
1871.Showonthistimelinetherevolutionsandmovementsdescribedinthischapterand
thevariouseventsconnectedwiththem.
11. WriteapaperentitledPeopleRevoltwhenConditionsbecomeUnbearable,usingthe
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revolutionsasevidence.
12. ReadtherevolutionarydocumentscitedinNo.5aboveandselectstatementsfora
bulletinboarddisplayundertheheadingIdeasthatCausedRevolutions.
13. Preparingessaysonthelivesofpersonswhoparticipatedintherevolutionarymovements
ofcountriesotherthantheirown
14. Readafewdocumentsconnectedwithsocialistmovementandselectstatementsfora
bulletinboarddisplay,undertheheadingideasofsocialism
15. whatissociopoliticalrevolution?Whyrevolutionsoftenviolent?Whencanarevolution
becalledsuccessful?
16. Whichoftherevolutionsseemtohavebroughtaboutthegreatestchangetothecountry
wheretherevolutionoccurred?Givereasonsforyouranswer
17. doyouthinkthateachoftherevolutionsandmomentsdescribedinthischaptertruthfully
becalledastepforwardintheprogressofmen?Whyorwhynot
18. whydidFrancehelptherevolutionaryforcesintheAmericanRevolution?
19. WhydidtheachievementofnationalunityinGermanyandItalynotresultinthe
establishmentofrepublicsinthesecountries?
20. Whyreadtheaimsofthesocialistmovementinternationalistinthecharacterfromthe
verybeginning?
21. DiscusstheroleofKarlMarxinthehistoryofSocialistmovement.
Formoreonworldhistory,visitmrunal.org/history
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8socialismthe
beginningandrisefirstinternationalsecondinternationalpart4of4.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh9:Imperialism&Colonization
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych9]Imperialism,Colonizationof
Asia,Africa,Americas
1. Prologue
2. IntroductionoftheChapter
3. CONDITIONSTHATHELPEDTHEGROWTHOFIMPERIALISM
1. DemandsCreatedbytheIndustrialRevolution
2. ImprovementinTransportationandCommunication
3. ExtremeNationalism:PrideandPower
4. TheCivilizingMission:MenandIdeas
5. Explorersandadventurers
6. ConditionsthatFavouredImperialisminAsiaandAfrica
4. THECONQUESTOFASIA:TheBritishinIndia
1. ImperialisminChina
2. OpenDoorPolicy
3. ImperialisminSouthandSouthEastAsia
4. IndoChina
5. Burma
6. Philippines
7. ImperialisminCentralandWesternAsia
8. JapanasanImperialistPower
5. IMPERIALISMINAFRICA
1. SlaveTrade
2. ScrambleforAfrica
3. Explores,tradersandmissionaries
4. WestandCentralAfrica
5. FrenchCongo
6. SouthAfrica
7. Rhodesia
8. EastAfrica
9. ItalyEthiopia
10. NorthAfrica
11. Morocco
12. Egypt
6. THEAMERICASANDTHEPACIFIC
1. MonroeDoctrine
2. Mexico
3. BigStickPolicy/Dollardiplomacy
4. PanamaCanal
5. Hawaii
7. EFEECTSOFIMPERIALISM
1. EconomicBackwardness
2. Racism
3. StruggleAgainstImperialism
8. EXERCISES
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych9imperialismcolonizationofasiaafricaamericas.html/print/
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Prologue
UPSChasincludedWorldHistoryinGeneralstudies(Mains)syllabusfrom2013.Hence
OldNCERT,particularlyChapter9to13fromClass10=becomesnecessaryasthe
foundation/basematerialforthetopicsofWorldHistory.
Problem=hardtothatbookfindinmarket,evenifyourewillingtospendmoney.
ThatOldNCERTsbooksLowqualityPDFscanavailable=verystressfuloneyes=Hard
toreadcontinuously.(stillifyouwantthePDF,clickmetodownload)
IveconvertedthatPDFtotexttomakeitbiteasierontheeyes.Uploadingchaptershere
onebyone.
DuetolowqualityoftheoriginalPDF,allwords/spellingarenotconvertedproperlyfor
example,atsomeplacesIndiamaybedisplayasIricliaandsoon.Manysentences
wonthaveproperfullstops,commasandpunctuation.Sameway,mostofthe
maps/imagesarenotconvertedproperly.ButyoucancopypastethesearticlesinMS
wordandfixitonyourown,asperyourrequirements.
btw,Illcontinuewriting[WorldHistory]articlesatmypace,justbecausethesechapters
areuploaded,doesntmeanImstoppingmyJackSparrowseries.
(Note:UptoAfricawasalreadycoveredinprevious[WorldHistory]Articles,youmay
startfromAmericasdirectly.)
THEtermìmperialismmeansthepracticeofextendingthepower,controlorrulebyacountry
overthepoliticalandeconomiclifeofareasoutsideitsownborders.Thismaybedonethrough
militaryorothermeans,andparticularlythroughcolonialismorthepracticeofacquiring
coloniesbyconquestorothermeansandmakingthemdependentItmayberememberedthat
occupationofordirectruleoveracountryorpeoplebyanothercountryisnotalwaysan
essentialfeatureofimperialismTheessentialfeatureoftherelationsbetweenanimperialist
countryandthecountryoverwhichithasestablisheditscontrolorthecolonywhichithas
acquired,isexploitation,withorwithoutdirectpoliticalcontrol.Thismeansthattheimperialist
country,ormetropolis(literalmeaningmothercountry),asitissometimescalled,
subordinatesthecolonyorthecountrywhichthemetropolisindirectlycontrolstoserveitsown
economicandpoliticalinterests.
MostcountriesofAsia,includingIndia,andAfrica,andmanyotherpartsoftheworldwere
untilrecentyearsunderthecontrolofoneimperialistcountryoranother.Theseincluded
countrieswhichwerenotdirectly/ruledbytheimperialistcountriesbutwereexploitedbythem
moreorlessinthesamewayascountriesoverwhichdirectimperialistrulehadbeenes
tablishedInthepresentdayWorld,whenalmostallcountriesoftheworldarepolitically
independent,imperialistcontroloverothercountrieshasnotcometoanendThepracticeof
exploitation,particularlyeconomicexploitationanddominationofindependentbut
economicallylessdevelopedcountries,isoftencalledneocolonialism.
ThefirstphaseoftheimperialistcontrolandcolonizationofAsia,AfricaandtheAmericas
beganinthesixteenthcentury.Duringtheperiodfromthesixteenthtotheeighteenthcentury,as
youhavereadinChapter6(Vol.1),thevoyagesofdiscoverywerefollowedbythefoundingof
vastcolonialempiresbyPortugal,Spain,Holland,EnglandandFranceIntheAmericas,Spain
occupiedmostofSouthAmerica(excludingBrazilwhichwasoccupiedbyPortugal),Central
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America,Mexico,WestIndiesandpartsofwhatisnowtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.England
andFranceoccupiedpartsofNorthAmericaManypeoplefromthesecountriesofEuropewent
tosettleinthesecoloniespermanentlyDuringthisperiod,theEuropeancontrolinAfrica
extendedonlytoaboutonefifthofthecontinent,mainlyinthecoastalareas.Thiswasthe
periodofslavetradeTheEuropeanslavetradersenslavedandtransportedabout5000Africans
totheAmericaseverymonthduringtheseventeenthcenturyInAsia,theEuropeanscame
mainlywiththepurposeoftradeThetradersfromPortugal,Holland,England,Franceandother
countries,withthebackingoftheirrespectivegovernments,setuptheirtradingpostsandtried
toestablishtheirmonopolyoftradewiththecountriesofAsia,andeachtriedtoexcludethe
othersthroughwarandbyextendingtheirpoliticalinfluenceandcontrol.ThePortuguesewho
controlledthetradewithAsiawereoustedfromthatpositionbytheDutchandtheEnglishwho
extendedtheircontroloverIndonesiaandIndia,respectively.Generallyspeaking,thefirstphase
ofimperialismandcolonizationcametoanendbythecloseoftheeighteenthcentury.The
BritishconquestofIndiawhichhadstartedinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,was
completedbyaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Inthemeantime,theimperialist
penetrationofChinahadbegun.
Theperiodbetweenthesixteenthtotheeighteenthcenturywasaperiodofnakedplunderby
EuropeancolonialpowersInChapter7(Vol.1),youhavealreadyreadabouttherolewhichthis
plunderplayedinthegrowthofthecapitalistsystemandintheIndustrialRevolution
DuringtheinitialperiodoftheIndustrialRevolution,thepursuitforcolonieshadsloweddown
Thepursuitforcoloniesandcolonialrivalriesreemergedinthelastquarterofthenineteenth
centuryThisnewphaseofimperialism,whichbeganinabout1875andcontinuedtill1914,is
oftendescribedasNewImperialismItwastheresultoftheeconomicsystemthathaddeveloped
asaresultoftheIndustrialRevolutionDuringthisphase,afewindustrializedcapitalist
countriesestablishedtheirpoliticalandeconomiccontrolanddominationoveralmosttherestof
theworldTheformsofcontrolanddominationincludingdirectcolonialrule,spheresof
influenceandvarioustypesofeconomicandcommercialagreementsThepowerofsomeofthe
imperialistcountriessuchasSpainandPortugaldeclinedduringthisperiod,andnewcountries
emergedwhichplayedanincreasinglyimportantroleduringthisphaseofimperialistexpansion
andrivalries.BesidestheoldimperialistcountriesBritainandFrancewhichcontinuedto
bepowerfulandexpand,thenewimperialistcountrieswhichemergedduringthisperiodwere
Germany,Italy,13e1glum,USAand,later,Japan.
CONDITIONSTHATHELPEDTHEGROWTHOF
IMPERIALISM
Ifyoustudytheconditionsthatexistedintheworldinthenineteenthcentury,youwillfindthat
theseconditionsfavouredthegrowthofimperialismTheimperialistcountriestookfull
advantageoftheseconditionsandeasilyjustifiedanyandeveryconquestthatservedtheir
interests.Infact,themorepowerfulnationsmadeimperialismseemnecessaryandnatural
DemandsCreatedbytheIndustrialRevolution
Asyouhaveread,theIndustrialRevolutionresultedinaverygreatincreaseintheproductionof
goodsItalsocreatedthecapitalistsystemofproduction.Undercapitalism,maximumprofitfor
thecapitalistwastheprimarypurposeofproductionCapitalistsfollowedtwocoursestomake
bigprofitsmoreandmoreproductionandminimumwagestoworkersTheproductionof
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goodswasfarinexcessofthedemandathome.Lowwagesmeantlowpurchasingpowerofthe
majorityofthepopulationandthisalsorestrictedtheirdemandathome.Socapitalistcountries
hadtofindnewmarketsandbuyersforthegoodstheirindustrieswereproducing.
Thepossibilitiesofoneindustrializedcountrysellingitsmanufacturestoanotherindustrialized
countrywerealsolimited.WiththespreadoftheIndustrialRevolutiontoallthecountriesof
Europe,eachcountrytriedtoprotectandstimulateitsnewindustriesTodothis,asyoulearned
inChapter7,alltheEuropeannationsbegantofollowaprotectionistpolicy.Thatis,each
countryputaheavytariffortaxongoodsimportedfromothercountries.
EuropeancountriescouldfindmarketsfortheirsurplusgoodsinAsiaandAfricawherethe
IndustrialRevolutionhadnottakenplace.Sellingwasmadeeasierthroughpoliticaldomination
oftheseareas.TheneachcountrycouldprotectitsmarketfromotherEuropeanrivalsandalso
eliminateanycompetitionfromgoodsproducedlocally.
Inadditiontomarkets,Europeancountriesneedednewsourcesofrawmaterials.Asindustries
grew,moreandmorerawmaterialswereneededtofeethoseindustries.Andallthatwasneeded
couldnotbehadinternally,atanyratenotenoughofit.IndiaandEgyptweregoodsourcesof
cotton,CongoandtheEastIndies,ofrubberOtherproductsneededwerefoodgrains,tea,
coffee,indigo,tobaccoandsugar.Toobtainthese,itwasnecessarytochangethepatternof
productioninthecountrieswheretheycouldbegrown.Sometimes,goodsproducedinone
countryweresoldinanothercountrytopayforthegoodsfromthatcountryForexample,the
EnglishpromotedthecultivationofopiuminIndia,theysmuggledtheopiumfromIndiainto
ChinaandinthiswaypaidforthegoodsthattheyboughtinChina.Insomecountries,the
imperialistsforcedthecultivationofonlyoneortwocropswhichtheyneededasrawmaterials
fortheirindustriesCoal,iron,tin,gold,copperand,later,oilwereotherresourcesofAsiaand
AfricathatEuropeancountrieswantedtocontrol.
Towardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,imperialistcountriesbeganlookinguponAsia,
AfricaandSouthAfricaasgoodplacestoinvesttheircapitalTheabundanceofrawmaterialsin
AsiaandAfrica,andthenumberofpeoplewhocouldbemadetoworkforlowerwagesmade
thetwocontinentsveryattractivetoinvestors.CapitalinvestedinEuropewouldfetchonly3or
4percentprofit,inAsiaorAfrica,itwasashighas20percentFromabouttheendofthe
nineteenthcentury,exportofcapitalforinvestmentinothercountriesbegantobecomemore
importantthantheexportofgoods.Thishappenedasaresultofthegrowinginfluenceand
powerofthefinancialinstitutionssuchasbanks.Theyexercisedcontroloverindustriesby
givingthemcreditTheinvestmentofcapitalinthecolonieswasnotmadewithaviewto
industrializingthecolonies,itwastopromoteindustrieswhichwouldproducegoodsmainlyfor
export,suchasinmining,orwhichwouldfurtherstrengthentheimperialistcountryscontrol
overthecolonyseconomy,suchastherailwaysBut,asinthecaseofmarketsandraw
materials,politicaldominationwasoftennecessaryInvestmentsmightnotbesafewithout
politicaldomination,Europeansreasoned.Anuprisingthataweakgovernmentcouldnot
control,orachangeingovernment,couldmeanalossofprofitsorevenofthewhole
investment,theyarguedThiswashowMoroccoinNorthAfrica,forexample,becameFrench
Morocco,afterFrenchinvestorsappealedtotheirgovernmenttoannexit.
ImprovementinTransportationandCommunication
ChangesintransportandcommunicationthatcamewiththeIndustrialRevolutionmadethe
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spreadofimperialismeasier.SteamshipscouldcarrygoodsbetweenhomecountriesinEurope
andtheacquiredterritoriesinAsiaandAfricamuchfasterthanoldsailingvesselsWithcheap
labour,imperialistcountriesbuiltrailroadsandinlandwaterwaysinconqueredarea.Onthese
theycouldgetrawmaterialsoutoftheinteriorofthecontinentsandsendtheirmanufactured
productsintonewmarkets.Thuseveryareaoftheworldwasbroughtwithineasyreachofthe
industrializedcountries
ExtremeNationalism:PrideandPower
Thelaterpartofthenineteenthcenturywasaperiodofintensenationalism.GermanyandItaly
hadjustsucceededinbecomingunifiednations.Nationalisminthelatenineteenthcenturycame
tobeassociatedwithchauvinismManynationsdevelopedmythsoftheirsuperiorityoverother
peoplesEachonefeltthatit,too,musthavecoloniestoaddtoitsprestigeandpower.
Imperialismbecamethefashionoftheage.WritersandspeakersinEngland,Franceand
Germanyopenedinstitutionstopromotetheideaofimperialism,andtookgreatprideincalling
theirterritoriesempires.ImperialistcountriestookoversomeplacesinAsiaandAfricabecause
oftheirmilitaryorstrategicimportance.Forexample,EnglandneededPortSaid,Aden,Hong
Kong,SingaporeandCyprusnottoprotectEnglandbuttoprotectherconqueredlandsand
traderoutetoIndiafromrivalnations.Attheseplacessheestablishednavalbasesandcoaling
stationstostrengthenheroverseaspowerRivalnationsgotsimilarbaseselsewhere,asyouwill
see.AcquiringacolonyalsohadachainreactionIfacountyacquiredacolony,itneeded
anothertoprotectitandsoon
Overseaspossessionswerealsousefulbecausetheyaddedtoanimperialistcountrysmanpower
Someofthepeopleofthecolonizedcountriesweretakenintothearmy,oftenbyforce,foruse
inwarsofconquest,otherswerecontractedtoworkonplantationsandminesinsomeother
colonialpossessionforaspecifiednumberofyears.Themanpowerofthecolonieswasalsoused
intheadministrationofthecoloniesatlowerlevels.
TheCivilizingMission:MenandIdeas
InthemindsofmanyEuropeans,imperialistexpansionwasverynoble.Theyconsideredita
wayofbringingcivilizationtothebackwardpeoplesoftheworldThefamousEnglishwriter,
RudyardKipling,askedhiscountrymentoshoulderwhathecalledthewhitemansburden
JulesFerry,inFrance,said,Superiorraceshavethedutyofcivilizingtheinferiorraces.
Christianmissionaries,dedicatedtospreadingChristianity,alsoplayedtheirpartinpromoting
theideaofimperialism.Usuallytheywentaloneintounknownareasinaspiritofduty.Very
oftentheywerefollowedbyprofiteeringtradersandsoldiers.Warsoftentookplacetoprotect
themissionaries.AllthisseemedquitenaturaltomostWesternpeoplewhoconsideredittheir
nationsdestinytocivilizeandChristianizethepeoplesofAsiaandAfricaPresidentMcKinley
oftheUnitedStatessummedupthereasonsforannexingthePhilippinesinthesewordsThere
wasnothinglefttodobuttotakethemall,andtoeducatetheFilipinosandupliftandcivilize
andChristianizethemasourfellowmenforwhomChristalsodied.
Explorersandadventurers
Theyalsohelpedinspreadingimperialism.Theywentintounknownorlittleknownterritories
andbroughtbackreportsthatoftenindicatedopportunitiesfortradeanddevelopment.Onthe
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basisofsuchreports,atradingpostwouldfirstbesetupnext,graduallytheexplorershome
governmentwouldarrangetotakeoverprotectionoftheentireareaaroundthetradingpost
ThenthisgovernmentwouldproceedtoclaimtheentireterritoryTheworkofexplorersand
adventurerswasparticularlyimportantinEuropestakingoverofAfrica.
ConditionsthatFavouredImperialisminAsiaandAfrica
ThemostimportantconditionfavouringtheimperialistconquestofAsiaandAfricawasthatthe
IndustrialRevolutionhadnotcometothispartoftheworld.Thecraftsmenproducedgoodsof
finequalitythatWesternersadmiredanddesired.Buttheyreliedentirelyonhandtoolswhich
meantproductiononasmallscaleIncomparisonwiththeproductionofWesterncountriesin
thenineteenthcentury,AsianandAfricanmethodswerebackward.Also,becauseofthelackof
knowledgethattheIndustrialRevolutionhadbroughttotheWest,thetwocontinentswere
militarilyunabletostanduptothearmedmightandpowerofEurope.
ThegovernmentsofthecountriesofAsiaandAfricawereveryweakinthenineteenthcentury,
thoughinancientandmedievaltimespowerfulempireshadexistedthere.Inthenineteenth
century,theoldwaysofgoverningwerestillfollowed,eventhoughtheyhadoutlivedtheir
usefulness.Strongnationstatesinthemodernsensehadnotdeveloped.Thepeoplesloyalties
werestilltolocalprincesasinfeudaltimes,ortotribalchieftains.Theserulerscaredlittlefor
thewelfareofthepeople.TheseconditionshelptoexplainhowsmallbandsofWesterners
succeededingainingpowerand,finally,withthebackingoftheirgovernments,inconquering
entirecountries.
THECONQUESTOFASIA:TheBritishinIndia
ThedeclineoftheMughalempireinIndiagavetheBritishandtheFrench,whohadcometo
trade,anopportunitytoconquerIndia.TheEnglishEastIndiaCompany,formedin1600,was
victoriousinitsconflictwithFrance,whichendedin1763.BeginningwithBengal,almostthe
entirecountrycameundertheruleoftheEnglishEastIndiaCompany.AftertheRevoltof1857,
theBritishgovernmenttookoverdirectcontrolofIndia.Manyprincelystatessurvivedbutthey
werefreemoreinnamethaninfact.BritainsconquestofIndiawascomplete.
TheconflictbetweentheEnglishEastIndiaCompanyandtheFrenchwasoverestablishinga
monopolyoftrade.AftertheEnglishcompanygainedcontrol,thecountrysvastresourcesfell
intoitshands.TherewasnolongeranyneedtobringmoneyfromEnglandtobuyIndiangoods.
ThesewerepurchasedwiththemoneymadefromBritishconquestsinIndiaandsoldin
EnglandandEuropeFortunesweremadebytheofficersoftheCompanyIndiawasknownas
thebrightestjeweloftheBritishempire.WiththecomingoftheIndustrialRevolutionin
England,Britishgoodspouredintothiscountry.ThisruinedIndianhandicraftindustries.
MillionsofpoundsweredrainedoutofIndiatoEnglandintheformofprofitsandaspayment
totheBritishgovernmentasdirecttributeandHomeCharges.Indiasinterestswere
subordinatedmoreandmoretoBritishinterests.In1877,theBritishqueentookthetitle
EmpressofIndia,liketheoneusedearlierbytheMughals.
TheBritishconquestledtomanychangesintheIndiansocialandeconomiclife.Toextend
IndianmarketsforBritishgoodsandtomakeuseofIndiasnaturalresourcesrailway
constructionwasstartedonalargescaleBritishrulersgavespecialprivilegestotheirown
planters,andwithinashorttimeanumberoftea,coffeeandindigoplantationsgrewupIn1883,
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allimportandexportdutieswerewaivedIndianresources,bothhumanandmaterial,wereused
topromotetheinterestsofBritishimperialisminChina,CentralAsiaandAfrica.Toprevent
oppositionfromtheIndianpeople,theBritishimposedlawstostifletheexpressionofpublic
opinionTheyexcludedIndiansfromresponsiblepositionsingovernment,anddiscriminated
againsttheminotherinstitutionsandinsociallife.
ImperialisminChina
ImperialistdominationofChinabeganwithwhatareknownastheOpiumWarsBeforethese
wars,onlytwoportswereopentoforeigntradersBritishmerchantsboughtChinesetea,silkand
othergoods,buttherewasnomarketforBritishgoodsinChina.ThenBritishmerchantsstarted
smugglingopiumintoChinaonalargescale.Theillegalopiumtradewasprofitabletothe
BritishtradersbutdidimmensephysicalandmoraldamagetotheChinese.In1839,whena
Chinesegovernmentofficialseizedanopiumcargoanddestroyedit,Britaindeclaredwarand
easilydefeatedtheChinese.TheChinesewerethenforcedtopayheavydamagestotheBritish
andtoopenfiveportcitiestoBritishtradersTheChinesegovernmentalsoagreedthatinfuture,
BritishsubjectsintheseportswouldbetriedforanycrimesinEnglishratherthaninChinese
courtsThisprovision,whichotherWesterncountriescopied,cametobeknownas
extraterritorialrights.TheChinesegovernmentwasnolongerfreetoimposetariffonforeign
goodsTheislandofHongKongwasturnedovertoBritain.SoonFranceenteredintosimilar
unequaltreatieswithChina.OnthepretextthataFrenchmissionaryhadbeenmurdered,
EnglandandFrancefoughtanotherwarwithChina.Chinawasdefeatedandwasforcedtogrant
moreprivilegestoherconquerors.Thenextimportantstageinthegrowthofimperialistcontrol
overChinacameafterthewaiwithJapanThiscameaboutwhenJapantriedtoincreaseher
influenceoverKoreawhichwasunderChineseoverlordship.Chinaresentedthisrindthetwo
countrieswenttowar,whichendedinvictoryforJapanChinagaveKoreaherindependence
andcededFormosaandotherislandstoJapan.ShewasalsoforcedtopayJapanheavywar
damagesamountingtoabout150milliondollars.
France,Russia,BritainandGermanygaveloanstoChinatohelphertomeetthispayment.But
notfornothing1ThesewesterncountriesthendividedChinaintospheresofinfluence,which
meantthateachcountryhadcertainregionsofChinareservedexclusivelyforitspurposesFoi
example,initssphereofinfluence,acountrymighthavetherighttobuildrailwaysorwork
mines.GermanygotKiaochowBayandexclusiverightsinShantungandintheHwangHo
valley.RussiatookLiaotungPeninsula,alongwiththerighttobuildrailroadsinManchuria,
FrancereceivedKwangchowBayandextensiverightsinthreesouthernprovincesofChina
BritaingotWeihiWeiinadditiontohersphereofinfluenceintheYangtzevalley
OpenDoorPolicy
TheUnitedStatesfearedthatChinawouldbecompletelyparcelledoutinexclusivespheresof
influenceandthatitstradewithChinawouldbeshutoff.TheUnitedStates,therefore,
suggestedthepolicyknownastheOpenDoor.ThispolicyisalsodescribedasMetoopolicy
Accordingtothispolicy,allcountrieswouldhaveequalrightstotradeanywhereinChina
BritainsupportedtheUnitedStatesthinkingthatthispolicywoulddiscouragetheannexationof
ChinabyJapanandRussia,thetwocountriesthatcouldmasteasilysendtheirarmiestothe
mainland
ThescrambleforprivilegesstoppedinChinaafteranuprisingagainsttheforeignpowers
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knownastheBoxerRebellion.Buttheforeignpowerswerevictoriousandleviedheavy
damagesonChinaaspunishmentImperialismcontinued,withthecooperationofChinese
warlords.Thesemilitarycommandersweresupportedbytheloanswhichtheygotfromforeign
powersinexchangeformoreprivileges.ThoughChinawasnotconqueredandoccupiedbyany
imperialistcountry,theeffectsofthesedevelopmentsonChinawerethesameasinareaswhich
hadbeencolonizedInaperiodofafewdecades,Chinahadbeeneducedtothestatusofan
internationalcolony.ThedivisionofChinaintospheresofinfluencehasoftenbeendescribedas
thecuttingoftheChinesemelon
ImperialisminSouthandSouthEastAsia
SouthandSouthEastAsiaincludesNepal,Burma,SriLanka,Malaya,Indonesia,IndoChina,
ThailandandthePhilippinesEvenbeforetheriseofthenewimperialism,manyofthese
countrieswerealreadydominatedbytheEuropeansSriLankawasoccupiedbythePortuguese,
thenbytheDutch,andlaterbytheBritishEnglandintroducedteaandrubberplantations,which
cametoform7/8thofSriLankasexports.TheDutchlostMalayatotheBritish,including
Singapore,lyingatthetipoftheMalayapeninsula.TheconquestofMalayaandSingapore
meantcontrolofallthetradeoftheFarEastthatpassedthroughtheStraitsofMalacca.
IndonesiaandthesurroundingislandswereunderDutchcontrolAfter1875,Hollandextended
hercontroloveragroupofislandsknownastheMoluccas.
IndoChina
TheareainSouthEastAsiaoncecalledIndoChinaconsistsofLaos,CambodiaandVietnam.
WhenEnglandwasfightingChinaovertheopiumtrade,Francewastryingtoextendher
commerceinIndoChina.Inaseriesofplannedstepswhichincludedthreatsofwar,France
becamethemasterofIndoChinaandtheseparatestatesweregroupedtogetherundera
Frenchgovernorgeneral.FrequentrevoltsagainstFrenchrulefollowed,buttheywere
suppressedor,astheFrenchsaid,pacified.
Burma
In1880,thekingofBurmagaveFrancetherighttobuildarailwayfromTonkintoMandalay
TheFrenchweretryingtodominateallofSouthEastAsia.TheBritishgovernment,fearing
Frenchexpansion,startedawarwithBurma.TheBurmesekingwascapturedandsenttoIndia
BurmawasannexedandbecameapartofBritainsempireinIndiain1886.
Thailand,orSiam,remainedanindependentstate,thoughsandwichedbetweentheFrench
conquestsinIndoChinaandoftheBritishinBurmaButFranceandEnglandexercisedmuch
powerandauthorityoveritsaffairs
Philippines
TheUnitedStatesjoinedintheraceofimperialistexpansioninSouthEastAsiainthelate
nineteenthcenturyArevoltoftheCubansintheCaribbeanagainstSpanishruleledtheUnited
StatestoawarwithSpain.TherewasarevoltoftheFilipinosagainstSpanishruleandthe
UnitedStatesoccupiedCubaandthePhilippinesTheFilipinosrevoltedagainsttheAmerican
occupationbutweresuppressedandthePhilippinesbecameanAmericanpossessionThe
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UnitedStatespaid20milliondollarstoSpainforthePhilippines.
ImperialisminCentralandWesternAsia
EnglandandRussiawererivalsinthestruggletocontrolCentralAsia,Iran(Persia),
AfghanistanandTibetTheRussianempiresucceededinannexingalmostallofCentralAsiain
thesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyTheconflictbetweenEnglandandRussiacametoa
headoverIranandAfghanistanBesidessomeminoreconomicinterestsinthesecountries,
BritainwasmainlyconcernedaboutdefendingherconquestsinIndiaagainsttheexpansionof
RussiainCentralAsia.RussiaandEnglandsetupbanksinIrantoobtaineconomiccontrolIn
1907,EnglandandRussiareachedanagreementaccordingtowhichsouthernIranbecame
BritainssphereofinfluenceandnorthernIrantheRussiansphereofinfluence.Thecentralpart
ofIranwasneutralandopentobothMeanwhile,thestrugglewasonbetweenBritainand
RussiaformasteryoverAfghanistanandTibetFinallyin1907,BritainandRussiareachedan
agreementoverthesetwocountriesandIranBothpowersagreednottointerfereinTibetRussia
agreedtorecognizeAfghanistanasbeingoutsideherinfluenceandBritainagreednottoannex
AfghanistanaslongasherrulerremainedloyaltoherThedivisionofIranintothreezoneshas
alreadybeenmentionedThismeanttheestablishmentofjointAngloRussiansupremacyover
Iran.AftertheRussianRevolutionbrokeoutin1917,thenewSovietgovernmentdenounced
theoldAngloRussianagreementandgaveupherrightsinIranHowever,Iranwasoccupiedby
BritishtroopsMeanwhile,oilhadbeenfoundinIranandBritishandAmericanoilinterests
becamepowerfulIranremainednominallyindependentbutwasincreasinglyunderthe
dominationofforeignoilcompaniestheStandardOilCompanyoftheUnitedStatesandthe
AngloPersianOilCompanyofEngland.AftertheoverthrowofthemonarchyinChinain1911,
TibetincreasinglypassedunderBritishinfluence.
Germany,duringtheseyears,wasextendingherinfluenceoverTurkeyandtheAsian
possessionsoftheTurkishempire.AGermancompanyobtainedaconcessiontobuildarailway
fromConstantinopletoBaghdadandthepersianGulf.Throughthisrailway,Germanyhopedto
promotehereconomicinterestsinthisregion,andontoIranandIndiaFrance,Englandand
Russiaopposedthis,butanagreementtodividetheregionwasreachedbetweenGermany,
FranceandEngland.TheFirstWorldWar,however,changedthesituation.Germanyand
Turkey,alliesinthewar,weredefeatedSyria,Palestine,Mesopotamia(Iraq)andArabiawere
takenawayfromTurkeyandtheypassedunderthecontrolofEnglandandFranceThus,
GermanyasanimperialistnationwascompletelyeliminatedfromAsiaandotherpartsofthe
world.Soon,oilandtheconcessionstocontroloilresourcesbecamethemajorobjectivesofthe
imperialistcountriesinWesternAsiaAmericanoilcompanies,inpartnershipwithEnglandand
France,gotoilconcessionsinArabia
JapanasanImperialistPower
Japanstartedonherprogramofimperialistexpansioninthelastdecadeofthenineteenth
centuryWesterncountrieshadtriedtoestablishtheirfootholdthereIn1853Americanwarships
underCommodorePerryhad,afterashowofforce,compelledtheJapanesetoopentheir
countrytoAmericanshippingandtradeThiswasfollowedbysimilaragreementsbyJapanwith
Britain,Holland,FranceandRussia.However,Japanescapedtheexperienceandfateofother
Asiancountries.In1867,afterachangeingovernment,knownasMeijiRestoration,Japan
begantomodernizehereconomyWithinafewdecades,shebecameoneofthemost
industrializedcountriesoftheworldButtheforcesthatmademanyoftheWesterncountries
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imperialistwerealsoactiveinthecaseofJapan.Japanhadfewrawmaterialstosupporther
industries.Soshelookedforlandsthathadthemandformarketstosellhermanufacturedgoods
ChinaprovidedampleopportunitiesforJapansimperialistdesigns.Youhavealreadyreadof
thewarbetweenChinaandJapanoverKorea,in1894Afterthis,JapansinfluenceinChina
increasedTheAngloJapaneseTreatyof1902recognizedherasapowerofequalstandingwith
thegreatEuropeanpowers.In19045shedefeatedRussia.Asaresultofthiswar,thesouthern
halfofSakhalinwascededtoJapan.Japanalsogainedcontrolofthesouthernpartofthe
LiaotungPeninsulawithPortArthurwhichwasleasedtoherIn1910,Koreabecameacolony
ofJapan.WhentheFirstWorldWarbeganin1914,Japancouldlookbackwithsomeprideat
herrecordofthelastfiftyyears.Shehadbecomeagreatpowerandcouldexpandfurtheratthe
costofChinaiftheWesternpowerswouldonlyallowhertodoso
However,herownrecordwas,ifanything,worsethanthatofWesternimperialists.Infact,
Japansriseasanimperialistpowerhelpedtoshowthatimperialismwasnotlimitedtoanyone
peopleorregionRather,itwastheresultofgreedforeconomicandpoliticalpowerwhichcould
distortthepolicyofanycountryregardlessofitsraceorculturalclaims.
Tosumup,almostallofAsiahadbeenswallowedupbytheimperialistcountriesbytheearly
yearsofthetwentiethcentury.
IMPERIALISMINAFRICA
YouhavealreadyreadinChapter4(Vol.1)abouttheemergenceofcivilizationandthe
formationofstates,kingdomsandempiresindifferentpartsofAfricaYouhavealsoreadabout
thecontactswhichAfricanculturesandcivilizationshadwiththerestoftheworldsinceancient
timesFromthetimeofEuropeanexplorationsinthelaterpartofthefifteenthcentury,anew
phasebeganinthehistoryofsomepartsofAfrica
BesidestheestablishmentofcommercialrelationswithsomepartsofAfrica,thisphasewas
characterizedbyslavetradeAsmentionedearlier,tillaboutthelastquarterofthenineteenth
century,EuropeancontroloverAfricaextendedoveraboutonefifthoftheterritoryofthe
continent.However,withinafewyearsalmosttheentirecontinentwaspartitionedamong
variousEuropeanimperialistcountriesthoughittookthemmuchlongertoestablishtheiractual
effectiveoccupation
SlaveTrade
TheEuropeanpenetrationofAfricafromthelatefifteenthcenturyonwardswasconfinedfora
longtimemainlytocertaincoastalareasHowever,eventheselimitedcontactsledtothemost
tragicanddisastrousconsequencesforthepeopleofAfrica,Oneofthefirstresultsofthese
contactswasthepurchaseandsaleofpeopletheslavetrade.TheSpanishruleinthe
Americashadresultedinthelargescaleexterminationoftheoriginalinhabitantsofthe
AmericasThePortuguesehadestablishedaslavemarketinLisbonandtheSpaniardsbought
slavesfromthereandtookthemtotheircoloniesintheAmericastoworkthere.Africanvillages
wereraidedbyslavetradersandpeoplewerecapturedandhandedovertotheEuropeantraders
Earlier,theArabshaddominatedtheslavetrade,Subsequently,someAfricanchiefsalsotook
partintheslavetradebytradingslavesinexchangeforfirearmswhichtheEuropeantraders
soldtothem.TheEuropeansthemselvesalsoraidedthevillagesandenslavedthepeople,who
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werethentransported.WhenthedemandforslavesinAmericaincreased,theyweresent
directlyfromAfricabythetraders.
ThetradeinAfricanslaveswasstartedbythePortuguese.SoontheEnglishtookover.In1562,
SirJohnHawkins,arichEnglishmerchant,whowasknowntobeveryreligious,wentonhis
firstvoyagetoAfricatobringslavesinashipcalledJesusThereigningEnglishmonarch,
ElizabethI,receivedashareoftheprofitsthatHawkinsmadeinsellingtheslavesthathehad
broughtIntheseventeenthcentury,aregularcompanyreceivedacharterfromtheKingof
EnglandforpurposesoftradeinslavesLater,Spaingavethemonopolyofslavetradewithher
possessionsinAmericatoEnglandTheshareofthekingintheprofitsfromslavetradewas
fixedat25percent
Uptoaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythistradecontinued.MillionsofAfricanswere
uprootedfromtheirhomesManywerekilledwhileresistingtheraidsontheirvillagesbythe
traders.Theyweretakeninshipsasinanimateobjectsandinsuchunhygienicconditionsthat
thesailorsontheshipsoftenrevoltedLakhsofthemdiedduringthelongjourney.Itis
estimatedthatnotevenhalfoftheslavescapturedreachedAmericaalive.Theinhuman
conditionsunderwhichtheywereforcedtoworkontheplantationscannotevenbeimagined
todayExtremebrutalitieswereinflictedonthosewhotriedtoescape.Thepersonwhokilleda
runawayslavewasgivenarewardbythegovernment.Slaveryhadbecomeanintegralpartof
thecolonialsystemestablishedbyEuropeancountriesduringthisperiod.
Byearlynineteenthcentury,tradeinslaveslostitsimportanceinthesystemofcolonial
exploitationSlaverywasalsoahindranceiftheinteriorofAfricawastobeopenedtocolonial
exploitationInfact,somecolonialpowersusedthepretextofabolishingslavetradetogotowar
againstAfricanchiefsandkingstoexpandtheirterritorialpossessions.Inthemeantime,
explorationoftheinteriorofAfricahadbegunandpreparationsmadebytheEuropeanpowers
toimposeanotherkindofslaveryonthecontinentofAfricaforthedirectconquestofalmost
entireAfrica.
ScrambleforAfrica
TheinteriorofAfricawasalmostunknowntotheEuropeansuptoaboutthemiddleofthe
nineteenthcentury,Thecoastalregionswerelargelyinthehandsoftheoldtradingnations
thePortuguese,theDutch,theEnglishandtheFrenchTheyhadsetuptheirfortsthereThere
wereonlytwoplaceswheretheEuropeanruleextendeddeepintotheinterior.Inthenorththe
FrenchhadconqueredAlgeria.InthesouththeEnglishhadoccupiedCapeColonyto
safeguardtheircommercewithIndia.IthadearlierbeenaDutchcolonywherea
numberofEuropeans,mainlytheDutch,hadsettled.Thesesettlers,knownasBoers,hadtaken
tofarming.ThiswastheonlypartofAfricawherealargenumberofEuropeansweresettled
Withinafewyears,however,ascrambleforcoloniesbegatandalmosttheentirecontinenthad
beencutupanddividedamongEuropeanpowers
Explores,tradersandmissionaries
TheyplayedtheirrespectiverolesintheconquestofAfrica,Theexplorersarousedthe
EuropeansinterestinAfrica.Themissionariessawthecontinentasaplaceforspreadingthe
messageofChristianity.Theinterestscreatedbyexplorersandmissionariesweresoonusedby
thetraders.Westerngovernmentssupportedalltheseinterestsbysendingtroops,andthestage
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wassetforconquest.EventhoughtheEuropeanpowersmetwithstiffresistancefromthe
Africansandittookthemalongtimetoestablisheffectiveoccupationoftheircolonies,the
speedwithwhichtheEuropeanpowersconqueredAfricaiswithoutaparallel.Itisnecessaryto
understandthereasonsforthis.Theexternalfactorshavebeenbroadlymentionedinanearlier
sectionofthischapter.Theeconomicmightoftheimperialistpowerswasmuchgreaterthanthe
economicresourcesoftheAfricanstatesThelatterdidnothavetheresourcestofightalong
warIntermsofmilitarystrength,theimperialistcountrieswerefarmorepowerfulthanthe
AfricanstatesTheAfricanshadoutdatedfirearmswhichhadbeensoldtothembythe
EuropeansTheywerenomatchforthenewriflesandgunswhichtheEuropeansusedThe
coupletofanEnglishpoetisoftenquotedtobringoutthissuperiority.
Whateverhappenswehavegot,
Themaximgunandtheyhavenot.
TheMaximgunwasafastfiringnewgunwhichwasusedagainsttheAfricanswhooftenfought
withaxesandknivesPolitically,likeIndianstatesintheeighteenthcentury,theAfricanstates
werenotunitedTherewereconflictsbetweenstatesandwithinstatesandtherulersandchiefs
oftensoughtthesupportoftheEuropeansagainsttheirrivals.Asaresultoftheseconflicts,the
boundariesoftheAfricanstateswereoftenchanging.Asagainstthis,theimperialistcountries
participatinginthescrambleforAfricawereunitedThescramblehadcreatedseriousrivalries
amongthem.Infact,thescrambletograbthemaximumofAfricanterritoryintheshortest
possibletimewastheresultoftheserivalries.Manyatimeduringthescramblewarsbetween
thesecountrieswereimminent.Butineverycase,warwasavoidedandagreementsreached
betweenthemastowhowillgetwhichpartofAfrica.Forexample,theAngloGermanrivalries
inEastAfricawereresolvedin1890whenGermanyagreedtoconcedeUgandatoBritainin
exchangeforBritaingivingawayHeligolandtoGermanyIn188485,therewasaCongressin
BerlinwhereagroupofEuropeanstatesmetanddiscussedhowtoshareoutAfricaamong
themselvesNoAfricanstatewasrepresentedatthisCongress.Treatiesweresignedbetween
EuropeanpowerstosettledisputesoverclaimstoAfricanterritoriesbetweenthemselves.
TreatieswerealsosignedbetweenAfricanrulersandchiefs,andtherepresentativesof
EuropeangovernmentsorEuropeancompaniesandindividualswhichwerelatersanctionedby
theirrespectivegovernments.ThesetreatieswereoftenfraudulentandbogusInthecaseswhere
theseweregenuine,theyweremisrepresentedinnegotiationswithotherEuropeancountriesand
thewronginterpretationsputonthemwererecognizedbyotherEuropeanpowers.Forexample,
ifanAfricanrulersignedatreatywithaEuropeancountrytoseekthelatterssupportagainsta
rival,thatEuropeancountryinseekingapprovalofotherEuropeancountriesinterpreteditto
meanthattheAfricanrulerhadagreedtomakehisstateaprotectorateofthatEuropean
country.ThisinterpretationwasthenacceptedbyotherEuropeanpowersandtheprocessof
occupationbeganwithoutanyhindrancefromthemInthisway,thepartitionofAfricawas
nearlycompletedbytheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thispositionisgenerallyreferredtoas
paperpartitionas,theactualpartitiontookmuchlongerandwasaccomplishedbytheuseof
thesuperiormilitarymightoftheEuropeanpowerstosuppresstheresistancebytheAfricansA
lookatthemapofAfricaafterpartitionwillshowhowthecontinentofAfricawaspartitioned
onpaperinconferenceroomsinEuropeAboutthirtypercentofallboundariesinAfricaarein
straightlines.ItwillbeeasiertounderstandtheconquestofAfricabyEuropeanpowersifwe
studyitregionbyregion.Wemustremember,however,thatoccupationdidnottakeplaceinthe
orderdescribedhere
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WestandCentralAfrica
In1878,withthefinancialassistanceofKingLeopoldIIofBelgium,HM.Stanleyfoundedthe
InternationalCongoAssociationwhichmadeover400treatieswithAfricanchiefsTheydidnot
understandthatbyplacingtheirmarksonbitsofpapertheyweretransferringtheirlandtothe
CongoAssociationinexchangeforclothorotherarticlesofnogreatvalueStanleyacquired
largetractsoflandbythesemethods.In1885some2.3millionsquarekilometres,nchinrubber
andivory,becametheCongoFreeStatewithLeopoldasitsking.
StanleycalledtheoccupationofCongo(thepresentZaire)auniquehumanitarianandpolitical
enterprise,butitbeganwithbrutalexploitationoftheCongopeopleTheywereforcedto
collectrubberandivoryLeopoldaloneissaidtohavemadeaprofitofover20milliondollars
ThetreatmentoftheCongolesepeoplewassobadthatevenothercolonialpowerswere
shockedTogiveanexampleofthebrutality,soldiersoftheCongoFreeStatechoppedoffthe
handsofthedefiantvillagersandbroughtthemassouvenirs.In1908,Leopoldwascompelled
tohandovertheCongoFreeStatetotheBelgiangovernment,anditbecameknownasBelgian
CongoGradually,Congosgold,diamond,uranium,timberandcopperbecamemoreimportant
thanherrubberandivory.Manyofthecountries,includingEnglandandtheUnitedStates,
joinedBelgiuminexploitingtheseresourcesThecompanywhichcontrolledthecopper
resourcesofKatangaprovince(presentShaba)wasoneofthebiggestcoppercompaniesinthe
world.Thiscompany,jointlyownedbyEnglishandBelgianinterests,playedaverybigrolein
Congospoliticalaffairs.
LocatetheNigerriver,thesecondgreatriverofwesternAfrica,onthemapThecontroloverthe
NigermeantthecontroloverthelandwithrichresourcesTheBritishhadoccupiedapartofthis
legioncalledNigeria,togetslavesforexporttotheirplantationsinAmericaTheBritish
companytooktheinitiativeintheconquestofNigeria.Foratimetherewasasharprivalrywith
aFrenchcompany,butintheendtheBritishcompanywasabletobuyouttheFrenchand
becametherulerofNigeriaAfterafewyearstheBritishgovernmentdeclaredNigeriaa
protectorateofBritainInWestAfrica,BritainalsooccupiedGambia,Ashanti,GoldCoastand
SierraLeone.
FrenchCongo
WhenStanleywascarvingouttheempireforKingLeopoldinCongo,aFrenchman,deBrazza,
wasactivenorthoftheCongoriverFollowingthemethodsofStanley,deBrazzawonthearea
forFrance,thisareabecamewhatwasuntilrecentlycalledtheFrenchCongowithitscapital
townnamedBrazzaville,afterdeBrazza.OnAfricaswestcoast,Senegalandbeenoccupiedby
FranceearlierNowFrancesetouttoextendherempireinWestAfrica.Soonsheobtained
Dahomey(piesentBenin),theIvoryCoastandFrenchGuineaBytheyear1900,theFrench
empiieextendedfurtherintotheinterior.MoreterritorieswereaddedtotheWestAfrican
conquestsafter1900andFrenchWestAfricacametoincludepresentSenegal,FrenchGuinea,
theIvoryCoast,Dahomey,Mauritania,FrenchSudan,UpperVoltaandNigerTerritory.The
FrenchconquestresultedinbrutalexploitationofthepeopleeverywhereinAfrica.Forexample,
inaperiodofonly20years,thepopulationoftheFrenchCongowasreducedtoonethirdofits
formersize.
After1880,GermanyalsogotveryinterestedinpossessionsinAfricaFirstsheoccupiedanarea
calledTogolandonthewestcoastsoonafter,theCameroons,alittlefarthersouth.Stillfarther
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south,theGermansestablishedthemselvesinSouthwestAfricawhere,tosuppresslocalrebels,
morethanhalfofthepopulationwasexterminated.Buttheseconquestsdidnotsatisfy
GermanyshewantedthePortuguesecoloniesofAngolaandMozambiqueandCongofor
herselfBeforetheFirstWorldWarstarted,EnglandandGermanyagreedtopartitionAngola
andMozambiquebetweenthemselves,butthewarshatteredGermanysdreams.Afterthewar,
whentheGermancoloniesweregiventothevictoriouspowers,TogolandandtheCameroons
weredividedbetweenEnglandandFrance,andGermanSouthwestAfricawasgiventoSouth
Africa.
SpainhadonlytwocoloniesonthewesterncoastofAfricaRiodeOro(SpanishSahara)and
SpanishGuinea.PortugalpossessedvaluableregionsofAngolaandPortugueseGuinea.Thus,
withtheexceptionofLiberia,thewholeofWestAfricawasdividedupamongtheEuropeans
LiberiawassettledbyslaveswhohadbeenfreedinAmerica.Thoughsheremained
independent,shecameincreasinglyundertheinfluenceoftheUnitedStates,particularlythe
Americaninvestorsinrubberplantations.
SouthAfrica
InSouthAfrica,theDutchhadestablishedtheCapeColony,whichtheBritishtookoverinthe
earlynineteenthcentury.TheDutchsettlers,knownasBoers,thenwentnorthandsetuptwo
states,theOrangeFreeStateandtheTransvaal.By1850boththesestateswereruledbythe
Boers.
Rhodesia
TheEnglishadventurer,CecilRhodes,cametosouthAfricain1870,madeafortuneinmining
diamondandgoldofthisregionandgavehisnametoanAfricancolonyRhodesia.(Northern
RhodesiaisnowindependentandiscalledZambia.SouthernRhodesiawhichbecamean
independentnationinApril1980isZimbabwe.)Rhodesbecamefamousasagreat
philanthropistwhofoundedtheRhodesscholarships,butliewasfirstofallaprofiteerand
empirebuilder.Purephilanthropy,hesaid,isverywellinitsway,butphilanthropyplusfive
percentisagooddealbetter.RhodesdreamwastoextendtheBritishrulethroughoutthe
world,andhecertainlysucceededinextendingtheBritishempireinAfrica.TheBritish
occupiedBechuanaland,Rhodesia,SwazilandandBasutoland.Theyplottedtheoverthrowof
theBoergovernmentofTransvaalwhichwasrichingoldThisledtotheBoerWar(18991902)
inwhichtheBoersweredefeatedthoughtheycontinuedtoremainthere.
Soonafterthis,theUnionofSouthAfricawasformedconsistingoftheCape,Natal,Transvaal
andOrangeRiverColony.ThisUnionwasruledbythewhiteminorityBoers,Englishmen,
andafewsettlersfromotherEuropeancountriesTheSouthAfricangovernmentlaterdeclared
itselfarepublic.
EastAfrica
ExceptforthePortuguesepossessionofapartofMozambique,EastAfricahadnotbeen
occupiedbyanyEuropeanpowerbefore1884.InthatyearaGermanadventurer,namedKarl
Peters,cametothecoastalregion.Usingbriberyandthreats,hepersuadedsomerulerstosign
agreementsplacingthemselvesunderGermanprotectionSinceFranceandBritainalsohad
plansinthisarea,anagreementwassignedbywhichFrancegotMadagascar,andEastAfrica
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wasdividedbetweenGermanyandEngland.TherulerofZanzibarwhoclaimedEastAfricaas
hispropertygotastripofcoastland,1600kilometreslongand16kilometresdeepTheNorthern
halfofthisstripwasreorganizedasaBritishsphereofinfluence,andthesouthernpart.
Tanganyika,aGermansphereofinfluence.ThesewerelateroccupiedbyEnglandandGermany
ButtheAfricansroseinrevoltagainandagainbecausetheGermanshadtakenlandfromthem
withoutmakinganypayment.Duringarebellionin1905,120,000Africanswerekilledinthis
GermancolonyIn1890,therewasanagreementbetweenGermanyandEnglandaccordingto
whichUgandawasreservedforEngland.InexchangeGermanywasgivenHeligolandIn
1896,UgandawasdeclaredaBritishprotectorateGermanyalsogaveupherclaimstoZanzibar
andPembaisland,WituandNyasaland(presentMalawi),butmademoreconquestsinthe
interior.ThePortuguesecolonyofMozambiquewasfobesharedoutbetweenGermanyand
England,buttheFirstWorldWarstoppedtheplanandGermanylostallhercolonies.German
EastAfricawasgiventoEnglandafterthewarandwasrenamedTanganyika.(Tanganyikaand
ZanzibarnowformtherepublicofTanzania)BritishEastAfricawasrenamedKenya.The
GermanpossessionofRuandaUrundiwasgiventoBelgium.
ItalyEthiopia
LikeGermany,Italyenteredthecolonialracelate.TheItaliansoccupiedtwodesertareasin
whatiscalledthehornofAfricaSomalilandandEritrea.ThecountryofAbyssinia,now
knownasEthiopia,wasanindependentstate.ItalywantedtodeclareAbyssiniaitsprotectorate
andinvadedher.ThekingofAbyssiniarejectedItalysclaimandin1896defeatedtheItalian
invadingarmyUnlikeotherAfricanstates,AbyssiniahadbeenabletogetarmsfromFrance.
ThishistoricbattleinwhichanAfricanstatehaddefeatedaEuropeanstatesarmyisknownas
theBattleofAdowa.SotheItalianshadtowithdrawItalymadeanotherattempttoconquer
Abyssiniain1935,beforetheSecondWorldWarExceptforabriefperiodduringthoseyears,
Ethiopia,exceptEritrea,wasabletomaintainherindependence.
NorthAfrica
Algeria,onthenorthcoastofAfrica,wasconqueredbyFrancein1830,butittookherabout40
yearstosuppresstheAlgerianresistance.ItwasthemostprofitableofFrancescolonial
possessions,providingheravastmarketforFrenchgoodsTotheeastofAlgeriaisTunisia
whichwascovetedbyFrance,EnglandandItalyAccordingtoanagreementin1878,England
gaveFranceafreehandinTunisiainreturnforBritishoccupationoftheislandofCyprus,anda
fewyearslaterTunisiabecameaFrenchpossession.
Morocco
MoroccoissituatedonthenorthcoastofAfrica,justsouthofGibraltar.Thusitisvery
importanttothewesternentranceoftheMediterraneanBothFranceandItalywantedtoclaimit
astheirterritoryThetwocountriesagreed,in1900,totheFrenchoccupationofMoroccoandto
theItalianoccupationofTripoliandCyrenaica,totheeastofTunisiaIn1904,Franceand
EnglandsignedanagreementwhichgaveMoroccotoFrance,andEgypttoEngland.Afterthese
agreementshadbeensigned,FranceproceededwithherplansofconquestofMorocco.
GermanyhadbeenignoredwhenEngland,FranceandItalyweresigningagreementsto
partitionNorthAfricaShethreatenedtoopposetheFrenchoccupationSpainhadbeenpromised
TangierinreturnforFrenchoccupationofMorocco.SoitbecamenecessarytoappeaseGerman
ambitioninNorthAfricaThereweremanyinternationalcrisesanditappearedasifwarwould
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breakout.TheGermanForeignMinistersaid,YouhaveboughtyourlibertyinMoroccofrom
Spain,England,andevenfromItaly,andyouhaveleftusout.Butwhoshouldoccupy
Moroccowasdecided,asinothercases,inEurope.ThepeopleofMoroccowerenever
consulted.Ultimately,FranceagreedtogiveGermany250,000squarekilometresofFrench
Congo.SpainwasfurtherappeasedbygivingherasmallpartofMoroccoIn1912France
establishedherprotectorateoverMoroccoHowever,ittooktheFrenchmanyyearsafterthe
FirstWorldWartosuppresstherebellionsthere.
Asyouhaveseenearlier,ItalyhadassuredherselfthesupportofEuropeannationsinherclaims
overTripoliandCyrenaica,whichwerethepossessionsoftheTurkishempire.Italythen
declaredwaragainstTurkeyandoccupiedthetwoprovinces,whichweregiventheoldRoman
nameofLibya.
Egypt
EgyptwasaprovinceoftheTurkishempirewhenthescrambleforcoloniesbeganinthe
nineteenthcentury.Itv asruledbyarepresentativeoftheTurkishSultan,calledPashaSince
thetimeofNapoleon,FrancehadbeeninterestedinEgyptAFrenchcompanyhadgaineda
concessionfromIsmailPasha,theGovernorofEgypt,todigacanalacrosstheisthmusofSuez.
Thecanalwascompletedin1869andarousedBritishinterestintheareaDisraeli,theBritish
PrimeMinister,boughtalargenumberofsharesofthecanalfromthePashatomakesureof
keepingtheroutetoIndiasafeThecanalwasdescribedbyDisraeliasahighwaytoourIndian
empire.
ThefinancialtroublesofthePashaledtoincreasedjointAngloFrenchcontroloverEgypt
WhenthePashatriedtoresist,hewasforcedtoabdicateandanewgovernorwasappointedIn
1882,therewasarevoltagainsttheAngloFrenchcontroland,insuppressingtherevolt,the
BritisharmiesconqueredEgyptRestorationoflawandorderandprotectionoftheSuezCanal
werethereasonsgivenforthemilitaryinterventioninEgypt.Englandannouncedthatshe
wouldwithdrawhertroopsassoonasorderwasrestoredAftertherevoltwassuppressed,Egypt
cameunderBritishcontrol.In1914,whentheFirstWorldWarstarted,Englandannouncedthat
EgyptwasnolongeraTurkishprovincebutaBritishprotectorate.TheEgyptiansnever
reconciledthemselvestotheBritishconquest.Afterthewarwasover,leadersofEgyptstarted
fortheParisPeaceConferencetopleadthecaseofEgypt,buttheywerearrested.In1922,
thoughshestillretainedherrightsovertheSuezandmanyotherconcessions,Britainwas
forcedtorecognizeEgyptasanindependentsovereignstate
Sudan,orwhatwasearlierknownasEgyptianSudan,wasjointlyexploitedbyEgyptand
Britain.ASudaneseleaderwhohadproclaimedhimselftheMandihadsucceededin
overthrowingEgyptianandBritishcontroloverSudan.HisarmyhaddefeatedEgyptianand
BritishtroopsIn1898,BritishandEgyptiantroopssucceededinrecapturingSudanafteralong
andbloodywarinwhich20,000Sudanesetroops,includingthesuccessoroftheMandi,were
killed.SudancameunderBritishrule.TheFrenchatthistimetriedtooccupysouthernpartsof
SudanbutwereforcedtowithdrawbytheBritishFrance,however,wasgivenafreehandto
extendhercontroloverwhatwasknownaswesternSudanandtheSaharaFranceoccupied
theseareasafteralongwarofconquest.Withthesegains,Francewasabletoconnecther
equatorialconquestswithherwestandnorthAfricanconquests.
THEAMERICASANDTHEPACIFIC
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YouhavealreadyreadaboutthecolonizationoftheAmericasbySpain,Portugal,Britain,
FranceandotherEuropeancountries,andtheemergenceoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaasan
independentnation.ThefreedommovementsinsomeofthecountriesofSouthAmericaandthe
Caribbeanhavealsobeenbrieflymentioned.By1820s,almostallcountriesoftheAmericashad
gainedtheirindependencefromSpainandPortugal.OnlyafewcoloniesruledbyEuropean
countrieswereleftinthispartoftheworld.AmongthesewereCubaandPuertoRicowhich
werestillunderSpanishruleandafewothersunderBritish,French,DutchandDanishrule.
TheUnitedstatesinthenineteenthcenturyemergedasthebiggestpowerintheAmericas.She
hadextendedherterritoriesthroughwarwithMexicoandpurchaseofLouisianaFloridaand
AlaskafromFrance,SpainandRussia,respectively.WithinashortperiodaftertheCivilWar
(186165)whichendedintheabolitionofslavery,theUnitedStatesemergedasamajor
industrialandmilitarypowerintheworld.By1900,hernavalstrengthwasthirdintheworld
TheforcesthathadledtotheemergenceofimperialisminEuropeandlaterinJapanalsoledto
theemergenceoftheUnitedStatesasamajorimperialistpowerbythelaterhalfofthe
nineteenthcentury.YouhavealreadyreadaboutthetreatywhichtheUnitedStatessignedwith
Chinain1844onthelineswhichsomeEuropeancountrieshadforcedonChinaaftertheOpium
War.CommodorePerrysshowofforceinJapanin1853hasalsobeenmentioned.AftertheU
S.SpanishWar,thePhilippineshadbecomeaU.S.colony.USAhadalsotakenPuertoRico
andGuam(inthePacific)fromSpain,andCuba,thoughindependentinname,hadinfact
becomeanappendageofUSA.
Whenthescrambleforcoloniesbegan,theleadersofUSAdeclaredthatshemustnotfalloutof
thelineofmarch.Theyalsoclaimed,liketheEuropeanimperialistcountries,therightto
civilizethebackwardcountriesoftheworldand,ofcourse,tointerfereintheaffairsofother
countriestoprotecttheirmarketsandinvestments.
MonroeDoctrine
Duringtheperiodfromthe1890stotheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,theUnitedStates
spreaditscontrol,directandindirect,overSouthAmericaandthePacificIn1823,thePresident
oftheUnitedStateshadproclaimedtheMonroeDoctrinewhichwarnedtheEuropeanpowers
againstanyattempttoextendtheirpowerintheWestern/HemisphereIn1895,theMonroe
Doctrinewasgivenanewmeaning.TherewasaterritorialdisputebetweenBritishGuiana(now
Guyana)andNicaragua,andtheBritishthreatenedtosendtroopsagainstNicaragua.TheUS
governmentforcedBritainnottosendhertroopsanddeclaredthatTodaytheUnitedStatesis
practicallysovereignonthisContinent.AnewcorollarywasaddedtotheMonroeDoctrinein
1904bythethenU.S.President,TheodoreRooseveltBritainandGermanyhadimposedanaval
blockadeofVenezuelaasshehadfailedtorepaytheloanwhichshehadtakenfromthem.
TheodoreRooseveltforcedBritainandGermanytolifttheblockadeanddeclaredthatthe
UnitedStatesalonehadtherighttointerveneintheaffairsofherneighbouringcountriesifthey
wereunabletomaintainorderontheirown.TheUnitedStatestookcontrolofthefinancesof
theDominicanRepublicwhichsheretainedforthreedecadesandoccupiedthatcountryin1916
foreightyears.In1906,AmericantroopsweresenttoCubaandremainedthereforthreeyears
toprotectCubafromdisorder.In1909,AmericantroopsweresenttoNicaraguainsupportof
arevoltwhichhadbeeninspiredbyanAmericanminingcompany.TheUnitedStatessecured
fromthegovernmentwhichhadbeeninstalledtheretheughttointerveneinthatcountryto
protectAmericaninterestsIn1915,AmericantroopsWeresenttoHaitiandremainedtheretill
1934.
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Mexico
InMexico,wheretheUnitedStateshadhugeinvestments,FransiscoMadero,apopularleader
wasdeposedwiththesupportoftheUnitedStatesTheinterventionbytheUnitedStatesin
Mexicocontinuedformanyyears.
BigStickPolicy/Dollardiplomacy
ThepolicyoftheUnitedStateswasdescribedastheBigStickpolicyandoneofan
internationalpoliceman.TheextensionoftheUSinfluencethrougheconomicinvestmentsin
theregionisknownastheDollardiplomacy.TheeconomicandpoliticaldominationofSouth
AmericawasfacilitatedbytheabsenceofstronggovernmentsinthecountriesofSouth
America.Manyofthesecountrieswereruledbycaudillos,orcrudeandcorruptmilitaryleaders
witharmedgangs.Theyfloatedloansforreadycashandsoldconcessionstoforeigncompanies
toexploitthenaturalresourcesoftheircountries.Theyservedasmarketsformanufactures,and
sourcesofrawmaterialsforindustrializedcountries,particularlytheUnitedStates,aswellas
avenuesforinvestmentofcapitalfromthesecountries.MostofthecountriesofSouthAmerica,
thoughpoliticalindependent,cameundertheeconomicandpoliticalcontroloftheUnited
States.
PanamaCanal
OneofthemajoracquisitionsbytheUnitedStatesinthisperiodwasthePanamaCanal.A
FrenchcompanyhadstartedtheconstructionofthecanalintheIsthmusofPanamainColombia
(CentralAmerica).ThecanalwhichwouldlinktheAtlanticandthePacificOceanswasofgreat
economicinterestIn1901,theUnitedStatesdecidedtoundertakethecanalprojectalone.
Shepaid$40milliontotheFrenchcompanyandenteredintoanagreementwiththegovernment
ofColombia.Accordingtotheagreement,ColombiawastogivetheUnitedStatesperpetual
rightstoasixmilewidecanalzoneacrossherterritoryinexchangefortenmilliondollarsplus
$250,000asannualrent.TheagreementwascompletelyagainsttheinterestsofColombiaand
ColombiasParliamentrefusedtoratifyit.In1903,theUnitedStatesfinancedandorganizeda
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revoltinPanamaandlandedhertroopsthere.Soonafter,theUnitedStatesrecognizedPanama
asanindependentstateThegovernmentofPanamasignedanewagreementwiththeUnited
Statesaccordingtowhichtheamountofcompensationremainedthesamebutinsteadofthesix
milewidecanalzone,tenmilecanalzonewasgrantedtotheUnitedStates.Thecanalwas
openedin1914andthecanalzonehasremainedundertheoccupationoftheUnitedStatessince
then.
Hawaii
TheUnitedStatesalsoextendedhercontrolinthePacificduringthisperiodTheislandsof
HawaiihadbeenimportantforAmericanshippingandfortradewithChinaTheUnitedStates
economicandcommercialinfluencegraduallyincreasedintheseislandsandwiththesettlingof
Americansthere,particularlyassugarplanters,theseislandsbecamecloselytiedtothe
economyoftheUnitedStatesTheUnitedStateshadsecuredtheexclusiveuseofPearlHarbor
asanavalstation.In1893,theAmericanresidentsintheHawaiiislandsrevoltedagainstthe
queenofHawaiiand,askedfortheannexationoftheislandsbytheUnitedStates.By1898,
HawaiihadbeenannexedbytheUnitedStates.Later,itbecameoneofthestatesoftheUnited
States.
TheUnitedStatesalsoextendedcontroloverotherislandsinPacific.Therewasrivalryamong
theUSBritainandGermanyovertheselands.In1899,GermanyandStatesdividedthese
islandsbetsselvesandascompensationgivenislandselsewhereinthePacific.
EFEECTSOFIMPERIALISM
By1914,almostallpartsofthenonindustrializedworldhadcomeunderorindirectcontrolofa
fewindustrializedcountries.MostcountriesofAfricahadLosttheirpoliticalfreedomandwere
ruledbyoneorothercountry.Theeconomiesofallcountriesaswellasofthosewhichwere
politicallyindependentwerecontrolimperialistcountriestoserverests.Allpartsoftheworld
werebroughttogetherunderaworldeconomiccontrolwhichwasbasedontheexploitcolonies.
Since1946,mostAsiacancolonieshavebecomefreeandindependent.Youwillreadaboutit
later.Buttheeffectsofimperialisminthelifeofthepeopleinthesecountryarestillevident.
EconomicBackwardness
Themostimportantandlastingconsequenceofimperialismandcolonizationwastheeconomic
backwardnessofthecoloniesaswellasofthosecountriesindirectlycontrolledbythecountries
Imperialismledtodestructionoflocalindustries.Forexample,Indiaforcenturiesanexporter
oftextiles.Duringimperialistrule,Indiasindigenoustextileindustrywasdestroyedandshe
becameanimporterofBritishcloth.Thenaturalresourcesofthecoloniescameunderthe
controloftheimperialistcountriesandwereexploitedfortheirownbenefit.The
industrializationofthesecountrieswasprevented.Whereindustrieswerestarted,thesewere
subordinatedtotheinterestsoftheindustriesoftheimperialistcountriesorformakingprofits
forthecompaniesoftheimperialistcountries.Themodernindustriesinthecolonieshadlittle
impactonthelifeofthepeoplethere.Thepatternsofagricultureinthecolonieswerealso
changedtomeettherequirementsoftheindustriesoftheimperialistcountries.Insome
countries,theentireagriculturewasreducedtothegrowingofoneortwocropsForexample,
Cubawasreducedtothepositionofasugarproducingcountryandlittleelse.Therewasalso
nakedplunderofnaturalresources,andexploitationthroughhighdemandsofrevenuesand
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taxes.SomeofthebestlandsinthecoloniesweretakenoverbytheEuropeanplanters
Imperialismfurtheraggravatedtheeconomicbackwardnessofthenonindustrializedcountries
oftheworld.Thesubordinationoftheeconomicsoftheseareastothoseoftheimperialist
countrieswassocompletethatevenafterpoliticalindependence,mostofthesecountriesfound
itdifficulttodeveloptheireconomicstosuittheirowninterests.Theimpoverishmentofthe
peopleofthecoloniesandofothernonindustrializedcountriesisacontinuingconsequenceof
imperialism.
Racism
Imperialismalsobredracialarroganceanddiscrimination.Theideaofthesuperiorityofthe
whiteracewhomGodhadcreatedtogoverntheworld,waspopularizedintheimperialist
countries.Intheircolonies,thewhiterulersandsettlersdiscriminatedagainstthelocal
inhabitantswhowereconsideredinferiortothem.InmostEuropeancolonies,therewasno
intermixingwiththelocalpopulationandtheEuropeanslivedinareasexclusivelyreservedfor
them.TheworstexampleofracismwasSouthAfricawhereintermixingofwhitesandblacks
wasmadeacriminaloffence.ItisinterestingtoknowthatwhenJapanemergedasan
imperialistpower,theJapanesewereexcludedfrombeingbrandedasbelongingtoaninferior
race.Infact,SouthAfricagavetheJapanesethestatusofwhattheycalledhonorarywhites
StruggleAgainstImperialism
Ateverystep,theimperialistpowersmetwiththeresistanceofpeoplestheyweretryingto
enslave.Evenwhentheconquestbyarmswasdecisive,foreignrulethatensuedwasnever
peacefulfortherulers.Theconqueredpeoplesorganizedmovementsnotmerelytooverthrow
foreignrulebutalsotodeveloptheircountriesintomodernnations.Inasense,thesemovements
againstimperialismwereinternationalincharacterPeoplestrivingforfreedominonecountry
supportedthecauseofpeoplesinothercountries.
Generallyspeaking,theimperialistcountriesretainedtheircolonialpossessionsuptothe
SecondWorldWarButwithintwodecadesaftertheendoftheWar,mostofthecountries
succeededinregainingtheirindependence.
Mostofthenineteenthcenturyandthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcenturyweretheyearsin
whichthenationsofthewesternworldheldAsiaandAfricaastheircolonialpossessions.Inthe
lateryearsofthisperiodofimperialism,abouttwothirdsoftheworldspopulationwasliving
undertheruleofoneforeigngovernmentortheother.TheempiresacquiredbytheEuropean
nationswerethelargestinworldhistory.
Imperialismisastoryofdeception,brutality,andarmedmight.Theimperialistpowers,
however,Justifiedtheirenslavementofothernationsandpeoplesinthenameofspreading
civilization.
Gettingpossessionofnewmarketsandrawmaterialsandestablishingindustriestobeworked
bycheaplabourcreatedmanysmallwarsandtwoworldconflicts.Despitethegentlemens
agreements,therewasacontinuouseffortamongthewesternpowerstoredividetheworldas
betweenthemselvesbutneverwithanyconsiderationforthewelfareofthepeopletowhomthe
territoryreallybelonged.
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EXERCISES
1. ExplainwhytheIndustrialRevolutionledtotheemergenceofimperialism
2. Describethesteps,givingexamples,bywhichtheimperialistcountriestookovermostof
Africa.
3. WhywereAsianandAfricancountriessoeasilydominatedbytheWesternpowers?
4. HowdidnationalismhelptomakeimperialismpopularinEurope?
5. DescribetheemergenceoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaasanimperialistpowerGive
examples
6. Describetheimperialistexpansionofjapanupto1914
7. Explainthemeaningofthefollowingterms,withexamples:Sphereofinfluence,
exploitation,extraterritorialrights,protectorate,MonroeDoctrine,Dollardiplomacy.
8. PreparemapsofAsiaandAfricashowingthecoloniesandspheresofinfluenceofthe
variousimperialistpowersbeforetheFirstWorldWar
9. StudythedevelopmentsthathavetakenplaceinAfricaaftertherevolutioninPortugalin
April1974
10. WriteanessayonSlaveryandSlaveTradeandtheStrugglefortheirAbolition
11. Howdidtheempiresofthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturiesdifferfromtheempiresof
ancienttimesforexample,thoseoftheMauryas,theRomansandofAlexander?
12. Discussthedifferencesbetweentheimperialistexpansionduringthesixteenthtothe
eighteenthcenturiesand1870toI914
13. NameanddiscusssomeofthebigproblemsfacedbynewlyindependentcountriesWhy
aretheirproblemsalsotheproblemsofallcountries?
14. DiscussthelongtermimpactofimperialistcontrolonthecountriesofAsia,Africaand
SouthAmerica
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych9imperialism
colonizationofasiaafricaamericas.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh10:FirstWorldWar(WW1)
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych10]FirstWorldWar:Causes,
Consequences,TreatyofVersailles,TripleAlliance
1. TheFirstWorldWar
2. ImperialistRivalries
3. ConflictswithinEurope
4. FormationofAlliances
5. IncidentsPrecedingtheWar
6. TheOutbreakofWar
7. TheCourseoftheWar
8. EndoftheWar
9. PeaceTreaties
10. ConsequencesoftheWarandthePeaceTreaties
11. EXERCISES
UPSChasincludedWorldHistoryinGeneralstudies(Mains)syllabusfrom2013.HenceOld
NCERT,particularlyChapter9to13fromClass10=becomesnecessaryasthe
foundation/basematerialforthetopicsofWorldHistory.ButfornonDelhicandidates,itis
almostimpossibletogetthatbook,becauseNCERTchangedsyllabus,hencebookisnolonger
printed.ThereforeImuploadingthechaptersonebyone.And,justbecausethesechaptersare
uploaded,doesntmeanImstoppingmyJackSparrowserieson[WorldHistory],itwill
continueatitsownpace.
TheFirstWorldWar
IN1914,awarbeganinEuropewhichsoonengulfedalmosttheentireworld.Thedamage
causedbythiswarhadnoprecedentinhistory.Intheearlierwars,thecivilianpopulationswere
notgenerallyinvolvedandthecasualtiesweregenerallyconfinedtothewarringarmies.The
warwhichbeganin1914wasatotalwarinwhichalltheresourcesofthewarringstateswere
mobilized.Itaffectedtheeconomyoftheentireworldthecasualtiessufferedbythecivilian
populationfrombombingofthecivilianareasandthefaminesandepidemics,causedbythe
warfarexceededthosesufferedbythearmies.Initsimpactalso,thewarhadnoprecedent.It
markedaturningpointinworldhistory.ThebattlesofthewarwerefoughtinEurope,Asia,
AfricaandthePacific.Becauseoftheunprecedentedextentofitsspreadanditstotalnature,
itisknownastheFirstWorldWar.
ImperialistRivalries
Theunderlyingcausesofthewarweretherivalriesandconflictsamongtheimperialist
countries.Youhaveseenbefore,inChapter9,thattheimperialistconquestofAsiaandAfrica
wasaccompaniedwithconflictsbetweentheimperialistcountries.Sometimestheimperialists
wereabletocometopeacefulsettlementsandagreetodivideapartofAsiaorAfricaamong
themselveswithoutresortingtotheuseofforceagainsteachother.Atothertimestheirrivalries
createdsituationsofwar.Warsweregenerallyavoidedatthattimebecausethepossibilitiesof
furtherconquestwerestillthere.Ifanimperialistcountrywasexcludedfromacertainarea,it
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych10firstworldwarcausesconsequencestreatyofversaillestriplealliance.html/print/
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couldfindsomeotherareatoconquer.Sometimeswarsdidbreakoutbetweenimperialist
countriesashappened,forinstance,betweenJapanandRussia.Bytheendofthenineteenth
century,however,thesituationhadchanged.MostofAsiaandAfricahadalreadybeendivided
upandfurtherconquestscouldtakeplaceonlybydispossessingsomeimperialistcountryofits
colonies.Sointheperiodbeginningfromthelastdecadeofthenineteenthcentury,imperialist
rivalriesresultedinattemptstoredividetheworld,creatingconditionsofwar.
YouhavereadbeforethatGermanyenteredthescrambleforcolonieslate.Aftertheunification
ofGermanyhadbeenachieved,itmadetremendouseconomicprogress.By1914,ithadleft
BritainandFrancefarbehindintheproductionofironandsteelandinmanymanufactures.It
hadenteredtheshippingtradeinabigway.Oneofitsships,theImperator,builtin1912,was
thelargestintheworld.BothBritainandFrancewerealarmedattheexpansionofGerman
manufacturesastheyconsidereditaseriousthreattotheirposition.Youhaveseenthat
Germanycouldnotgrabmanycolonies,havingarrivedlateonthescene.MostofAsiaand
Africahadalreadybeenoccupiedbytheolderimperialistpowers.TheGermanimperialists,
therefore,dreamedofexpandingintheeast.Theirambitionwastocontroltheeconomyofthe
decliningOttomanempire.Forthispurpose,theyhadplannedtheconstructionofarailway
fromBerlintoBaghdad.ThisplancreatedafearinBritain,FranceandRussiaasthecompletion
oftheBerlinBaghdadrailwaywouldendangertheirimperialistambitionsintheOttoman
empire.TheGermanshadimperialistambitionselsewherealso,includinginAfrica.
LikeGermany,allthemajorpowersinEurope,andJapanalsohadtheirimperialistambitions.
Italy,whichafterherunificationhadbecomealmostanequalofFranceinpower,coveted
TripoliinNorthAfricawhichwasundertheOttomanempire.ShehadalreadyoccupiedEritrea
andSomaliland.FrancewantedtoaddMoroccotoherconquestsinAfrica.Russiahadher
ambitionsinIran,theterritoriesoftheOttomanempireincludingConstantinople,theFarEast
andelsewhere.TheRussianplansclashedwiththeinterestsandambitionsofBritain,Germany
andAustria.JapanwhichhadalsobecomeanimperialistpowerhadambitionsintheFarEast
andwasonwaytofulfillingthem.ShedefeatedRussiain190405afterhavingsignedan
agreementwithBritainandwasabletoextendherinfluenceintheFarEast.
Britainwasinvolvedinaconflictwithallotherimperialistcountriesbecauseshehadalready
acquiredavastempirewhichwastobedefended.Theriseofanyothercountrywasconsidered
adangertotheBritishempire.Shealsohadhervastinternationaltradetodefendagainstthe
competitionfromothercountries,andtomaintainhercontroloverwhatsheconsideredthe
lifelineofherempire.AustriahadherambitionsintheOttomanempireTheUnitedStatesof
AmericahademergedasapowerfulnationbytheendofthenineteenthcenturyShehad
annexedthePhilippinesHermaininterestwastopreservetheindependenceoftradeashertrade
wasexpandingatatremendousrateTheexpansionofothermajorpowersinfluencewas
consideredathreattoAmericaninterests.
ConflictswithinEurope
Besidestheconflictsresultingfromrivalriesovercoloniesandtrade,therewereconflicts
amongthemajorEuropeanpowersovercertaindevelopmentswithinEurope.Thereweresix
majorpowersinEuropeatthistimeBritain,Germany,AustriaHungary,Russia,Franceand
Italy.Oneofthequestionswithwhichalmostallthesecountriesgotinvolvedconcernedthe
countriescomprisingtheBalkanpeninsulainEurope.TheBalkancountrieshadbeenunderthe
ruleofOttomanTurks.However,inthenineteenthcentury,theOttomanrulehadbegunto
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collapse.Therewererevoltsbyvariousnationalitiesforindependence.TheRussianCzars
hopedthattheseareaswouldcomeundertheircontroloncetheOttomanswereoustedfrom
there.TheyencouragedamovementcalledthePanSlavmovementwhichwasbasedonthe
theorythatalltheSlaysofeasternEuropewereonepeople.Many
areasinAustriaHungarywereinhabitedbytheSlaysRussia,therefore,encouraged
movementsbothagainsttheOttomanempireandAustriaHungaryThemajorBalkancountry,
Serbia,ledthemovementforunitingtheareasinhabitedbytheSlavsintheOttomanempireas
wellasinAustriaHungary.TheSerbiannationalismwasencouragedbyRussia.Othermajor
EuropeanpowerswerealarmedatthegrowthofRussianinfluenceintheBalkans,Theywanted
tochecktheRussianinfluence,whileAustriaHungaryhadplansofexpansioninthisarea.
CorrespondingtothePanSlavmovement,therewasaPanGermanmovementwhichaimedat
theexpansionofGermanyallovercentralEuropeandintheBalkans.Italyclaimedcertain
areaswhichwereunderAustrianrule.FrancehopedtorecovernotonlyAlsaceLorrainewhich
shehadlosttoGermanyin1871butalsotowreakvengeanceonGermanyforthehumiliating
defeatthatshehadsufferedinthewarwithGermanyin187071.
FormationofAlliances
TheconflictswithinEuropeandtheconflictsovercoloniesmentionedearlierhadbegunto
createaverytensesituationinEuropefromthelastdecadeofthenineteenthcentury.European
countriesbegantoformthemselvesintoopposinggroups.Theyalsostartedspendingvastsums
ofmoneytoincreasethesizeoftheirarmiesandnavies,todevelopnewandmoredeadly
weapons,andtogenerallypreparethemselvesforwar,EuropeWasgraduallybecomingavast
armedcampSimultaneously,propagandaforwar,tobreedhatredagainstothercountries,to
paintonesowncountryassuperiortoothers,andtoglorifywar,wasstartedineachcountry.
Therewere,ofcourse,peoplewhoraisedtheirvoiceagainstthedangerofwarandagainst
militarization.YouhavereadoftheattitudeoftheSecondInternationalandthevarioussocialist
parties.Butsoonallthesevoicesweretobedrownedinthedrumbeatsofwar
TheopposinggroupsofcountriesofalliancesthatwereformedinEuropenotonlyaddedtothe
dangerofwar,butalsomadeitinevitablethatwhenthewarbrokeoutitwouldassumea
worldwidemagnitude.Europeancountrieshadbeenformingandreformingalliancessincethe
nineteenthcentury.Finally,inthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,twogroupsofcountries
oralliances,emergedandfacedeachotherwiththeirarmedmightIn1882wasformedthe
TripleAlliancecomprisingGermany,AustriaHungaryandItaly.However,Italysloyaltyto
thisAlliancewasuncertainashermainaimwastogainterritoriesinEuropefromAustria
HungaryandinconqueringTripoliwithFrenchsupportAsopposedtothis,emergedtheTriple
EntentecomprisingFrance,RussiaandBritainin1907.Intheoryitwasonlyaloosegroup
basedonmutualunderstandingasthewordEntente(meaninganunderstandingindicates.
Theemergenceofthesetwohostilecampsmadeitinevitablethataconflictinvolvinganyone
ofthesecountrieswouldbecomeanallEuropeanwar.Astheaimsofthecountriesinthese
campsincludedtheextensionoftheircolonialpossessions,anallEuropeanwaralmostcertainly
wouldbecomeaworldwar.Theformationofthesehostilecampswasaccompaniedwitharace
tobuildmoreandmoredeadlyweaponsandhavelargerandlargerarmiesandnavies.
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Aseriesofcrisestookplaceduringtheyearsprecedingthewar.Thesecrisesaddedtothe
bitternessandtensioninEuropeandengenderednationalchauvinismEuropeancountriesalso
enteredintosecrettreatiestogainterritoriesattheexpenseofothers.Often,thesesecrettreaties
leakedoutandfearandsuspiciongrewineachcountryaboutsuchtreaties.Thesefearsand
suspicionsbroughtthedangerofwarnear.
IncidentsPrecedingtheWar
Theoutbreakofthewarwasprecededbyaseriesofincidentswhichaddedtotheprevailing
tensionandultimatelyledtothewar.OneofthesewastheclashoverMorocco.In1904Britain
andFrancehadenteredintoasecretagreementaccordingtowhichBritainwastohaveafree
handinEgypt,andFrancewastotakeoverMorocco.Theagreementbecameknownto
Germanyandarousedherindignation.TheGermanemperorwenttoMoroccoandpromisedthe
SultanofMoroccohisfullsupportfortheindependenceofMorocco.Theantagonismover
Morocco,itappeared,wouldleadtoawar.However,thewarwasavertedwhenin1911France
occupiedmostofMoroccoand,inexchange,gaveGermanyapartofFrenchCongo.Even
thoughthewarhadbeenaverted,thesituationinEurope,witheachcountrypreparingforwar,
hadbecomedangerous.
TheotherincidentswhichworsenedthealreadydangeroussituationinEuropeoccurredinthe
Balkans.In1908AustriaannexedtheOttomanprovincesofBosniaandHerzegovina.These
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provinceswerealsocovetedbySerbiawhichhadthebackingofRussiainestablishingaunited
SlavstateintheBalkans.RussiathreatenedtostartawaragainstAustrianannexationbut
GermanysopensupporttoAustriacompelledRussiatoretreat.Theincident,however,notonly
embitteredfeelingsinSerbiabutalsocreatedfurtherenmitybetweenRussiaandGermany.The
situationinEuropehadbecomeevenmoretense.
ThecrisisresultingfromtheannexationofBosniaandHerzegovinabyAustriawasfollowedby
Balkanwarsin1912,fourBalkancountriesSerbia,Bulgaria,MontenegroandGreece
startedawaragainsttheTurks.Asaresultofthiswar,Turkeylostalmostallherpossessionsin
EuropeHowever,theBalkancountriesfoughtanotherwaroverthequestionofdistributingthe
formerTurkishterritoryamongthemselves.Finally,AustriasucceededinmakingAlbania,
whichhadbeenclaimedbySerbia,asanindependentstate.ThefrustrationofSerbias
ambitionsfurtherembitteredherfeelingsagainstAustria.TheseincidentsbroughtEuropeonthe
vergeofwar.
TheOutbreakofWar
ThewarwasprecipitatedbyanincidentwhichwouldnothavecreatedmuchstirifEuropehad
notstooddividedintotwohostilearmedcamps,preparingforwarformanyyearsOn28june
1914ArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,theheirtothethroneofAustriaHungary,wasassassinated
atSarajevo,capitalofBosnia.(Bosnia,itmayberecalled,hadbeenannexedbyAustriaonlya
fewyearsearlier.)AustriasawthehandofSerbiabehindtheassassinationandservedherwith
anultimatum.Serbiarefusedtoacceptoneofthedemandsoftheultimatumwhichwentagainst
theindependenceofSerbiaOn28July1914AustriadeclaredwaronSerbia.Russiahad
promisedfullsupporttoSerbiaandstartedfullscalepreparationsforwar.On1August,
GermanydeclaredwaronRussiaandon3AugustonFrance.Germantroopsmarchedinto
BelgiumtopressontoFranceon4AugustandonthesamedayBritaindeclaredwaron
Germany.
Manyothercountriessoonenteredthewar.JapandeclaredwaronGermanywithaviewto
capturingGermancoloniesintheFarEast,TurkeyandBulgariajoinedonthesideofGermany
Italy,inspiteofhermembershipoftheTripleAlliance,remainedneutralforsometime,and
joinedthewaragainstGermanyandAustriaHungaryin1915.
TheCourseoftheWar
GermanyhadhopedthatthroughalightningstrikethroughBelgium,shewouldbeableto
defeatFrancewithinafewweeksandthenturnagainstRussia.Theplanseemedtosucceedfor
awhileandtheGermantroopswerewithin20kmofParis.Russiahadopenedattackson
GermanyandAustriaandsomeGermantroopshadtobedivertedtotheeasternfront.Soonthe
GermanadvanceonFrancewashaltedandthewarinEuropeenteredalongperiodofstalemate.
Inthemeantimethewarhadspreadtomanyotherpartsoftheworldandbattleswerefoughtin
WestAsia,AfricaandtheFarEast.
AftertheGermanadvancehadbeenhalted,anewtypeofwarfaredeveloped.Thewarring
armiesdugtrenchesfromwhichtheyconductedraidsoneachother.Thekindofwarfarethat
thearmieswereusedtoearlierfightingintheopenalmostdisappeared.OntheWestern
Front,whichincludedeasternFranceandBelgium,thetroopsofthewarringsidesdugtrenches
andcontinuedtheirraidsoneachotherspositions.Foraboutfouryears,neithersidecould
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dislodgetheother.TheEuropeancountriesmadeuseofthetroopsrecruitedfromtheircolonies
inthewar.LabourfromcolonieswasalsousedtodigtrenchesinEurope.OntheEasternFront,
GermanyandAustriasucceededinrepulsingtheRussianattackandcapturingpartsofthe
Russianempire.TheywerealsosuccessfulagainstRumania,SerbiaandItaly.OutsideEurope,
therewerecampaignsagainsttheOttomanempireinPalestine,MesopotamiaandArabiaand
againstGermanyandTurkeyinIranwheretheyweretryingtoestablishtheirinfluence.Japan
occupiedGermanpossessionsinEastAsia,andBritainandFranceseizedmostoftheGerman
coloniesinAfrica.
Alargenumberofnewweaponswereintroduced.Themachinegunandliquidfireweretwo
suchweapons.Forthefirsttime,aircraftswereusedinwarfareandforbombingthecivilian
population.TheBritishintroducedtheuseofthetankwhichwastobecomeamajorweapon
later.Boththewarringgroupstriedtoblockeachotherssuppliesoffood,manufacturesand
armsandtheseawarfareplayedanimportantpartinthisSubmarinescalledUboatswereused
byGermanyonalargescalenotonlytodestroyenemyshipsbutalsoshipsofneutralcountries
headingforBritishports.Anotherhorribleweaponusedinthewarwaspoisongas.Thewar
draggedon,takingatollofhundredsofthousandsofhumanlives.
On6April1917,theUnitedStatesofAmericadeclaredwaronGermany.USAhadbecomethe
mainsourceofarmsandotheressentialsuppliesfortheEntentecountries.In1915,theGerman
UBoatshadsunkaBritishshipLusitania.Amongthe1153passengerskilledwere128
Americans.TheAmericansweregenerallysympathetictoBritain,andthisincidentfurther
rousedantiGermanfeelingsinUSA.Economicconsiderationshadturnedthemevenmorein
favouroftheEntentecountries.ThesecountrieshadraisedvastamountsofloansinUSAtopay
forthearmsandothergoodsboughtbythem.ManyAmericanshadsubscribedtotheseloans
whichcouldbepaidbackonly,ifthesecountrieswonthewar.Therewasalsoafearthatif
Germanywonthewar,shewouldbecomeaseriousrivaltoUSA.Thesinkingofships,
includingAmericanshipscarryingAmericancitizens,bytheGermanUboatsfinallyledUSAto
jointhewar.
Anothermajordevelopmentthattookplacein1917wasthewithdrawalofRussiafromthewar
afterOctoberRevolution.TheRussianrevolutionarieshadopposedthewarfromthebeginning
and,undertheleadershipofLenin,haddecidedtotransformitintoarevolutionarywarto
overthrowtheRussianautocracyandtoseizepower.TheRussianempirehadsufferedserious
reversesinthewar.Over600,000Russiansoldiershadbeenkilled.ThedayaftertheBolshevik
governmentcametopower,itissuedtheDecreeonPeacewithproposalstoendthewarwithout
anyannexationsandindemnities.Russiadecidedtowithdrawfromthewarandsignedapeace
treatywithGermanyinMarch1918.RealizingthattheRussiangovernmentwasnotpreparedto
continuethewar,GermanyimposedtermswhichwereveryharshonGermanyused
submarines,calledUBoats,duringtheFirstWorldWarRussia.ButtheRussiangovernment
acceptedtheseterms.TheEntentepowerswhichwereopposedtotherevolutioninRussiaand
totheRussianwithdrawalfromthewarstartedtheirarmedinterventioninRussiainsupportof
theelementswhichwereopposedtotherevolution.Thisledtoacivilwarwhichlastedforthree
yearsandendedwiththedefeatofforeigninterventionandofthoseRussianswhohadtakenup
armsagainsttherevolutionarygovernment.
EndoftheWar
Manyeffortsweremadetobringthewartoanend.Inearly1917,afewsocialistparties
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proposedtheconveningofaninternationalsocialistconferencetodraftproposalsforendingthe
warwithoutannexationsandrecognitionoftherightofpeoplestoselfdetermination.However,
theconferencecouldnotbeheld.TheproposaloftheBolshevikgovernmentinRussiato
concludeapeacewithoutannexationsandindemnities,onthebasisoftheselfdetermination
ofpeopleswaswelcomedbymanypeopleinthecountrieswhichwereatwar.However,these
proposalswererejected.ThePopealsomadeproposalsforpeacebutthesetoowerenottaken
seriously.Thoughtheseeffortstoendthewardidnotgetanypositiveresponsefromthe
governmentsofthewarringcountries,antiwarfeelingsgrewamongthepeople.Therewas
widespreadunrestanddisturbancesandevenmutiniesbegantobreakout.Insomecountries,
followingthesuccessoftheRussianRevolution,theunrestwassoontotaketheformof
uprisingstooverthrowthegovernments.
InJanuary1918,WoodrowWilson,PresidentoftheUnitedStates,proposedapeace
programme.ThishasbecomefamousasPresidentWilsonsFourteenPoints.Theseincludedthe
conductofneotiationsbetweenstatesopenly,freedomofnavigation,reductionofarmaments,
independenceofBelgium,restorationofAlsaceLorrainetoFrance,creationofindependent
statesinEurope,formationofaninternationalorganizationtoguaranteetheindependenceofall
states,etc.Someofthesepointswereacceptedwhenthepeacetreatiesweresignedattheendof
thewar
Britain,FranceandUSAlaunchedamilitaryoffensiveinJuly1918andGermanyandherallies
begantocollapse.BulgariawithdrewfromthewarinSeptember,andTurkeysurrenderedin
October.
PoliticaldiscontenthadbeenrisinginAustriaHungaryandGermany.TheemperorofAustria
Hungarysurrenderedon3November.InGermanyrevolutionbrokeout.Germanybecamea
republicandtheGermanemperorKaiserWilliamIIfledtoHolland.ThenewGerman
governmentsignedanarmisticeon11November1918andthewarwasover.Thenewswas
receivedwithtremendousJubilationallovertheworld.
PeaceTreaties
ThevictoriouspowersortheAllies,astheywerecalled,metinaconferencefirstinVersailles,
asuburbofParis,andlaterinParis,betweenJanuaryandJune1919.Thoughthenumberof
countriesrepresentedattheconferencewas27,thetermsofthepeacetreatieswerereally
decidedbythreecountriesBritain,FranceandUSA.Thethreepersonswhoplayedthe
determiningroleinframingthetermsofthetreatieswereWoodrowWilson,Presidentofthe
UnitedStates,LloydGeorge,PrimeMinisterofBritain,andGeorgeClemenceau,Prime
MinisterofFrance.Thedefeatedcountrieswerenotrepresentedattheconference.The
victoriouspowersalsoexcludedRussiafromtheconference.Thetermsofthetreatywerethus
nottheresultofnegotiationsbetweenthedefeatedandthevictoriouspowersbutwereimposed
onthedefeatedbythevictors.
ThemaintreatywassignedwithGermanyon28June1919.ItiscalledtheTreatyofVersailles.
TherepublicangovernmentofGermanywascompelledtosignthistreatyunderthethreatof
invasion.ThetreatydeclaredGermanyandheralliesguiltyofaggression.AlsaceLorrainewas
returnedtoFrance.ThecoalminesintheGermanareacalledSaarwerecededtoFrancefor15
yearswhilethatareawastobegovernedbytheLeagueofNations.Germanyalsocededpartsof
herprewarterritorytoDenmark,Belgium,PolandandCzechoslovakia.TheareaoftheRhine
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valleywastobedemilitarized.ThetreatyalsocontainedprovisionsfordisarmingGermany.
Thestrengthofherarmywastobelimitedto100,000andshewasrequirednottohaveanyair
forceandsubmarinesShewasdispossessedofallhercolonieswhichweretakenoverbythe
victors.TogoandtheCameroonweredividedandsharedbyBritainandFrance.German
coloniesinSouthWestAfricaandEastAfricaweregiventoBritain,Belgium,SouthAfricaand
Portugal.GermancoloniesinthePacificandthespheresunderhercontrolinChinaweregiven
toJapanChinawasalignedwiththeAlliesduringthewarandwasevenrepresentedattheParis
Conference.ButherareasunderGermanpossessionofcontrolwerenotrestoredtoChina
insteadtheyweregivenawaytoJapan.Germanywasalsorequiredtopayforthelossand
damagessufferedbytheAlliesduringthewar.Theamountofreparationswasfixedatan
enormousfigureof$6,500,000,000.
SeparatetreatiesweresignedwiththealliesofGermany.AustriaHungarywasbrokenupand
AustriawasrequiredtorecognizetheindependenceofHungary,Czechoslovakia,Yugoslavia
andPoland.ShehadtocedeterritoriestothemandtoItaly.Manychangesweremadeinthe
Balkanswherenewstateswerecreatedandtransfersofterritoriesfromonestatetoanothertook
placeBalticstateswhichearlierformedpartsoftheRussianempireweremadeindependent.
ThetreatywithTurkeystipulatedthecompletedismembermentoftheOttomanempireBritain
wasgivenPalestineandMesopotamia(Iraq)andSyriawenttoFranceaswhatwerecalled
mandates.Intheory,themandatorypowers,thatisBritainandFrance,weretolookafterthe
interestsofthepeopleofthemandatesbutactuallytheyweregovernedascolonies.Mostof
theremainingTurkishterritoriesweretobegiventoGreeceandItalyandTurkeywastobe
reducedtoaverysmallstate.However,therewasarevolutioninTurkeyundertheleadershipof
MustaphaKemal.TheSultanwasdeposedandTurkeywasproclaimedarepublicin1922.
TurkeyregainedcontrolofAsiaMinorandthecityofConstantinople(Istanbul)andtheAllies
wereforcedtoabandontheearliertreaty.
AnimportantpartofthepeacetreatieswastheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations.Wilsons
FourteenPointsincludedthecreationofaninternationalorganizationforthepreservationof
peaceandtoguaranteetheindependenceofallstates.TheLeagueofNationswascreated.It
wasintendedasaworldorganizationofallindependentstates.Itaimedatthepreservationof
peaceandsecurityandpeacefulsettlementofinternationalconflicts,andbounditsmembers
nottoresorttowarOneofitsimportantprovisionswaswithregardtosanctions.Accordingto
thisprovision,economicandmilitaryactionwouldbetakenagainstanycountrywhich
committedaggression.Italsobounditsmemberstoimprovelabourandsocialconditionsin
theircountries.ForthistheInternationalLabourOrganizationwassetupwhichisnowoneof
thespecializedagenciesoftheUnitedNations.
Thehopesofhavingatrulyworldorganizationdevotedtothepreservationofpeaceand
independenceofnationswere,however,notrealizedwiththeformationoftheLeague.Two
majorcountriesGermanyandtheSovietUnionwerenotallowedtobecomeitsmembers
formanyyearswhileIndia,whichwasnotindependent,wasmadeamember.TheUnitedStates
whichhadplayedanimportantpartinthesettingupoftheLeagueultimatelydecidednottojoin
it.TheLeaguewasneveraneffectiveorganization.Inthe1930swhenmanycountriesresorted
toaggression,theLeaguewaseitherignoredordefied
Animportantfeatureofthepeacetreatieswhichindicatesitsnaturewasthedecisionwith
regardtothecoloniesofthedefeatedpowers.TheAllieshadenteredintomanysecret
agreementsfordividingthespoilsofwarTheSovietgovernment,tobringouttheimperialist
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natureofthewar,madethesetreatiespublic.Duringthewar,theAllieshadbeenclaimingthat
thewarwasbeingfoughtforfreedomanddemocracy.PresidentWilsonhadsaidthatthewar
wasbeingfoughttomaketheworldsafefordemocracy.Thepublicationofsecrettreatiesby
theSovietgovernmentexposedtheseclaims.However,inspiteofthis,thedistributionofthe
coloniesofthedefeatedcountriesamongthevictorstookplaceashasbeenmentionedbefore.
Ofcourse,theSovietUnionwhichhadrepudiatedallthesecretagreementsdidnotreceiveany
spoilswhichhadbeenpromisedtotheRussianemperor.TheLeagueofNationsalsorecognised
thisdivisionofthespoils.Legallymostofthecolonieswhichweretransferredtothevictorious
powersweremandatesandcouldnotbeannexed.
ConsequencesoftheWarandthePeaceTreaties
TheFirstWorldWarwasthemostfrightfulwarthattheworldhadsofarseen.Thedevastation
causedbyit,asstatedearlier,hadnoprecedent.Thenumberofpersonswhofoughtinthewaris
staggering.Estimatesvarybetween53and70millionpeople.Thetotalnumberofthosekilled
anddeadinthewarareestimatedataboutninemillion,thatis,aboutoneseventhofthosewho
participatedinit.Severalmillionbecameinvalids.Theairraids,epidemicsandfamineskilled
manymoreamongthecivilianpopulations.Besidestheseterriblehumanlosses,theeconomyof
manycountrieswasshattered.Itgaverisetomanyserioussocialproblems.Thepolitical
institutionsastheyhadbeenevolvinginvariouscountriesalsosufferedaserioussetback
Thewarandthepeacetreatiestransformedthepoliticalmapoftheworld,particularlyof
Europe.ThreerulingdynastiesweredestroyedtheRomanovinRussiaduringthewaritself,
theHohenzollerninGermanyandtheHabsburginAustriaHungary.Soonafterthewar,the
ruleofOttomanscametoanendinTurkey.AustriaandHungarybecameseparateindependent
states.CzechoslovakiaandYugoslaviaemergedasindependentstates.Polandwhichhadbeen
dividedamongRussia,AustriaandPrussiaintheeighteenthcenturywasreformedasan
independentstate.
TheperiodafterthewarsawthewarsawthebeginningoftheendoftheEuropeansupremacy
intheworld.Economicallyandmilitarily,EuropewassurpassedbytheUnitedStateswhich
emergedfromthewarasaworldpowerTheSovietUnionwasalsotosooncomeupasamajor
worldpower.Theperiodafterthewaralsosawthestrengtheningofthefreedommovementsin
AsiaandAfrica.TheweakeningofEuropeandtheemergenceoftheSovietUnionwhich
declaredhersupporttothestrugglesfornationalindependencecontributedtothegrowing
strengthofthesestruggles.TheAlliedpropagandaduringthewartodefenddemocracy,andthe
participationofAsianandAfricansoldierinthebattlesinEuropealsohelpedinarousingthe
peoplesofAsiaandAfrica.TheEuropeancountrieshadutilizedtheresourcesoftheircolonies
inthewar.Theforcedrecruitmentofsoldiersandlabourersforwar,andtheexploitationof
resourcesofthecoloniesforwarbytheimperialistcountrieshadcreatedresentmentamongthe
peopleofthecolonies.Thepopulationofthecolonialcountrieshadbeennurturedonthemyth
thatthepeoplesofAsiaandAfricawereinferiortotheEuropeans.Theroleplayedbythe
soldiersfromAsiaandAfricainwinningthewarforonegroupofnationsofEuropeagainst
anothershatteredthismyth.ManyAsianleadershadsupportedthewareffortinthehopethat,
oncethewarwasover,theircountrieswouldbegivenfreedom.Thesehopeswere,however,
belied.WhiletheEuropeannationswontherighttoselfdetermination,colonialruleand
exploitationcontinuedinthecountriesofAsiaandAfrica.
Thecontrastbetweenthetwosituationswastooglaringtobemissed.Itsincreasingawareness
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ledtothegrowthofnationalistfeelingsinthecolonies.Thesoldierswhoreturnedtotheir
respectivecountriesfromthetheatresofwarinEuropeandelsewherealsobroughtwiththem
thenewstirrings.Allthesefactorsstrengthenednationalistmovementsinthecolonies.Insome
countries,thefirststirringsofnationalismwerefeltafterthewar.
TheFirstWorldWarhadbeenbelievedtobeaWartoendallwar.However,thePeace
Treatieshadfailedtoensurethis.Onthecontrary,thetreatiescontainedcertainprovisions
whichwereextremelyharshonthedefeatedcountriesandthustheysowedtheseedsoffurther
conflicts.Similarly,somevictoriouscountriesalsofeltcheatedbecausealltheirhopeshadnot
beenfulfilled.Imperialismwasnotdestroyedasaresultofthewar.Thevictoriouspowershad
infactenlargedtheirpossessions.Thefactorswhichhadcausedrivalriesandconflictsbetween
imperialistcountriesleadingtothewarstillexisted.Therefore,thedangerthatmorewarswould
befoughtforanotherredvisionoftheworld.remainedlurking.TheemergenceoftheSoviet
Unionwasconsideredadangertotheexistingsocialandeconomicsysteminmanycountries.
Thedesiretodestroyitinfluencedthepoliciesofthosecountries.
Thesefactors,combinedwithcertaindevelopmentsthattookplaceinthenexttwentyyears,
createdconditionsforanotherworldwar.
EXERCISES
1. ExplainthebasicreasonsfortheconflictsbetweenEuropeannationsfromthelate
nineteenthcenturytotheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury.
2. WhatwerethecountriescomprisingtheTripleAllianceandtheTripleEntente?What
werethemainaimsofthesegroupings?
3. WhatismeantbythePanSlavmovement?WhydiditaddtotheconflictbetweenRussia
andAustria?
4. ExplainthereasonsfortheentryoftheUnitedStatesintheFirstWorldWar.
5. Whythewarthatbrokeoutin1914iscalledtheFirstWorldWar?
6. ExplaintheconsequencesoftheFirstWorldWaronGermany,Austria,Hungaryand
Turkey
7. WhatwerethepurposesforwhichtheLeagueofNationswasestablished?
8. WhydidRussiawithdrawfromthewarafterthe1917Revolution?
9. Onamapoftheworld,showtheareasinAsiaandAfricawhichcausedconflictsamong
variousEuropeancountriesAlsoshowtheEuropeancountrieswhichemergedas
independentstatesaftertheFirstWorldWar.
10. Howwastheworldredividedamongthevictoriouspowers?Prepareamaptoshowthe
territorieswhichweretakenoverfromthedefeatedcountriesbythevictoriouscountries.
11. StudytheFourteenPointsofPresidentWilsonandthepeacetreatiesthatweresignedafter
thewar.MakeachecklisttoshowwhichoftheFourteenPointswerecoveredbythepeace
teatiesandwhichwerenot.
12. HowfarwereimperialistrivalriesthebasiccauseoftheFirstWorldWar?
13. Doyouthinkthepeacetreatieslaidthefoundationsofajustandstablepeace?Discuss.
14. Howisitthatanotherwiseminorincidentledtotheoutbreakofaworldwar?Discuss.
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych10firstworldwar
causesconsequencestreatyofversaillestriplealliance.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh11:RussianRevolution,USSR
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych11]RussianRevolution:Causes,
Consequences,Comintern
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ConditionsinRussiabeforetheRevolution
GrowthofRevolutionaryMovementsinRussia
THERUSSIANREVOLUTION
BeginningoftheRevolution
Comintern
EXERCISES
ConditionsinRussiabeforetheRevolution
INapreviouschapter,youhavereadabouttheriseandgrowthofthesocialistmovement.By
theearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,politicalmovementsbasedontheideasofsocialismhad
emergedinanumberofcountriesinEurope.WiththeoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWar,
however,thesocialistmovementinmostcountriesofEuropesufferedasetback.TheSecond
InternationalfacedasplitonthequestionofattitudetotheWarandceasedtofunction.During
thisperiod,however,unrestwasbrewinginRussia.TheRussianRevolutiontookplacein1917,
affectingthecourseofworldhistoryformanydecades.
Inthenineteenthcentury,almost,entireEuropewasundergoingimportantsocial,economicand
politicaltransformation.MostofthecountrieswererepublicslikeFranceorconstitutional
monarchieslikeEngland.Theruleoftheoldfeudalaristocracieshadbeenreplacedbythatof
thenewmiddleclasses.Russia,however,wasstilllivingintheoldworldundertheautocratic
ruleoftheCzars,astheRussianemperorswerecalled.Serfdomhadbeenabolishedin1861,but
itdidnotimprovetheconditionofpeasants.Theystillhadmiserablysmallholdingsofland
withnocapitaltodevelopeventhese.Forthesmallholdingstheyacquired,theyhadtopay
heavyredemptionduesfordecades.Landhungerofthepeasantswasamajorsocialfactorinthe
Russiansociety.
IndustrializationbeganverylateinRussia,inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Thenit
developedatafairlyfastrate,butmorethanhalfofthecapitalforinvestmentcamefrom
foreigncountries.Foreigninvestorswereinterestedinquickprofitsandshowednoconcernfor
theconditionsofworkers.Russiancapitalists,withinsufficientcapital,competedwithforeign
investorsbyreducingworkerswages.WhetherfactorieswereownedbyforeignersorRussians,
theconditionsofworkwerehorrible.Theworkershadnopoliticalrightsandnomeansof
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych11russianrevolutioncausesconsequencescomintern.html/print/
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gainingevenminorreforms.ThewordsofMarxthatworkershavenothingtolosebuttheir
chainsrangliterallytruetothem
TheRussianstateundertheCzarswascompletelyunsuitedtotheneedsofmoderntimesCzar
NicholasII,inwhosereigntheRevolutionoccurred,stillbelievedinthedivinerightofkings.
Thepreservationofabsolutismwasregardedbyhimasasacredduty.Theonlypeoplewho
supportedtheCzarwerethenobilityandtheupperlayersoftheclergy.Alltherestofthe
populationinthevastRussianempirewashostile.ThebureaucracythattheCzarshadbuiltwas
topheavy,inflexibleandinefficient,themembersbeingrecruitedfromamongsttheprivileged
classesratherthanonthebasisofanyability.
TheRussianCzarshadbuiltavastempirebyconquestofdiversenationalitiesinEuropeand
Asia.Intheseconqueredareas,theyimposedtheuseoftheRussianlanguageandtriedto
belittletheculturesofthepeopleoftheseareas.Also,Russiasimperialistexpansionbrought
herintoconflictswithotherimperialistpowers.Thesewarsfurtherexposedthehollownessof
theczariststate.
GrowthofRevolutionaryMovementsinRussia
ThereweremanypeasantrebellionsinRussiabeforethenineteenthcenturybuttheywere
suppressed.ManyRussianthinkershadbeeninfluencedbydevelopmentsinWesternEurope
andwantedtoseesimilarchangesinRussia.Theireffortshadhelpedtobringaboutthe
abolitionofserfdom.This,however,turnedouttobeahollowvictory.Thehopesofgradual
changesinthedirectionofconstitutionaldemocraticgovernmentweresoonshatteredandevery
attemptatgradualimprovementseemedtoendinfailure.Intheconditionsthatexistedin
Russia,evenamoderatedemocratorreformerhadtobearevolutionary.Inthelastquarterof
thenineteenthcentury,therewasamovementknownasgoingtothepeoplewhenintellectuals
startedpreachingtheirideastothepeasants.
Whentheworkersorganizationsweresetupafterindustrializationbegan,theyweredominated
byideasofsocialism.In1883,theRussianSocialDemocraticPartywasformedbyGeorge
Plekhanov,afollowerofMarx.Thispartyalongwithmanyothersocialistgroupswasunited
intotheRussianSocialDemocraticLabourPartyin1898.However,thepartywassoonsplit
overquestionsoforganizationandpolicy.Onegroupwhichwasinaminority(henceknownas
theMensheviks)favouredapartyofthetypethatexistedincountrieslikeFranceandGermany
andparticipatedinelectionstotheparliamentsoftheircountries.Themajority,knownasthe
Bolsheviks,wereconvincedthatinacountrywherenodemocraticrightsexistedandwhere
therewasnoparliament,apartyorganizedonparliamentarylineswouldnotbeeffective.They
favouredapartyofthosewhowouldabidebythedisciplineofthepartyandworkfor
revolution.
TheleaderoftheBolshevikswasVladimirIlyichUlyanov,popularlyknownasLenin.Heis
regardedasoneofthegreatestleadersofthesocialistmovementafterMarxandEngels.He
devotedhimselftothetaskoforganizingtheBolshevikPartyasaninstrumentforbringing
aboutrevolution.HisnamehasbecomeinseparablefromtheRevolutionof1917.TheRussian
socialists,includingPlekhanovandLenin,hadplayedanimportantpartintheSecond
International
BesidestheMenshevikandtheBloshevikparties,whichwerethepoliticalpartiesofindustrial
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workers,therewastheSocialistRevolutionaryPartywhichvoicedthedemandsofthe
peasantry.ThentherewerepartiesofthenonRussiannationalitiesoftheRussianempirewhich
wereworkingtofreetheirlandsfromcolonialoppression.
TherevolutionarymovementinRussiahadbeengrowingwhenthe1905Revolutionbrokeout.
In1904,awarhadbrokenoutbetweenRussiaandJapan.TheRussianarmieshadsuffered
reversesinthewar.ThishadfurtherstrengthenedtherevolutionarymovementinRussia.On9
January1905,amassofpeacefulworkerswiththeirwivesandchildrenwasfiredatinSt.
PetersburgwhileonitswaytotheWinterPalacetopresentapetitiontotheCzarMorethana
thousandofthemwerekilledandthousandsofotherswerewounded.Thisdayisknownas
BloodySunday.Thenewsofthekillingsprovokedunprecedenteddisturbancesthroughout
Russia.Evensectionsofthearmyandthenavyrevolted.ThesailorsofthebattleshipPotemkin
joinedtherevolutionaries.Anewformoforganizationdevelopedinthisrevolutionwhich
proveddecisiveintheupheavalof1917.ThiswastheSoviet,orthecouncilofworkers
representatives.Beginningascommitteestoconductstrikes,theybecametheinstrumentsof
politicalpowerSovietsofpeasantswerealsoformed.
InOctober,theCzaryieldedandannouncedhismanifestograntingfreedomofspeech,press
andassociation,andconferredthepowertomakelawsuponanelectedbodycalledtheDuma
.TheCzarsmanifestocontainedprincipleswhichwouldhavemadeRussiaaconstitutional
monarchylikeEngland.However,theCzarsoonrelapsedintohisoldways.Nolongercould
onehopeforgradualreform.The1905Revolutionprovedtobeadressrehearsalofthe
revolutionthatcamein1917.
THERUSSIANREVOLUTION
Itarousedthepeopleandpreparedthemforrevolution.Itdrewsoldiersandthepeoplesofnon
RussiannationalitiesintoclosecontactwiththeRussianrevolutionaries.
HopingtosatisfyhisimperialambitionsbyannexingConstantinopleandtheStraitsofthe
Dardanelles,theCzartookRussiaintotheFirstWorldWar.Thisprovedfatalandbroughtabout
thefinalbreakdownoftheRussianautocracy.TheCzariststatewasincapableofcarryingona
modernwar.Thedecadenceoftheroyalfamilymademattersworse,NicholasIIwas
completelydominatedbyhiswife.She,inturn,wasruledbyafiendnamedRasputinwho
virtuallyranthegovernment.Corruptioninthestateresultedingreatsufferingamongthe
people.Therewasashortageofbread.TheRussianarmysufferedheavyreverses.The
governmentwascompletelyunmindfuloftheconditionsofsoldiersonthefront.ByFebruary
1917,600,000soldiershadbeenkilledinwar.Therewaswidespreaddiscontentthroughoutthe
empireaswellasinthearmy.Theconditionwasripeforarevolution.Insettingforththe
fundamentallawforasuccessfulrevolution,Leninhadincludedtwoconditionsthepeople
shouldfullyunderstandthatrevolutionisnecessaryandbereadytosacrificetheirlivesforit
theexistinggovernmentshouldbeinastateofcrisistomakeitpossibleforittobeoverthrown
rapidly.ThattunehadcertainlyarrivedinRussiain1917.
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BeginningoftheRevolution
Minorincidentsusuallysetoffrevolutions.InthecaseoftheRussianRevolutionitwasa
demonstrationbyworkingclasswomentryingtopurchasebread.Ageneralstrikeofworkers
followed,inwhichsoldiersandotherssoonjoined.On12March1917thecapitalcityofSt.
Petersburg(renamedPetrograd,laterLeningradandonceagain,afterthecollapseoftheSoviet
Union,St.Petersburg)fellintothehandsoftherevolutionaries.Soontherevolutionariestook
Moscow,theCzargaveuphisthroneandthefirstProvisionalGovernmentwasformedon15
March.ThefamouspoetMayakovsky,expressingthecontemptoftheRussianpeopleforthe
Czar,wroteonthefalloftheCzar:
Likethechewedstumpofafag
wespattheirdynastyout
ThefalloftheCzarisknownastheFebruaryRevolutionbecause,accordingto0ldRussian
calendar,itoccurredon27February1917.ThefalloftheCzar,however,markedonlythe
beginningoftherevolution.
Themostimportantdemandsofthepeoplewerefourfold:peace,landtothetiller,controlof
industrybyworkers,andequalstatusforthenonRussiannationalities.TheProvisional
GovernmentundertheleadershipofamannamedKerenskydidnotimplementanyofthese
demandsandlostthesupportofthepeople.Lenin,whowasinexileinSwitzerlandatthetime
oftheFebruaryRevolution,returnedtoRussiainApril.Underhisleadership,theBolshevik
Partyputforwardclearpolicies
toendthewarandtransferlandtothepeasantsandadvancedthesloganAllPowertothe
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Soviets.OnthequestionofnonRussiannationalities,Bolsheviksweretheonlypartythenwith
aclearpolicy.LeninhaddescribedtheRussianempireasaprisonofnationsandhaddeclared
thatnogenuinedemocracycouldbeestablishedunlessalltilenonRussianpeoplesweregiven
equalrightsHehadproclaimedtherightofallpeoples,includingthoseundertheRussian
empire,toselfdetermination.TheunpopularityoftheKerenskygovernmentledtoitscollapse
on7November1917,whenagroupofsailorsoccupiedtheWinterPalace,theseatofthe
Kerenskygovernment.LeonTrotskywhohadplayedanimportantroleinthe1905Revolution
returnedtoRussiainMay1917.AsheadofthePetrogradSoviet,hewasoneofthemost
outstandingleadersoftheNovemberuprising.AnAllRussianCongressofSovietsmetonthe
samedayandassumedfullpoliticalpower.Thiseventwhichtookplaceon7Novemberis
knownastheOctoberRevolutionbecauseofthecorrespondingdateoftheoldRussian
calendar,25October.
TheCongressofSovietsonthenextdayissuedaproclamationtoallpeoplesandbelligerent
statestoopennegotiationsforajustpeacewithoutannexationandindemnities.Russia
withdrewfromthewar,thoughformalpeacewassignedwithGermanylater,aftercedingthe
territoriesthatGermanydemandedasapriceforpeace.Followingthedecreeonland,the
estatesofthelandlords,theChurchandtheCzarwereconfiscatedandtransferredtopeasants
societiestobeallottedtopeasantfamiliestobecultivatedwithouthiredlabour.Thecontrolof
industrieswastransferredtoshopcommitteesofworkers.Bythemiddleof1918,banksand
insurancecompanies,largeindustries,mines,watertransportandrailwayswerenationalised,
foreigndebtswererepudiatedandforeignInvestmentswereconfiscated.ADeclarationofthe
RightsofPeopleswasissuedconferringtherightofselfdeterminationuponallnationalities.A
newgovernment,calledtheCouncilofPeoplesCommissars,headedbyLeninwasformed.
Thesefirstactsofthenewgovernmentwerehailedasthebeginningoftheeraofsocialism.
TheOctoberRevolutionhadbeenalmostcompletelypeaceful.Onlytwopersonswerereported
killedinPetrogradonthedaytheRevolutiontookplace.However,soonthenewstatewas
involvedinacivilwar.TheofficersofthearmyofthefallenCzarorganisedanarmedrebellion
againsttheSovietstate.TroopsofforeignpowersEngland,France,Japan,UnitedStatesand
otherjoinedthem.Warragedtill1920.BythistimetheRedArmyofthenewstatewasin
controlofalmostallthelandsoftheoldCzaristempire.TheRedArmywasbadlyequippedand
composedmainlyofworkersandpeasantsHowever,itwonoverbetterequippedandbetter
trainedforces,justasthecitizenarmiesintheAmericanandFrenchrevolutionshadwon.
Theoverthrowofautocracyandthedestructionofthearistocracyandthepowerofthechurch
werethefirstachievementsoftheRussianRevolution.TheCzaristempirewastransformedinto
anewstatecalledtheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(U.S.S.R)forshortSovietUnion.The
policiesofthenewstateweretobedirectedtotherealizationoftheoldsocialistideal,from
eachaccordingtohiscapacity,toeachaccordingtohiswork.Privatepropertyinthemeansof
productionwasabolishedandthemotiveofprivateprofiteliminatedfromthesystemof
production.Economicplanningbythestatewasadoptedtobuildatechnologicallyadvanced
economyatafastrateandtoeliminateglaringinequalitiesinsociety.Workbecameanessential
requirementforeverypersontherewasnounearnedincometoliveon.Therighttowork
becameaconstitutionalrightanditbecamethedutyofthestatetoprovideemploymenttoevery
individual.Educationoftheentirepeoplewasgivenahighpriority.Theequalityofallthe
nationalitiesintheUSS.R.wasrecognizedintheconstitutionframedin1924andlaterin
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1936.Theconstitutiongavetherepublicsformedbythenationalitiesautonomytodeveloptheir
languagesandcultures.ThesedevelopmentswereparticularlysignificantfortheAsian
republicsofUS.SRwhichweremuchmorebackwardthantheEuropeanpart.
Withinafewyearsoftherevolution,theSovietUnionemergedasamajorpowerintheworld.
Thesocialandeconomicsystemsthatbegantobebuilttherewashailedbymanyasthe
beginningofanewcivilizationwhileotherscalleditanevilsystemAfterabout70yearsofthe
revolution,thesystemcollapsedandin1991theSovietUnionceasedtoexistasastate.(The
mapintinschaptershowsthe15republicswhichformedtheSovietUnionbeforeitsbreakup)
Youwillreadinthenexttwochaptersaboutsomeofthemajordevelopmentsthattookplacein
theSovietUnionandtheroleitplayedinworldaffairsfromthetimeofitsemergencetillits
collapse.
Initsimpactontheworld,theRussianRevolutionhadfewparallelsinhistory.Theideasof
socialismwhichthesocialistmovementhadbeenadvocatingandwhichtheRussianRevolution
espousedwereintendedforuniversalapplication.TheRussianRevolutionwasthefirst
successfulrevolutioninhistorywhichproclaimedthebuildingofasocialistsocietyasits
objective.Ithadledtothecreationofanewstateoveravastareaoftheglobe.Itwas,therefore,
boundtohaverepercussionsfortherestoftheworld.
Comintern
Soonaftertherevolution,theCommunistInternational(alsoknownastheThirdInternationalor
Comintern)wasformedforpromotingrevolutionsonaninternationalscale.Thesplitinthe
socialistmovementatthetimeoftheFirstWorldWarhasbeenmentionedbefore.Theleftwing
sectionsinmanysocialistpartiesnowformedthemselvesintocommunistpartiesandthey
affiliatedthemselvestotheComintern.Communistpartieswerealsoformedinothercountries,
oftenwiththeactiveinvolvementandsupportoftheComintern.Thustheinternational
communistmovementaroseunderoneorganizationwhichdecidedonpoliciestobefollowed
byallcommunistpartiesTheSovietUnionwasconsideredtheleaderoftheworldcommunist
movementbythecommunistpartiesinvariouscountriesandtheCommunistPartyofSoviet
UnionplayedaleadingroleindeterminingthepoliciesoftheComintern.Itisgenerallyagreed
thatCominternwasoftenusedbytheSovietUnionasaninstrumentforpursuingitsown
objectivesHowever,theformationofcommunistpartiesinmanycountriesoftheworldwiththe
objectiveofbringingaboutrevolutionandfollowingcommonpolicieswasamajorconsequence
oftheRussianRevolution.
WiththeformationoftheComintern,thesocialistmovementwasdividedintotwosections
socialistandcommunist.Thereweremanydifferencesbetweenthemonthemethodsof
bringingaboutsocialismandabouttheconceptofsocialismitself.Despitethesedifferences,
socialismbecameoneofthemostwidelyheldideologieswithinafewdecadesafterits
emergence.ThespreadoftheinfluenceofsocialistideasandmovementsaftertheFirstWorld
WarwasinnosmallmeasureduetothesuccessoftheRussianRevolution.
ThegrowingpopularityofsocialismandmanyachievementsmadebytheSovietUnionledtoa
redefinitionofdemocracy.Mostpeoplewhodidnotbelieveinsocialismalsobeganto
recognizethatfordemocracytobereal,politicalrightswithoutsocialandeconomicrightswere
notenough.Economicandsocialaffairscouldnotbelefttothecapitalists.Theideaofthestate
playinganactiveroleinregulatingtheeconomyandplanningtheeconomytoimprovethe
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conditionsofthepeoplewasaccepted.Thebiblicalidea,revivedbythesocialistmovementand
theRussianRevolution,Hethatdoesnotworkneithershallheeat,gainedwidespread
acceptance,addinganewdignitytolabour.Thepopularityofsocialismalsohelpedtomitigate
discriminationsbasedonrace,colourandsex.
Thespreadofsocialistideasalsohelpednippromotinginternationalism.Thenations,atleastin
theory,begantoaccepttheideathattheirrelationswithothernationsshouldgofartherthan
merelypromotingtheirnarrowselfinterests.Manyproblemswhichwereconsiderednational
begantobelookeduponasconcernsoftheworldasawhole.Theuniversalityand
internationalismwhichwerefundamentalprinciplesofsocialistideologyfromthebeginning
weretotallyopposedtoimperialism.TheRussianRevolutionservedtohastentheendof
imperialism.AccordingtoMarx,anationwhichenslavesanothernationcanneverbefree.
Socialistsallovertheworldorganizedcampaignsforputtinganendtoimperialism.
ThenewSovietstatecametobelookeduponasafriendofthepeoplesofthecolonies
strugglingfornationalindependence.RussiaaftertheRevolutionwasthefirstcountryin
Europetoopenlysupportthecauseofindependenceofallnationsfromforeignrule.
ImmediatelyaftertheRevolution,theSovietgovernmenthadannulledtheunequaltreaties
whichtheCzarhadimposedonChina.ItalsogaveassistanceofvariouskindstoSunYatSenin
hisstrugglefortheunificationofChina.TheRussianRevolutionalsoinfluencedthe
movementsforindependenceinsofarasthelattergraduallybroadenedtheobjectivesof
independencetoincludesocialandeconomicequalitythroughplannedeconomicdevelopment.
WritingabouttheRussianRevolutioninhisAutobiography,JawaharlalNehrusaid,Itmade
methinkofpoliticsmuchmoreintermsofsocialchange.
EXERCISES
1. Explainthefollowingterms:Bolsheviks,Mensheviks,Soviet,FebruaryRevolution,
OctoberRevolution,BloodySunday,CommunistInternational
2. DescribethesocialandeconomicconditionsinRussiabeforetheRevolutionof1917.
HowdidRussiasparticipationintheFirstWorldWarhelpcreateconditionsforthefall
oftheRussianautocracy,
3. WhatwerethemainobjectivesoftheRussianrevolutionaries?
4. DescribetheimmediateconsequencesoftheOctoberRevolutiononRussiasparticipation
intheFirstWorldWar,theownershipofland,andpositionofthenonRussian
nationalitiesoftheRussianempire.
5. ExplaintheattitudeoftheUSSR.towardsthemovementsforindependenceinAsia.
6. CollectpicturesconnectedwiththeRussianRevolutionfordisplay.Describetheevents
andtheroleofpersonalitiesshowninthepictures.
7. CollectdocumentsconnectedwiththeRussianRevolution(forexample,thetextofthe
DecreesonLandandPeace)andselectstatementsforabulletinboarddisplay.
8. DiscusstheimpactoftheRussianRevolutionontheworld.
9. DiscusstheviewthattheRussianRevolutionwasbroughtaboutbyasmallgroupof
revolutionarieswithoutthesupportofthemasses.
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych11russianrevolution
causesconsequencescomintern.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh12/A:RiseofNazism&Fascism
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych12](Part1of2)BetweenTwo
worldWars,Nazism,Fascism,TheGreatDepression
1. EuropebetweentheWars
1. FascisminItaly
2. NazisminGermany
3. DevelopmentsinBritainandFrance
2. UnitedStatesEmergesastheStrongestPower
1. TheDepression
3. TheEmergenceoftheSovietUnion
4. NationalistMovementsinAsiaandAfrica
1. India
2. TurkeyandKhilafatMovement
3. China
4. Africa
5. BeginningofFascistAggression
6. JapaneseInvasionofChina
7. GermanMilitarization
8. ItalianInvasionofEthiopia
9. TheSpanishCivilWar
10. TheMunichPact
BetweentheWars
HARDLYtwentyyearshadpassedsincetheendoftheFastWorldWar,when,in1939,the
SecondWorldWarbrokeout.Itwasthemostdestructivewarinhistorywhichaffectedthelife
ofthepeopleineverypartoftheglobe.ThetwentyyearsbetweentheFirstandSecondWorld
Warswereaperiodoftremendouschangesallovertheworld.Manydevelopmentstookplace
inEuropewhichpavedthewayfortheoutbreakoftheSecondWorldWar.Amajoreconomic
crisistookplaceduringthisperiodwhichaffectedalmosteverypartoftheworldand,more
particularly,themostadvancedcapitalistcountriesoftheWest.InAsiaandAfrica,theperiod
sawanunprecedentedawakeningofthepeopleswhichfounditsfulfilmentaftertheSecond
WorldWar.Thechangesanddevelopmentsinthisperiodareimportantnotonlyfor
understandingtheforcesandfactorswhichledtotheSecondWorldWarbutalsotheworldthat
emergedafterthewar.Thustheyarecrucialtoanunderstandingofthepresentdayworld.
EuropebetweentheWars
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych12part1of2betweentwoworldwarsnazismfascismthegreatdepression.html/print/
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ThemiserycausedbytheFirstWorldWarinfluencedthepoliticaldevelopmentsinmany
countries.YouhavereadearlierabouttherevolutioninGermanytowardstheendofthewar
whichforcedtheGermanemperortofleethecountry.Germanybecamearepublic.The
proclamationoftherepublicdidnotsatisfytheGermanrevolutionarieswhoattemptedanother
uprisinginJanuary1919.Theuprisingwas,however,suppressed.TwoleadersoftheGerman
revolutionarymovement,KarlLiebknechtandRosaLuxemburg,wereassassinated.Therewas
anuprisinginHungarybuttherevolutionarygovernmentwhichcameintobeingwasover
thrownwithinafewmonths.InspiredbytheRussianRevolution,therewererevolutionsin
manyothercountriesofEuropesuchasFinland,andBalticStatesofLatvia,Estoniaand
LithuaniawhichhadearlierbeenpartsoftheRussianempire.Butalltheserevolutionswere
shortlived.ThereweremovementsinotherpartsofEuropeforimprovementinliving
conditions.ThepoliticalsituationinalmosteverycountryinEuropewascomplicated.The
periodsawthegrowthofsocialistandcommunistpartiesinalmosteverycountryofEurope
However,withinafewyearsinmanycountriesofEurope,thesocialistmovementswere
defeatedanddictatorialgovernmentscametopower.Thesegovernmentsnotonlysuppressed
socialistmovementsbutalsodestroyeddemocracy.Theemergenceofdictatorialgovernments
inEuropeinthisperiodhaddangerousconsequencesnotonlyforthepeoplesofEuropebutfor
thewholeworld.ThemostdangerousdevelopmentwasthetriumphoffascisminItalyand
GermanywhichpavedthewayfortheSecondWorldWar.
FascisminItaly
AnumberofpoliticalmovementswhicharoseinEuropeaftertheFirstWorldWararegenerally
giventhenamefascist.Thecommonfeaturesofthesemovementsweretheirhostilityto
democracyandsocialism,andtheaimofestablishingdictatorships.Theysucceeded,inmany
countriesofEurope,suchas,Hungary,Italy,Poland,Portugal,Germany,Spain.Theirsuccess
inItalyandGermanyhadthemostseriousconsequences.
ThetermfascismisofItalianorigin.ItwasfirstusedforthemovementwhichstartedinItaly
undertheleadershipofBenitoMussolini.Mussolinihadorganisedarmedgangsagainst
socialistsandcommunistsin1919.YouhavereadearlierabouttheunificationofItalyandher
imperialistambitions.TheItaliangovernmenthadshownlittleconcernforthewelfareofthe
agriculturalandindustrialworkerswhoseconditionsweremiserableintheextreme.Ithad,
instead,plungedItalyintotheFirstWorldWarinthehopeofgainingcolonies.About700,000
Italianswerekilledinthewar.Theconditionsofthepeoplehadworsenedfurther.Thegrowing
strengthofthesocialistmovementinItalyposedathreattotheexistingsystem.
Italyhadjoinedthewarwiththeaimofgainingcolonies.However,thepeacetree,tieshad
failedtosatisfyherambitions.TheItaliangovernmentatthetimewasdominatedbycapitalists
andlandlords.Thesesectionsbegantosupportantidemocraticmovementswhichpromisedto
savethemfromthedangerofsocialismaswellastosatisfytheircolonialaspirations.The
movementstartedbyMussoliniwasonesuchmovement.Hisarmedgangswereusedby
landlordsandindustrialiststoorganizeviolenceagainstsocialistsandcommunists.Asystematic
campaignofterrorismandmurderwaslaunchedbutthegovernmentshowedlittleinterestin
curbingit.
In1921,electionswereheldmItaly.However,nosinglepartycouldwinamajorityandno
stablegovernmentcouldbeformed.InspiteoftheterrororganizedbyMussolinisgangs,his
partycouldgetonly35seatswhilethesocialistsandcommuniststogetherwon138seats.In
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spiteofhispoorshowingintheelections,Mussoliniopenlytalkedofseizingpower.On28
October1922,heorganizedamarchonRome.ThegovernmentofItalydidnotshowanysign
ofresistanceagainstthevolunteersofMussolini.Instead,on29October1922,thekingofItaly
invitedMussolinitojointhegovernment.Thuswithoutfiringashot,fascistsunderMussolinis
leadershipcametopowerinItaly.
Thetakeoverofthegovernmentbyfascistswasfollowedbyareignofterror.Thesocialist
movementwassuppressedandmanysocialistandcommunistleaderswereeitherjailedor
killed.In1926allpoliticalpartiesexceptMussolinispartywerebanned.Thevictoryoffascism
Italynotonlyledtothedestructionofdemocracyandthesuppressionofsocialistmovement,it
alsoledtothepreparationforwar.Thefascistsbelievedthattherecouldbenoharmonybetween
twoormorenations.Theyglorifiedwarwhich,accordingtothem,ennobledpeople.They
openlyadvocatedapolicyofexpansionandsaidthatnationswhichdonotexpandcannot
surviveforlong.
ThevictoryoffascisminItalywasneithertheresultofavictoryinelectionsnorofapopular
uprising.ThegovernmentofItalywashandedovertothefascistsbecausetherulingclassesof
Italyconsidereddemocracyandsocialismasthreatstotheirpower.
NazisminGermany
WithinelevenyearsofthefascistcaptureofpowerinItaly,NazismtriumphedinGermany.
NazismwhichwastheGermanversionoffascismwasmuchmoresinisterthantheoriginal
ItalianversionTheNazis,undertheleadershipofAdolfHitler,establishedthemostbarbarous
dictatorshipofmoderntimes.
YouhavereadearlierabouttheunificationofGermanyandcertainaspectsofGermanys
historyuptotheFirstWorldWar.Germanyhadsoughttosatisfyherimperialambitions
throughwarbutshehadsuffereddefeat.TheoutbreakofrevolutioninGermanytowardsthe
endoftheFirstWorldWarledtothecollapseoftheGermanmonarchy.However,eventhough
Germanybecamearepublic,theforcesbehindthemonarchytheindustrialists,thebig
landownersandtheofficersofthearmyremainedquitepowerful.ThegovernmentofGerman
republicwasnotabletodestroytheirpower.Theseforcesbegantoturntotheantidemocratic
forcesrepresentedbyNazismtoextendtheirpowerandtocheckthepowerofthesocialist
movement,ThetermNazismderivedbornthenameofthepartwhichHitlerfoundedin1921
theNationalSocialistGermanWorkersParty,forshortNaziParty.LikeMussolini,Hitlerhad
alsoplannedtocapturepowerthroughamarchonBerlin.Hewasarrestedandjailed,but
releasedlongbeforehistermwasover.InjailhewrotehisbookMeinKampf(literalmeaning
MyStruggle)whichexpressedsomeofthemostmonstrousideasoftheNazimovement.He
glorifiedtheuseofforceandbrutality,andtherulebyagreatleaderandridiculed
internationalism,peaceanddemocracy.HepreachedextremehatredagainsttheGermanJews
whowereblamednotonlyforthedefeatofGermanyintheFirstWorldWarbutforalltheills
ofGermany.Heglorifiedviolentnationalismandextolledwar.ThedreadfulideasoftheNazis
foundfavourwiththearmy,theindustrialists,thebiglandownersandtheantirepublican
politicians.TheybegantolookuponHitlerasthesaviourofGermany.
TheNaziscapitalizedonthesenseofhumiliationwhichmanyGermansfeltattheirdefeatinthe
warandtheunjustprovisionsoftheTreatyofVersailles.Theyalsoexploitedthemiseryofthe
peoplewhichhadworsenedduetothereparationswhichGermanywasmadetopaytothe
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Alliedpowers.In1929occurredthemostseriouseconomiccrisiswhichaffectedallthe
capitalistcountriesoftheworld.Aboutthis,youwillreadlater.Asaresultofthiscrisis,eight
millionworkers,abouthalfoftheworkingpopulationofGermany,wererenderedunemployed.
ItwasduringthisperiodthattheNaziParty,whichwasnomorethanaconspiratorialgroupin
thebeginning,begantospreaditsinfluence.TheSocialDemocraticPartyandtheCommunist
Partywerepowerfulpartieswithhugefollowing.Thesetwoparties,however,failedtounite
againsttheNazis.
ThevictoryofNazisminGermany,likethatoffascisminItaly,wasneithertheoutcomeofa
popularuprising,northeresultofashammarchonBerlinsuchasMussolinisonRome.Inthe
electionsheldinGermanybeforeHitlercametopower,theNaziPartyhadpolledlessvotes
thantheSocialistandCommunistvoteputtogether.Ithadwononly196seatsoutofatotalof
about650.Hitlerscomingtopowerwastheresultofpoliticalintrigues.Inspiteofhispoor
showingintheelections,HitlerwasappointedtheChancellorofGermanybythePresidentof
Germanyon30January1933.Withinafewweeks,theentirefabricofdemocracyinGermany
wasshattered.Soonaftercomingtopower,Hitlerorderedfreshelectionsandletlooseareign
ofterror.AssassinationofantiNazileaderswasorganizedonalargescale.On27February
1933,theReichstag(Parliament)buildingwassetonfirebytheNazis.TheCommunistParty
Germanywasblamedforthefireandwassuppressed.Inspiteoftheterrororganizedbythe
Nazis,theNaziPartycouldnotwinamajorityofseatsinParliament.However,Hitlerassumed
dictatorialpowersand,in1934,becamethePresident.Tradeunionsweresuppressedand
thousandsofsocialists,communistsandantiNazipoliticalleaderswereexterminated.TheNazis
startedhugebonfiresintowhichtheworksofsomeofthebestwritersofGermanyandother
countrieswerethrown.Besidessocialistsandcommunists,Jewsweremadevictimsofan
organizedcampaignofhumiliationandviolence.Withinafewyearstheyweretobecompletely
exterminated.Simultaneously,amassiveprogrammeofmilitarizationwaslaunchedand
preparationsforwarbegan.ThevictoryofNazismwasacalamitynotonlyfortheGerman
peoplebutforentireEuropeandmanyotherpartsoftheworld.ItbroughtintheSecondWorld
War.ThepoliciesandactsofthefascistgovernmentsofItalyandGermanywhichultimately
ledtotheSecondWorldWararedescribedinanothersection.
DevelopmentsinBritainandFrance
ThetwomajorcountriesofEuropewhichdidnotsuccumbtofascistmovementswereBritain
andFrance.However,boththesecountrieswerefacedwithseriouseconomicdifficulties.In
1921,therewere2millionunemployedpersonsinBritain.Theworkersmovementmadegreat
advances.In1924,thefirstLabourPartygovernmentcametopower.However,itdidnot
remaininpowerforlong.In1926occurredthebiggeststrikeinthehistoryofBritaininvolving
6millionworkers.Thestrikeultimatelyfailed.Afewyearslater,Britainwasbadlyaffectedby
theworldwideeconomiccrisisandaboutthreemillionpeoplewereunemployed.In1931,the
NationalgovernmentcomprisingtheConservative,theLabourandtheLiberalpartieswas
formed.Thisgovernmenttooksomestepstoovercometheseriouseconomicdifficultiesthough
theunemploymentsituationreroamedserious.AfterthevictoryoffascisminGermany,afascist
movementstartedinBritainbutitcouldnotmakemuchheadwayandBritaincontinuedasa
democraticcountry.
ThegovernmentofFranceformanyyearswasdominatedbybigbankersandindustrialists.It
hopedthatbymakinguseoftheresourcesoftheGermanareaswhichhadcomeunderher
controlafterthewar,itwouldbeabletomakeFranceeconomicallystrong.However,these
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hopeswerenotfulfilled.Francecouldnotattainpoliticalstabilityalso.Manygovernments
cameandfell.Politicalinstabilitywasmadeworseasaresultoftheeconomiccrisis,and
corruptionbecamerampant.Fascistmovementroseitsheadandtherewasviolenceinthe
streets.Ultimately,tomeetthethreatposedbyfascistandotherantidemocraticforces,a
governmentcomprisingSocialist,RadicalSocialistandCommunistpartieswasformedin1936.
ThisisknownasthePopularFrontgovernmentanditlastedforabouttwoyears.Duringthis
periodmanyimportanteconomicreformswereintroducedinFrance.
ThusBritainandFrancesucceededinremainingdemocraticcountrieseventhoughtheywere
facedwithseriousproblems.However,theforeignpolicyofthesecountries,asyouwillsee
later,wasnotconducivetothemaintenanceofdemocracyinotherpartsofEuropeandin
preventingtheoutbreakofwar
UnitedStatesEmergesastheStrongestPower
OneofthemostimportantfeaturesoftheperiodaftertheFirstWorldWarwasthedeclinein
thesupremacyofEuropeintheworldandthegrowingimportanceoftheUnitedStatesof
America.Shehad,infact,emergedastherichestandthemostpowerfulcountryintheworldat
theendofthewar.Thiswasclearfromtheimportantrolethatsheplayedduringtheframingof
thepeacetreaties.WhilethewarhadseverelydamagedtheeconomyoftheEuropeancountries,
theeconomyofUSAduringthistimehadinfactbecomestronger.Shehadmadetremendous
industrialprogressandwasbeginningtomakeheavyinvestmentsinEurope.However,inspite
ofthisprogress,theUnitedStateswasfrequentlybesetwithseriouseconomicproblems.These
problemsweretheresultofthecapitalistsystemaboutwhichyouhavereadbefore.
TheDepression
Theworldwideeconomiccrisiswhichbeganin1929hasbeenmentionedbefore.Thecrisis
originatedinUSA.TheyearsafterFirstWorldWarhadseenabigincreaseintheproductionof
goodsinAmerica.Inspiteofthis,however,morethanhalfofthepopulationlivedatlessthan
theminimumsubsistencelevel.InOctober1929,theentireeconomybegantocollapse.The
stockmarketinNewYorkCrashed.Thefallinthevalueofshareshadcreatedsomuchpanic
thatinoneday16millionsharesweresoldinNewYorkStockExchange.Insomecompanies,
thesharesheldbypeoplebecametotallyworthless.Duringthenextfouryears,morethan9,000
Americanbankscloseddownandmillionsofpeoplelosttheirlifessavings.Themanufacturers
andfarmerscouldnotgetanymoneytoinvestandaspeoplehadlittlemoneytobuy,thegoods
couldnotbesold.Thisledtotheclosingofthousandsoffactoriesandthrowingofworkersout
ofemployment.Thepurchasingpowerofthepeoplewasthusreducedwhichledtotheclosing
downofmorefactoriesandtounemployment.
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FaceoftheGreatDepression:
Amotherofthreewhohadjustsoldthefamilystentto
buyfood
TheDepression,asthissituationiscalled,begantospreadtoallthecapitalistcountriesof
Europein1931.AftertheFirstWorldWar,theeconomiesofthecountriesofEurope,excluding
Russia,hadbecomecloselyconnectedwithandevendependentontheeconomyofUSA,
particularlyontheAmericanbanks.TheconsequencesoftheDepressioninEuropeweresimilar
tothoseintheUSAandinsomecasesevenworse.Theeconomiesofthecoloniesofthe
Europeancountrieswerealsoaffected.
TheDepressionresultedinlargescaleunemployment,lossofproduction,povertyand
starvation.Itcontinuedthroughoutthe1930seventhoughafter1933,theeconomiesofthe
affectedcountriesbegantorecover.Thecrisisaslongasitlastedwasthemostterribleand
affectedthelivesofscoresofmillionsofpeopleallovertheworld.Theestimatesof
unemployedduringthisperiodallovertheworldvarybetween50and100million.InUSA
alone,therichestcountryintheworld,thenumberoftheunemployedexceeded15million.
Thousandsoffactories,banksandbusinessenterprisesstoppedworking.Theindustrial
productionfellbyabout35percent,insomecountriesbyabouthalf.
Itmayappearsurprisingthatthecrisiswascausedbyoverproduction.Youhavereadearlier
howundercapitalism,theownersoffactoriesandbusinessenterprisestrytomaximizetheir
profitsbyproducingmoreandmoregoods.Whenproductionincreasesbutthepurchasing
poweroftheworkersremainslow,thegoodscannotbesoldunlesstheirpricesarereduced.
However,thepricescannotbereducedbecausethiswouldaffecttheprofits.Sothegoods
remainunsoldandthefactoriesareclosedtostopfurtherproduction.Withtheclosureof
factoriespeoplearethrownoutofemploymentwhichmakesthesituationworseasthegoods
whichhavebeenproducedcannotbesold.Suchcrisesoccurredofteninalmosteverycountry
afterthespreadoftheIndustrialRevolution.Thecrisisof192933was,however,theworstin
history.Inthiscrisiswhilemillionswerestarving,lakhsoftonnesofwheatwereburntdownin
someareastopreventthepriceofwheatfromfalling.
Theeconomiccrisishadseriouspoliticalconsequences.YouhavereadhowtheNazisin
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Germanyexploitedthediscontentofthepeopletopromotetheirantidemocraticprogramme.In
manycountries,hungermarcheswereorganizedandthesocialistmovementpressedforfar
reachingchangesmtheeconomicsystemsothatsuchcriseswouldnotrecur.Theonlycountry
whichwasnotaffectedbytheeconomiccrisisof192933wastheSovietUnion.
TheeconomiccrisishadworstaffectedtheeconomyoftheUnitedStates.Itledtothevictory
oftheDemocraticPartyandFranklinD.RooseveltbecamethePresidentoftheUnitedStatesin
1933.Underhisleadershipaprogrammeofeconomicreconstructionandsocialwelfarewas
started.ThisprogrammeisknownastheNewDeal.Stepsweretakentoimprovetheconditions
ofworkersandtocreateemployment.AsaresultoftheNewDeal,theeconomyoftheUnited
Statesrecoveredfromthecrisisandtheindustrialproductionpickedupagain.In1939,
however,therewerestill9millionunemployedpeopleintheUnitedStates.
TheUnitedStateshadretainedherpositionasamightypower.However,herforeignpolicywas
notverydifferentfromthatofBritainandFrance.She,likeBritainandFrance,didnotadopta
strongpositiontoresistaggressiveactsoffascistpowersuntilaftertheoutbreakoftheSecond
WorldWarwhensheherselfhadtoenterthewar.
TheEmergenceoftheSovietUnion
TheperiodaftertheFirstWorldWarsawtheemergenceoftheSovietUnionasamajorpower
andshebegantoplayacrucialroleinworldaffairs.ThemilitaryinterventionbyBritain,
France,USAandJapaninRussiainsupportofthecounterrevolutionaryforceshasalreadybeen
mentioned.By1920thecounterrevolutionaryforceshadbeendefeatedandtheforeignarmies
drivenout.
RussiasparticipationintheFirstWorldWarandthelongperiodofcivilwarandforeign
interventionwhichfollowedtherevolutionhadcompletelyshatteredtheeconomyofthe
country.Thiswasaperiodofacuteeconomicdistressforthepeople.Therewasasevere
shortageoffood.Theproductionofindustrialgoodshadfallenfarbelowtheprewarlevel.To
makethedistributionofgoodsequitableinconditionsofseverescarcity,certainstrong
measuresweretaken.Thepeasantsweremadetopartwiththeirproducewhichwasinexcessof
whatwasessentialfortheirownneeds.Theywerenotallowedtosellitinthemarket.The
paymentofsalariesincashwasstoppedandinsteadpeoplewerepaidinkind,thatisfoodstuffs
andmanufacturedgoods.Thesemeasureshadcreatedunrestamongthepeasantsandother
sectionsofsocietybutwereacceptedbecausetheywereconsideredessentialtodefendthe
revolution.Afterthecivilwarended,thesemeasureswerewithdrawnandin1921,theNew
EconomicPolicywasintroduced.Underthispolicy,thepeasantswereallowedtoselltheir
produceintheopenmarkets,paymentofwagesincashwasreintroducedandproductionof
goodsandtheirsaleinsomeindustriesunderprivatecontrolwaspermitted.Afewyearslater,
in1929,theUSSRslatteditsvigorousprogrammeofeconomicreconstructionand
industrializationwhenitadoptedthefirstofaseriesofitsFiveYearPlans.Withinafewyears,
theSovietUnionemergedasamajorindustrialpower.Theextraordinaryeconomicprogress
thattheSovietUnionachievedwasagainstheavyodds.Thoughtheforeigninterventionhad
beenended,manycountriesofEurope,andtheUnitedStatesfollowedapolicyofeconomic
boycottwiththeaimofdestroyingtherevolution.However,theSovietUnionnotonlysurvived
butcontinuedtogroweconomicallyatafastrate.Shewas,asmentionedbefore,theonly
countrywhichremainedunaffectedbytheeconomiccrisisof192933.Onthecontrary,its
industrialdevelopmentwentonasbeforewhilemillionsofpeopleinthewestwereunemployed
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andthousandsoffactorieshadcometoastandstill.
Majorchangeswereintroducedinagriculture.Aftertherevolutiontheestatesofthelandlords,
thechurchandthenobilityhadbeenconfiscatedanddistributedamongthepeasants.There
wereinallabout25millionlandholdingsmostofwhichwereverysmall.Thesmall
landholdingsorfarmswereconsiderednotveryproductive.Toincreaseproduction,itwas
consideredessentialtointroducetractorsandotherfarmmachinery.Itwasthoughtthatthis
couldbedoneonlyifthesizeofthefarmswaslarge.Forthis,thegovernmentstarteditsown
farms.Besides,itadoptedthepolicyofpromotingcollectivefarmsbybongingthesmallfarms
ofthepeasantstogether.Inthesefarms,individualownershipoffarmsbypeasantswasended
andthepeasantsworkedonthesecollectivefarmscollectively.Thegovernmentpursuedthe
policyofcollectivizationvigorouslyandby1937almostallcultivablelandwasbroughtunder
collectivefarms.Initially,thepeasantswerefreetodecidewhethertheywantedtojointhe
collectivefarmsornot.Later,theywereforcedtojoin.Therichpeasantswhoopposed
collectivizationwereseverelydealtwith.Theprocessofcollectivizationofagriculturewas
accompaniedbymanyatrocities.Accordingtosomeestimates,millionsofpeopleperishedin
thisperiod.Thus,whiletheoppressionbylandlordshadbeenended,theintroductionofnew
measureswasnotwithoutseriousproblemsandoppression.Inindustryalso,whileproduction
ofgoodstoprofitafewcapitalistshadbeenendedandindustrializationofthecountrytook
placeatafastrate,theproductionofgoodsofdailynecessitieswasneglected.
Themaincentresoftherevolutionin1917wereinRussia.Inthefollowingyears,therevolution
spreadtomanyotherpartsoftheoldRussianempireandtheBolshevikPartyanditssupporters.
formedgovernmentsintheareasinhabitedbynonRussiannationalities.In1922allthese
territorieswereformallyunitedintheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(USSR),forshort
SovietUnion,whichwasafederationofmanyrepublics.Atthattime,thenumberofRepublics
constitutingtheUSSRwasfive.Whenanewconstitutionwasadoptedin1936,theirnumber
waseleven.Afewyearslater,in1940,theirnumberroseto15.
AfterthedeathofLeninin1924manyseriousdifferencesarosewithintherulingCommunist
Partytheonlypoliticalpartywhichexistedoverpoliciestobefollowed.Therewasalso
seriousstruggleforpowerbetweendifferentgroupsandindividualleaders.Inthisstruggle,
Stalinemergedvictorious.In1927,Trotskywhohadplayedanimportantroleintherevolution
andhadorganizedtheRedArmywasexpelledfromtheCommunistParty.In1929,hewassent
intoexile.Inthe1930s,almostalltheleaderswhohadplayedanimportantroleinthe
revolutionandmthefollowingyearswereeliminated.Falsechargeswerebroughtagainstthem,
andafterfaketrialstheywereexecuted.Politicaldemocracyandfreedomofspeechandpress
weredestroyed.Theexpressionofdifferencesevenwithinthepartywasnottolerated.Stalin,
whohadbeentheGeneralSecretaryoftheCommunistParty,assumeddictatorialpowerswhich
heexercisedtillhisdeathin1953.Thesedevelopmentshadanadverseeffectonthebuildingof
socialismintheUSSRandintroducedfeatureswhichwerecontrarytothehumanisticidealsof
Marxismandoftherevolution.Thedevelopmentofartandliteraturealsosufferedbecauseof
restrictionsonfreedom.
TheSovietUnionwasnotrecognizedbymostEuropeanpowersandUSAforalongtime.You
havereadbeforethatshewasnotallowedtoberepresentedatthePeaceConferencewhichwas
heldattheendoftheFirstWorldWarnorintheLeagueofNations.Sheremainedsurrounded
bycountrieswhichwereopenlyhostiletoher.However,withitsgrowingstrengthshecouldnot
beignoredandgraduallyonecountryafteranotherrecognizedher.Britainestablished
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diplomaticrelationswiththeSovietUnionin1933.In1934shealsobecameamemberofthe
LeagueofNations.However,inspiteoftheendingoftheisolationoftheSovietUnion,the
hostilitytowardstheSovietUnioncontinued.TheSovietUnionfollowedapolicyofsupportto
themovementsforindependence.ThehelpgiventoChinaisnotableinthiscontext.Whenthe
fascistcountriesstartedtheiractsofaggression,theSovietgovernmentpressedforaction
againstthem.However,theWesterncountriesdidnotagreetotheSovietproposals.They
continuedtoregardtheSovietUnionasadangertothemandhopedthatthefascistcountries
woulddestroyher.TheirhostilitytotheSovietUnionledtotheappeasementoffascistpowers
andpavedthewayfortheSecondWorldWar.
NationalistMovementsinAsiaandAfrica
TheperiodfollowingtheFirstWorldWarsawthestrengtheningofthemovementsofthe
peoplesofAsiaandAfricaforindependence.Asstatedearlier,manyleadersoffreedom
movementsinAsiaandAfricahadsupportedthewareffortoftheAlliesinthehopethattheir
countrieswouldwinfreedom,oratleastmorerightsafterwarwasover.Theirhopeshadbeen
beliedandtheimperialistleaderssoonmadeitclearthatthewartimeslogansoffreedomand
democracywerenotmeantforthencolonies.However,thewarhadweakenedtheimperialist
countriesaridhadcontributedtotheawakeningofthecolonialpeoples.Theirstrugglesfor
freedomenteredanewphaseafterthewar.ThesupportoftheSovietUnionfurtheraddedtothe
strengthofthefreedommovements.EventhoughmostofthecountriesofAsiaandAfrica
emergedasindependentnationsaftertheSecondWorldWar,theperiodaftertheFirstWorld
Warsawseriousweakeningofimperialism.
India
InIndiathiswastheperiodwhenthefreedommovementbecameamassmovementunderthe
leadershipofMahatmaGandhi.ManycountriesinAsiamadesignificantadvancestowards
freedom.YouhavereadbeforethatIranhadbeendividedintoRussianandBritishspheresof
influencebeforetheFirstWorldWar.TheSovietgovernmentaftertherevolutionof1917had
givenupthesphereunderhercontrolandhadwithdrawnallhertroopsfromthere.TheBritish,
however,triedtoextendtheirinfluenceovertheentirecountry.Theseeffortsweremetwitha
widespreaduprising.In1921,powerwasseizedbyRezaKhanwhoin1925becamethe
emperor.TheBritishtroopsleftIranandthemodernizationofIranbegan.
TheBritishgovernmenthadwagedmanywarsagainstAfghanistaninthenineteenthcentury.
Asaresultofthesewars,theindependenceofAfghanistanhadbeencurbed.Theforeign
relationsofAfghanistanhadpassedunderBritishcontrol.In1919,thekingofAfghanistanwas
assassinatedandhisson,AmanullahbecametheKing.Amanullahproclaimedcomplete
independenceofAfghanistan,whichwasimmediatelyrecognizedbytheSovietUnion.The
BritishgovernmentinIndiawagedawaragainstthenewAfghangovernmentbutintheend
BritainagreedtorecognizetheindependenceofAfghanistan.Amanullahsgovernmentmade
vigorouseffortstomodernizeAfghanistan.
TherewasanupsurgeinArabcountriesagainstBritainandFrance.TheArabshadbeenasked
bytheAllies,duringtheFirstWorldWar,tofightagainsttheirOttomanrulers.However,the
endofthewardidnotresultintheindependenceofArabcountries.Thesecountrieshad
assumedadditionalimportanceafteritwasknownthattheyhadimmenseoilresources.Britain
andFrancehadextendedtheircontroloverthesecountriesastheirprotectoratesandmandates
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.TherewereuprisingsagainstBritaininEgyptandBritainwasforcedin1922togrant
independencetoEgyptthoughBritishtroopscontinuedtostaythere.
SyriahadbeenhandedovertoFranceafterthewar.However,fromtheverybeginningFrance
metwithintenseoppositionthere.In1925therewasanopenrebellionandtheFrench
governmentresortedtoareignofterror.ThecityofDamascuswhichbecameacentreofrevolt
wasreducedtoruinswhentheFrenchtroopsbombedthecityfromtheairandmadeuseof
heavyartillerytoshellthecity.About25,000peoplewerekilledasaresultofbombingand
shellingofDamascus.However,inspiteofthesemassacres,theresistancetoFrenchrule
continued.
TurkeyandKhilafatMovement
OneofthemostimportanteventsinthenationalawakeningofthepeoplesaftertheFirstWorld
WarwastherevolutioninTurkey.YouhavereadearlierofthedisintegrationoftheOttoman
empirewhichbeganinthenineteenthcenturyandwascompletedafterTurkeysdefeatinthe
FirstWorldWar.Duringthisperiod,manynationswhichwereformerlyunderthesubjugation
oftheOttomanempirehadbecomefree.TheArabterritoriesoftheempirehadbeengivenaway
toBritainandFranceasmandatesaftertheFirstWorldWar.TheAllies,however,didnotstop
atthedismembermentoftheempire.TheywantedtoestablishtheirdominationoverTurkey
itselfandtogiveawaypartsofTurkeytoGreeceandItaly.ThetreatmentmetedouttoTurkey
bytheAllieshadledtoamassupsurgeinIndiadirectedagainstBritain.Thisupsurgeisknown
astheKhilafatmovementwhichhadmergedwiththeIndiannationalistmovement.
ThenationalistmovementinTurkeywasorganisedtopreventthedominationofthecountryby
theAlliedpowersandtheannexationofpartsofTurkeybyGreeceandItaly.TheSultanof
Turkeyagreedtothetermsdictatedbythe,Alliedpowers.However,evenbeforethetreatywas
signedbytheSultan,anationalgovernmenthadbeenestablishedundertheleadershipof
MustafaKemalwithitsheadquartersatAnkara.Thisgovernmentsignedatreatyoffriendship
withtheSovietgovernmentin1921underwhichTurkeyreceivedSovietpoliticalsupportand
armsforthenationalistcause.FollowingthetreatywiththeSultan,Turkeyhadbeeninvadedby
Greece.TheTurksunderKemalsleadershipwereabletorepeltheinvasionandtheAllieswere
forcedtorepudiatetheearliertreaty.TheAlliedtroopswerewithdrawnfromTurkishterritory
andtheareaswhichweretobeannexedbyEuropeancountriesremainedinTurkey.Thus
Turkeywasabletowinhercompleteindependence.
ThesuccessoftheTurksinwinningthecompleteindependenceoftheircountrywasfollowed
byaprogrammetomodernizeTurkeyandtoendtheinfluenceofbackwardlookingfeudal
elements.TurkeywasproclaimedarepublicTheTurkishSultanhadcarriedthetitleofCaliph.
ThenewgovernmentabolishedtheinstitutionofCaliph.Educationwastakenoutofthehands
ofthereligiousleaders.Religionwasseparatedfromthestate.
TherevolutioninTurkeybecameasourceofinspirationforthemovementsforfreedomin
Asia.Italsohelpedtopromotetheideasofsocialreformandmodernization.
MovementsforindependencewerestrengthenedintheotherpartsofAsia.InIndonesia,for
example,therewereuprisingsagainsttheDutchruleIn1927theNationalPartyWasorganised
withtheaimofachievingindependence.InKoreatherewasamovementforindependencefrom
Japaneserule.MovementsforindependencegatheredstrengthinIndoChina,Burmaandother
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countries.
China
OneofthemostpowerfulmovementsinthisperiodbeganinChina.Youhavereadbeforeabout
theimperialistdominationofChina.In1911,therewasarevolutioninChinawhichresultedin
theestablishedofarepublic.However,powerpassedintothehandsofcorruptgovernorscalled
warlords.ThenationalmovementinChinaaimedattheoverthrowofforeigndominationand
theunificationofChinabyendingtheruleofthewarlords.Thefounderofthenational
movementinChinawasDr.SunYatSen.Hehadplayedanimportantroleinthe1911revolution
andin1917hadsetupagovernmentatCantoninsouthChina.Thepartyformedbyhimcalled
KuomintangledthenationalstruggleinChinaforanumberofyears.
TheRussianRevolutionhadadeepimpactonChina.ThenewgovernmentinRussiahad
renouncedalltheunequaltreatieswhichtheRussianemperorshadimposedonChinaandhad
promisedfullsupporttotheChinesenationalstruggle.In1921theCommunistPartyofChina
wasformed.In1924,theKuomintangandtheCommunistPartydecidedtoworktogetherand
theSovietgovernmentgavevariouskindsofaid,suchasthetrainingofarevolutionaryarmy.A
numberofSovietpoliticalandmilitaryadvisersworkedwiththeChineseliberationmovement.
AfterthedeathofSunYatSenin1925,theunitybetweentheKuomintangandtheCommunist
Partywasbrokenandaperiodofcivilwarbegan.Inthe1930swhentheJapaneseattacked
Chinawiththeaimofsubjugatingtheentirecountry,thetwopartiesagreedtoworktogetherto
resisttheJapaneseinvasion.TheCommunistPartyplayedaleadingroleinthewarofresistance
againsttheJapaneseinvasion.Itwasabletoestablishitssupremacyinthecountryandwithina
fewyearsaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWarwasvictoriousinthecivilwar.
Africa
ThisperiodalsosawtheemergenceofpoliticalandnationalconsciousnessinAfrica.Though
thestrugglesfornationalindependenceinAfricagainedmomentumaftertheSecondWorld
War,the1920sandthe1930swereaperiodwhenthefirstpoliticalassociationswereformed.
AnimportantroleinthegrowthofnationalconsciousnessinAfricawasplayedbyaseriesof
PanAfricanCongresses.ThePanAfricanmovementassertedtheidentityandunityofthe
Africanpeople,andindependenceofAfrica.ThenationalmovementintheUnionofSouth
AfricahademergedearlierthaninotherpartsofAfrica.In1912hadbeenformedtheAfrican
NationalCongresswhichbecametheleadingorganizationoftheSouthAfricanpeople.The
peopleofEthiopiafoughtheroicallyagainsttheItalianinvasionofChencountryin193536and
theirresistanceservedasasourceofinspirationtothepeopleofAfrica.
ThenationalawakeningofthepeopleofAsiaandAfricaandthegrowingstrengthoftheir
struggleforfreedomwerefactorsofgreatimportanceinthemakingofthemodernworld.While
thelongoppressedpeoplesinthesetwocontinentswerebeginningtoasserttheirrightto
independence,preparationsforanotherwarwerebeingmadeinEurope.
BeginningofFascistAggression
Inthe1930sthefascistpowersbegantheirwarsofconquestwhichultimatelyledtotheSecond
WorldWar.ThemajorfascistcountrieswereItalyandGermany.Theyacquiredanallyinthe
militaristregimewhichcametopowerinJapan.ThetriumphoffascisminItalyandGermany
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hasalreadybeendescribed.YouhavealsoreadearlierabouttheriseofJapaneseimperialism,
herwarsagainstChinaandRussia,theconquestofKoreaandheracquisitionoftheGerman
spheresinChinaaftertheFirstWorldWar.ThegovernmentofJapangraduallypassedintothe
handsofmilitarists.ThesethreecountriesstartedseriesofaggressionsinEurope,Asiaand
Africa.Allofthemclaimedtohavebeenfightingagainstcommunismandwereunitedin1937
undertheAntiCominternPact.(CominternisshortforCommunistInternationalwhich,as
mentionedbefore,hadbeenformedaftertheRussianRevolutionandtowhichtheCommunist
Partiesofvariouscountrieswereaffiliated.)Germany,ItalyandJapancametobeknownasthe
AxisPowers.
Whentheactsofaggressionbegan,theaggrievedcountries,theSovietUnionandmanyleaders
mdifferentcountriesoftheworlddemandedcollectiveactiontodefeattheaggressions.In
1935,theCommunistInternationaladvocatedtheformationofPopularFrontsconsistingof
Communists,Socialistsandotherantifasciststocounterthedangeroffascismandwar.Itmay
berecalledthatHitlerhadcometopowermGermanybecausetheCommunistandSocial
DemocraticPartiesofGermanyhadfailedtouniteagainsttheNazis.TheCominterns
advocacyofunitingallantifascistforceswasfollowedbytheformationofPopularFrontsin
manycountries.InFrance,thePopularFrontsucceededinpreventingafascisttakeover.The
policyofPopularFrontalsohadasignificantinfluenceinbringingtogethervarious
antiimperialistforcesinthecolonies.Italsocreatedaworldwideawarenessofthedangerthat
fascismposedtoallcountriesandhelpedinbuildingsupportforthevictimsoffascist
aggression.TheleaderoftheCominternatthistimewasGeorgiDimitrov,aBulgarian
Communist,whohadbeenarrestedalongwithGermanCommunists,bytheNazisin1933after
theReichstagfire.Hiscourageousdefenceatthetrialhadwonhimworldwideadmirationand
hehadbeenreleased.
YouhavereadearlierthatthecovenantoftheLeagueofNationscontainedaprovisionfor
economicandmilitarysanctionsandcollectiveactionagainstaggression.However,theWestern
governments,insteadofresistingtheaggressions,followedapolicyofappeasementofthe
aggressivepowers.Appeasementmeantapolicyofconciliatinganaggressivepoweratthe
expenseofsomeothercountry.ButfortheWesterncountriespolicyofappeasement,fascism
couldnothavesurvivedaslongasitdidandwouldnothavebeenabletounleashtheSecond
WorldWar.
Germany,ItalyandJapanwhichlaunchedaseriesofaggressionsinthe1930sclaimedthatthey
werefightingcommunism.HitlerhadtimeandagaindeclaredthatGermanyhadambitionsof
conqueringthevastresourcesandterritoryoftheSovietUnion.Inallthesecountries,the
socialistandcommunistmovementshadbeensuppressed.SincethesuccessoftheRussian
Revolution,theWesterncountrieshadbeenhauntedbythedangerofcommunismandthey
hopedthatfascistcountrieswouldridthemofthisdanger.TheattitudeoftheWesternpowersto
thefascistaggressionshasbeensummedupbyahistorianthus:Therewasnoquestionthatthe
NazishaddonetheirbesttoconvincetheworldthattheywereouttosmashBolshevismand
conquertheSovietUnion.HitlersspeechsayingthatifhehadtheUralsalltheGermanswould
beswimminginplentywasonlyanoutstandingexampleofthispropaganda.Norwasthereany
reluctanceamongtheelitesintheWesternworldtobelievehim.Thegreatlandowners,
aristocrats,industrialists,bankers,highchurchmen,armyleadersmagnatesofeverykindin
WesternEurope,togetherwithmanymiddleclasselementshadneverlosttheirfearthattheir
ownworkersandpeasantsmightdemandasocialrevolution,perhapsonespearheadedand
organizedbycommunists.Theirsupportoffascismasaforce,albeitagangsterone,which
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woulddefeatcommunismandatthesametimeleavethevestedinterestslargelyincontrol,had
beeninstinctiveandsincere.TherecanbelittledoubtthatmanypowerfulpeopleinBritainand
FranceworkedtostrengthenandbuilduptheAxispowerswithaviewtoanattackbythem
upontheSovietUnion.ThePolicyofappeasement.strengthenedthefascistpowersandledto
theSecondWorldWar.
JapaneseInvasionofChina
OneofthefirstmajoractsofaggressionaftertheFirstWorldWarwastheJapaneseinvasionof
Chinain1931.AminorincidentinvolvingarailwaylineownedbytheJapaneseinManchuria,
thenortheasternprovinceofChina,wasmadethepretextfortheinvasion.China,amemberof
theLeagueofNations,appealedtotheLeagueforsanctionsagainstJapantostopthe
aggression.However,BritainandFrance,theleadingcountriesintheLeague,werecompletely
indifferenttotheappealandacquiescedintheaggression.Japanoccupied
Manchuria,installedapuppetgovernmentthereandproceededtoconquermoreareas.The
UnitedStatesalsodidnothingtocountertheaggression.In1933,JapanquittheLeagueof
Nations.ShehadalsostartedseizingtheBritishandAmericanpropertyinChina.However,the
appeasementofJapancontinuedastheWesterncountriesthoughtthattheJapanesecouldbe
usedtoweakenChinaaswellastheSovietUnion.Britainhadanadditionalreason.Shedidnot
wanttoalienateJapanandthusendangerherpossessionsinAsia.
GermanMilitarization
GermanyhadbeenadmittedtotheLeagueofNationssometimeafteritsformationbutsoon
afterHitlercametopower,shequittheLeagueandundertookamassiveprogrammeof
militarization.AccordingtotheTreatyofVersailles,severerestrictionshadbeenimposedon
themilitarystrengthofGermany.ThebeginningofGermanremilitarizationinviolationofthe
Treatycreatedasenseofinsecurityinmanycountries,particularlyFrance.Itwasinthis
situationthattheSovietUnionbecameamemberoftheLeaguein1934.However,nothingwas
donetostooptheGermanremilitarization.AccordingtotheTreatyofVersailles,theGerman
areaborderingFrancecalledtheRhinelandhadbeendemilitarizedtomakeaGermanattackon
Francedifficult.In1936,HitlerstroopsenteredtheRhinelandinviolationoftheTreaty.
ThoughthisstepalarmedPrance,nothingwasdonetostopGermany.BythenGermanyhad
builtanarmyof800,000menwhiletheTreatyofVersailles,youmayremember,hadimposeda
limitof100,000men.Shehadalsostartedbuildingastrongnavy.
ItalianInvasionofEthiopia
In1935,ItalyinvadedEthiopiaOntheappealofEthiopia,theLeagueofNationspasseda
resolutioncondemningItalyasanaggressor.Theresolutionalsomentionedtheuseofeconomic
sanctionsagainstItaly,includingabanonthesaleofarmstoItaly.However,noactionwas
takentopunishItalyandby1936ItalyhadcompletedtheconquestofEthiopia.
TheSpanishCivilWar
ThenexteventwhichmarkedthebeginningofanalliancebetweenGermanyandItalywasthe
interventionbythesetwocountriesintheCivilWarinSpain.In1931Spainhadbecomea
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republic.In1936aPopularFrontcomprisingtheSocialist,Communistandotherdemocratic
andantifascistpartiescametopower.AsectionofthearmyundertheleadershipofGeneral
FrancowiththearmedsupportofItalyandGermanyrevoltedagainstthegovernment.Italyand
GermanystartedinterveningopenlyintheCivilWarthatfollowed.Theysentforces,tanksand
warshipsinsupportoftherebels.TheGermanaircraftsconductedairraidsonSpanishtowns
andvillages.ThegovernmentoftheSpanishRepublicappealedforhelpagainstthefascists.
OnlytheSovietUnioncametothehelpoftheRepublicanforcesBritainandFranceadvocateda
policyofnoninterventionandrefusedtogiveanyaidtothegovernmentofSpain.They
remainedIndifferenttotheGermanandItalianinterventioninthewar.However,thecauseof
theRepublicansevokedtremendousresponsetheworldover.Thousandsofantifascist
volunteersfrommanycountriesincludingmanyantifascistGermanswereorganizedinto
internationalbrigadeswhowenttoSpainandfoughtalongsidetheSpaniardsagainstfascism.
ThousandsofthemwerekilledinSpain.Someofthebestwritersandartistsofthetwentieth
centuryactivelysupportedthecauseoftheRepublicans.ThebattleinSpainassumedan
internationalsignificanceasitwasincreasinglyrealizedthatthevictoryoffascisminSpain
wouldencouragemorefascistaggressions.Thesacrificeoftheirlivesbythousandsofnon
SpaniardsinSpainmthecauseoffreedomanddemocracyisoneofthefinestexamplesof
internationalisminhistory.TheCivilWarinSpaincontinuedforthreeyears.Aboutamillion
peoplewerekilledinthewar.Finally,thefascistforcesunderGeneralFrancosucceededin
destroyingtheRepublicin1939.Soonthenewgovernmentwasrecognizedbymostofthe
Westernpowers.
ItmaybyrecalledthattheIndiannationalistmovementwhichwasalivetothedangerof
fascismhadextendeditssupporttotheRepublicancause.JawaharlalNehruwenttoSpain
duringthisperiodasamarkofsolidarityoftheIndiannationalistmovementwiththe
Republicans.
ThevictoryoffascismwastheresultoftheWesterncountriesappeasementoffascism,which
madethefascestcountriesmoreaggressive.Germanyhadtestedtheeffectivenessofmanynew
weaponsintheSpanishCivilWarwhichshewastouseintheSecondWorldWar.
TheMunichPact
WhiletheSpanishCivilWarwasstillgoingon,HitlerstroopsmarchedintoAustriainMarch
1938andoccupiedit.Eventhoughthiswasaviolationofthepeacetreatiessignedafterthe
FirstWorldWar,theWesternpowersdidnotprotestagainstit.
ThefinalactofappeasementoffascismbytheWesternpowerswastheMunichPact.Germany
covetedCzechoslovakiawhichwasveryimportantbecauseofherindustries.Theareaalsohad
strategicimportancefortheexpansionofGermanyintheeasttowardstheSovietUnion.Hitler
claimedapartofCzechoslovakiacalledSudetenlandwhichhadsubstantialGermanpopulation.
ThisareaformedaboutonefifthoftheareaofCzechoslovakiaandhadoneofthelargest
munitionfactoriesintheworld.InsteadofmeetingthethreatposedbyGermany,thePrime
MinistersofBritainandFrancemetHitlerandMussoliniatMunichinGermanyon29and30
September1938andagreedtoGermanystermswithouttheconsentofCzechoslovakia.Soon
after,theSudetenlandwasoccupiedbyGermantroopsAfewmonthslaterinMarch1939entire
CzechoslovakiawasoccupiedbyGermany.
TheMunichPactwasthelastmajoractofappeasementbytheWesternpowers.ItledGermany
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tomakemoredemands.Theonlywaythefascistaggressioncouldhavebeencheckedand
anotherworldwarpreventedwasanallianceoftheWesternpowerswiththeSovietUnion.The
SovietUnionhadbeenpleadingforsuchanalliance.However,theWesternpoliciesof
appeasementhadconvincedtheSovietUnionthattheirmaininterestwastodiverttheGerman
expansiontowardstheSovietUnion.TheMunichPactwasanadditionalprooftotheSoviet
UnionthattheWesternpowersweretryingtoappeaseGermanywithaviewtodirectingher
aggressioneastwardagainsttheSovietUnion.TheSovietUnionatthistimesignedaNon
AggressionPactwith,GermanyinAugust1939.ThesigningofthisPactbytheSovietUnion
shockedantifasciststheworldover.InthemeantimeBritainandFrancepromisedtocometo
theaidofPoland,Greece,RumaniaandTurkeyincasetheirindependencewasendangered.
InthenextpartofthischapterwellseetheeventsofWW2.exercise/questionsafter
secondpartofchapterisover.
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych12part1of2
betweentwoworldwarsnazismfascismthegreatdepression.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh12/B:SecondWorldWars
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych12](Part2of2):SecondWorld
War,events,battles,resistancemovements
1. THESECONDWORLDWAR
2. TheInvasionofPoland
3. ConquestofNorway,Denmark,Holland,BelgiumandFrance
4. TheBattleofBritain
5. GermanInvasionofSovietUnion
6. PearlHarbour:EntryofUSA
7. TheBattleofStalingrad
8. TheSecondFront
9. EndoftheWarinEurope
10. NukeAttackonJAPAN
11. ResistanceMovements
12. TheDamageCausedbytheWar
13. EXERCISES
InthefirstpartofCh.12,wesawtheeventsbetweentheTwoworldwars.Nowcomes
THESECONDWORLDWAR
TheSecondWorldWar,liketheFirst,startedinEuropeandassumedthecharacterofaworld
war.InspiteofthefactthatWesterncountrieshadacquiescedinalltheaggressionsofJapan,
ItalyandGermanyfromtheinvasionofManchuriatotheannexationofCzechoslovakia,the
fascistcountriesambitionshadnotbeensatisfied.Thesecountrieswereplanninganother
redivisionoftheworldandthushadtocomeintoconflictwiththeestablishedimperialist
powers.TheWesternpolicyofdivertingtheaggressionofthefascistcountriestowardsthe
SovietUnionhadfailedwiththesigningoftheSovietGermanNonAggressionPact.Thusthe
warbeganinEuropebetweenthefascistcountriesandthemajorWestEuropeanPowers
BritainandFrance.Withinafewmonthsitbecameaworldwarasitspreadtomoreandmore
areas,ultimatelyinvolvingalmosteverycountryintheworld.
TheInvasionofPoland
AftertheFirstWorldWar,EastPrussiahadbeenseparatedfromtherestofGermany.Thecity
ofDanzigwhichseparatedEastPrussiafromtherestofGermanyhadbeenmadeafreecity
independentofGermancontrol.HitlerhaddemandedthereturnofDanzigtoGermanybut
Britainhadrefusedtoacceptthisdemand.
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych12part2of2secondworldwareventsbattlesresistancemovements.html/print/
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TimelineofWW2(ClicktoEnlarge)
On1September1939GermanarmiesmarchedintoPoland.On3SeptemberBritainandFrance
declaredwaronGermany.ThustheinvasionofPolandmarkedthebeginningoftheSecond
WorldWar,TheGermanarmiescompletedtheconquestofPolandinlessthanthreeweeksas
noaidreachedPoland.Inspiteofthedeclarationofwar,however,therewaslittleactual
fightingformanymonths.Therefore,thewarduringthisperiodfromSeptember1939toApril
1940whenGermanyinvadedNorwayandDenmarkisknownasthephoneywar.
SoonaftertheGermaninvasionofPoland,theSovietUnionattackedeasternPolandand
occupiedtheterritorieswhichwereearlierintheRussianempire.Itisbelievedthatthis
occupationwasapartofthesecretprovisionsoftheSovietGermanNonAggressionPact.In
1940,theBalticStatesofLatvia,EstoniaandLithuaniawhichhadbecomeindependentafterthe
FirstWorldWarwerealsooccupiedbytheSovietUnion.They,alongwithMoldavia,became
republicsofUSSR.InNovember1939,theSovietUnionalsowenttowaragainstFinland.
ConquestofNorway,Denmark,Holland,BelgiumandFrance
GermanylaunchedherinvasionofNorwayandDenmarkon9April1940andwithinthree
weekscompletedtheconquestofthesetwocountries.InNorway,theGermaninvaderswere
helpedbyQuisling,leaderofNorwaysfascistparty,whosetupapuppetgovernmentin
NorwayunderGermanoccupation.TheverynameQuislinghascometomeanatraitorwho
collaborateswiththeinvadersofhiscountry.InearlyMaybegantheinvasionofBelgiumand
HollandwhichwascompletedbeforetheendofMay.SoontheGermanarmiesmarchedinto
Franceandby14June1940,thecapitalcityofParishadfallenintoGermanhandsalmost
withoutafight.Inthemeantime,Italyalsohadjoinedthewaronthesideofherally,Germany.
On22June1940,theFrenchgovernmentsurrenderedandsignedatrucewithGermany
accordingtowhichabouthalfofFrancewasoccupiedbyGermany.Theremainingpart
remainedundertheFrenchgovernmentwhichwasrequiredtodisbandtheFrencharmyand
provideforthemaintenanceoftheGermanarmyinFrance.TheFrenchgovernmentwhichhad
surrenderedtoGermanyruledfromVichy.WiththedefeatofFrance,Germanybecamethe
supremepoweroverthecontinentofEurope.ThewarconductedbyGermanywithgreatspeed
andforceisknownasblitzkriegwhichmeansalightningwar.
TheBattleofBritain
BritainwastheonlymajorpowerleftinEuropeafterthefallofFrance.Germanythoughtthat
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BritainwouldsurrendersoonasshewaswithoutanyalliesinEurope.Germanairforcebegan
bombingraidsonBritaininAugust1940withtheaimofterrorizingherintosurrender.The
battlethatensuedisknownastheBattleofBritain.TheRoyalAirForceofBritainplayeda
heroicroleinitsdefenceagainstairraidsandconductedairraidsonGermanterritoriesin
retaliation.ThePrimeMinisterofBritainduringthewaryearswasWinstonChurchill.Under
hisleadership,thepeopleofBritainsuccessfullyresistedtheGermanairraidswithcourageand
determination.
Inthemeantime,ItalyhadstartedmilitaryoperationsinNorthAfrica.ShealsoinvadedGreece,
buttheItalianattackinboththeareaswasrepulsed.However,Germanysucceededincapturing
theBalkansGreece,Yugoslavia,BulgariaandalsolargepartsofNorthAfrica.
GermanInvasionofSovietUnion
HavingconqueredalmosttheentireEurope,exceptBritain,GermanyattackedtheSovietUnion,
despitetheNonAggressionPact,on22June1941.Asmentionedbefore,Hitlerhadalways
covetedthevastterritoryandresourcesoftheSovietUnion.
HethoughtthatthedestructionoftheSovietUnionwouldtakeabouteightweeks.Hitlerhad
grosslyunderestimatedthestrengthoftheSovietUnion.Inthefirstphaseofthewarwiththe
SovietUnion,Germanyachievedsignificantvictories.VastareasoftheSovietUnionwere
devastated,LeningradwasbesiegedandGermantroopsweremarchingtowardsMoscow.
However,inspiteoftheinitialGermansuccesses,theGermanonslaughtwashalted.TheSoviet
Unionhadbuiltupherindustrialandmilitarystrength.SheresistedtheGermaninvasion
heroicallyandtheGermanhopesofaquickvictorywerethwarted.
WiththeGermaninvasionoftheSovietUnion,anewvasttheatreofwarhadbeenopened.An
importantdevelopmentthatfollowedwastheemergenceoftheBritishSovietAmericanunityto
fightagainstaggression.Soonaftertheinvasion,ChurchillandRooseveltdeclaredBritishand
Americansupport,respectively,totheSovietUnioninthewaragainstGermanyandpromised
aidtoher.Subsequently,agreementsweresignedbetweentheSovietUnionandBritain,and
SovietUnionandUSA.ItwasasaresultofthisunitythatGermany,ItalyandJapanwere
ultimatelydefeated.
PearlHarbour:EntryofUSA
YouhavereadbeforeabouttheJapaneseinvasionofChinain1931.In1937,theJapanesehad
startedanotherinvasionofChina.JapanwasoneofthethreemembersoftheAntiComintern
PactalongwithGermanyandItaly.InSeptember1940,thesethreecountrieshadsignedanother
pactwhichboundthemtogetherevenmore.JapanrecognizedtheleadershipofGermanyand
ItalyintheestablishmentofaneworderinEuropeandJapansleadershipwasrecognizedfor
establishinganeworderinAsia.On7December1941,theJapanese,withoutadeclarationof
war,conductedamassiveraidontheAmericannavalbaseatPearlHarborinHawaii.The
AmericanPacificFleetwhichwasstationedtherewasdevastated.TheAmericanslost20
warships,andabout250aircrafts.About3000personswerekilled.TheAmericanswere
completelytakenunawares.NegotiationshadbeengoingonbetweentheJapaneseand
AmericangovernmentstosettletheirdifferencesinAsiaandthePacific.TheattackonPearl
HarborinthemidstofnegotiationsshowedthattheJapaneseweredeterminedtoconquerAsia
andthePacific.WiththistheSecondWorldWarbecametrulyglobal.TheUnitedStates
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declaredwaronJapanon8December1941andsoonafterGermanyandItalydeclaredwaron
theUnitedStates.FollowingtheU.S.entryintothewar,manycountriesintheAmericasjoined
thewaragainstGermany,ItalyandJapan.TheJapaneseachievedsignificantvictoriesinthe
warinAsia.WithinsixmonthsoftheattackonPearlHarbor,theyhadconqueredMalaya,
Burma(nowMyanmar),Indonesia,thePhilippines,Singapore,Thailand,Hongkongand
numerousotherareas.
Bythemiddleof1942,thefascistpowershadreachedthepeakoftheirpower.Afterthatthe
declinebegan.
TheBattleofStalingrad
InJanuary1942theunityofthecountriesfightingagainstthefascistpowerswascemented.The
representativesof26nations,includingBritain,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,signeda
declaration,knownastheUnitedNationsDeclaration.ThesignatoriestothisDeclaration
resolvedtoutilizealltheirresourcestopursuethewaruntilvictorywasachievedandto
cooperatewithoneanotheragainstthecommonenemy,andpromisednottohaveaseparate
peacetreaty.
OneofthemostimportantturningpointsinthewarwastheBattleofStalingrad(nowcalled
Volgograd).InNovemberandDecember1941,theGermanadvanceonMoscowmetwith
stubbornresistanceandtheinvasionwasrepulsed.Germanythenlaunchedanoffensivein
southernRussia.InAugust1942,theGermantroops1reachedtheoutskirtsofStalingrad.For
overfivemonths,thebattleraged.Itinvolvedabout2millionmen,2000tanksand2000
aeroplanes.ThecivilianpopulationofStalingradjoinedthesoldiersinthedefenceofthecity.In
February1943,about90,000Germanofficersandsoldierssurrendered.Inall,Germanyhadlost
about300,000meninthisbattle.Thisbattleturnedthetideofthewar
TheSecondFront
Thefascistcountriesbegantosufferreversesinotherareasalso.Japanhadfailedtocapture
AustraliaandHawaii.InNorthAfrica,theGermanandItaliantroopswereroutedbyearly
1943.ThedestructionofthefascistarmyinNorthAfricawasalsoamajorturningpointinthe
war.InJuly1943,BritishandAmericantroopsoccupiedSicily.ManysectionsinItalyhad
turnedagainstMussolini.Hewasarrestedandanewgovernmentwasformed.Thisgovernment
joinedthewaragainstGermany.However,GermantroopsinvadednorthernItalyand
Mussolini,whohadescapedwiththehelpofGermans,headedaproGermangovernmentthere.
Meanwhile,BritishandAmericantroopsenteredItalyandalongbattletothrowtheGermans
outofItalyfollowed.TheSovietUnionwasattainingsignificantvictoriesagainstGermanyand
hadalreadyenteredCzechoslovakiaandRumaniawhichhadbeenunderGermanoccupation.
On6June1944,morethan100,000BritishandAmericantroopslandedonthecoastof
NormandyinFrance.BySeptembertheirnumberhadreached2,000,000.Theopeningofthis
frontplayedaverycrucialroleinthedefeatofGermany.Thisisknownastheopeningofthe
SecondFront.Since1942inEuropethemostferociousbattleshadbeenfoughtbetween
GermanyandtheSovietUnion.TheSovietUnionhadbeendemandingtheopeningofthe
secondfrontforlong,asthiswouldcompelGermanytofightonotherfrontsalsoandwould
thushastenthedefeatofGermany.FromthistimeonwardstheGermanarmieswereontherun
onallfronts.
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EndoftheWarinEurope
After6June1944,GermanarmieshadtofacetheforcesoftheAlliesfromthreedirections.In
Italy,theBritishandAmericantroopswereadvancing.NorthernandwesternFranceandthe
cityofParishadbeenfreedandtheAlliedtroopsweremovingtowardsBelgiumandHolland
Ontheeasternfront,theGermanswerefacingacollapse.TheSovietarmyfromtheeastand
otherAlliedtroopsfromthewestwereclosingonGermany.OnMay1945theSovietarmies
enteredBerlin.Hitlerhadcommittedsuicideonthemorningofthesameday.On7May1945
Germanyunconditionallysurrendered.TheendofallhostilitiesinEuropebecameeffective
from12,00a.m.on9May1945
NukeAttackonJAPAN
AfterthedefeatofGermany,thewarinAsiacontinuedforanotherthreemonths.Britainand
USAhadlaunchedsuccessfuloperationsagainstJapaninthePacificandinthePhilippinesand
Burma.Inspiteofseriousreverses,however,theJapanesewerestillholdinglargepartsof
China.On6August1945,anatombomb,thedeadliestweapondevelopedduringthewar,was
droppedontheJapanesecityofHiroshima.Thiswasthefirsttimethattheatombombhadbeen
used.Withonesinglebomb,thecityofHiroshimawasobliterated.Anotheratombombwas
droppedonthecityofNagasakion9August1945.Thecitywasdestroyed.Inthemeantime,
theSovietUnionhaddeclaredwaronJapanandhadstartedmilitaryoperationsagainst
JapaneseforcesinManchuriaandKorea.On14AugustJapanconveyeditsacceptanceofthe
Allieddemandtosurrenderbuttheactualsurrendertookplaceon2September1945.Withthe
Japanesesurrender,theSecondWorldWarcametoanend.
ResistanceMovements
InallthecountriesofEuropewhichhadfallenvictimtotheaggressionsoffascistcountries,the
peopleorganisedresistancemovements.Inmanycountries,thegovernmentscapitulatedbefore
theaggressorswithoutmuchfightingbutpeopleofthosecountriescontinuedtoresistthe
fascistrule.Forexample,whenthegovernmentofFrancesurrendered,thepeopleofFrance
organizedapopularresistancemovementagainsttheGermanoccupation.AFrencharmywas
alsoformedoutsideFranceundertheleadershipofGeneraldeGaullewhichactively
participatedinthewar.Similararmiesofothercountrieswerealsoorganized.Insidethe
occupiedcountries,theresistancemovementssetupguerillaforces.Largescaleguerilla
activitieswereorganizedinmanycountriessuchasYugoslaviaandGreece.Inmanycountries
therewerelargescaleuprisings.TheheroicuprisingofthePolishpeopleinWarsawisaglorious
chaptermthehistoryoftheresistancemovements.Therewereresistancemovementswithinthe
fascistcountriesalso.ThefascistgovernmentsofItalyandGermanyhadphysically
exterminatedhundredsofthousandsofpeoplewhowereopposedtofascism.However,many
antifascistsfromthesecountriescontinuedtofightagainstfascisminsideandoutsidetheir
countries.TheantifascistforcesinItalywereverypowerfulandplayedanimportantroleinthe
waragainstMussoliniandinfightingagainstGermantroopsinItaly.InFrance,Greece,and
undertheleadershipofMarshalTito,inYugoslavia,thepeoplefoughtmostheroicallyagainst
fascistaggression.Thesocialists,thecommunistsandotherantifascistsplayedaveryimportant
partintheresistancemovements,Millionsofcivilianfightersagainstfascismperishedinthe
war.
Thepeopleincountrieswhichwerevictimsofaggressionfoughtbackvaliantly.InAsia,the
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peopleofChinahadtobeartheMintofJapaneseaggressionfromtheearly1930s.Thecivilwar
thathadbrokenoutinChinabetweenthecommunistsandtheKuomintanginthelate1920swas
supersededbyamassivenationalresistanceagainstJapaneseaggression.InotherpartsofAsia
alsowhichwereoccupiedbyJapan,forexampleinIndochina,Korea,Indonesia,thePhilippines
andBurma,peopleorganizedthemselvesintostrongresistancemovements.Thepeopleswho
hadbeenfightingagainstBritishaFrenchimperialismexpressedtheirsupporttothewar
againstfascism.Fascismwasorganizedbarbarismandwasnotconsideredanallybythe
peopleswhowerestrugglingfortheirindependence.Forexample,theIndianNationalCongress
whilefightingfortheindependenceofIndiafromBritishruleexpresseditselfagainstfascism.
TheDamageCausedbytheWar
TheSecondWorldWarwasthemostdestructivewarinhistory.Thefascistshadconverteda
largepartofEuropeintoavastgraveyardandaslavecamp.TheNazishatredoftheJewshas
beenmentionedbefore.InsideGermanyandinthosepartsofEuropewhichcameunderGerman
occupationbeforeandduringthewar,Jewswerepickedupandsixmillionofthemwere
exterminated.ThelabourofthecountriesoccupiedbyGermanywasutilizedandmosthorrible
labourcampswerestarted.Millionsofpeopleweretransferredtowhatareknownas
concentrationcampsandkilled.ManyofthesecampssuchasthoseinBuchenwald,Oswiecim
andDachauweredeathcampswherenewwaysofkillingpeoplewereintroduced.Peoplewere
burntingaschambers.ThereweremassmassacresPrisonersweremadetodigmassgraves,
wereshotandthenburiedinthosegraves.Certainkindsoffactorieswerelocatednearthe
concentrationcampswhichproducedgoodsmadefromhumanskinsandbones.Thekindsof
torturesandbrutalitiesthatthefascists,particularlytheGermanNazis,perpetratedhadno
precedentnordidthemassscaleonwhichtheywerepracticed.Manyofthesebrutalitiescame
fullytolightwhenGermanylostthewar,afterthediscoveryofplacesofmassmurdersand
fromthedescriptionsofthoseintheconcentrationcampswhohadsurvived.Theatrocities
committedbytheJapaneseincountriesoccupiedbythemwerenolessbrutal.Inhumanmedical
experimentswereconductedbyJapanesedoctorsandscientistsonhumanbeings.
Thedestructioncausedbythewarintermsofhumanliveshasnoprecedentinhistory.Over50
millionpeopleperishedintheSecondWorldWar.Ofthemabout22millionweresoldiersand
over28millioncivilians.About12millionpeoplelosttheirlivesinconcentrationcampsorasa
resultoftheterrorunleashedbythefascistsSomecountrieslostalargepercentageOftheir
population.Forexample,Polandlostsixmillionpeople,aboutfivemillionofthemcivilians,
whichwasabout20percentofthePolishpopulation.TheSovietUnioninabsoluteterms
sufferedtheworstabout20millionpeoplewhichwasabout10percentofthepopulation.
Germanylostoversixmillionpeople,about10percentofherpopulation.Besidesthehuman
losses,theeconomyandmaterialresourcesofmanycountrieswerebadlydamaged.Many
ancientcitieswerealmostcompletelydestroyed.ThetotalcostoftheSecondWorldWarhas
beenestimatedatthestaggeringfigureof$1,384,900,000,000.
ManynewweaponsofdestructionweredevisedandusedintheSecondWorldWar.Themost
dreadfulofthesewastheatombomb.TheatombombwasfirstdevisedintheUnitedStates
duringtheSecondWorldWar.Scientistsofmanycountries,includingthosewhohadcometo
theUnitedStatestoescapethefascisttyrannyinEurope,hadhelpedindevelopingit.The
projecttodevelopthebombwastakenupwhenanumberofscientists,suspectingthattheNazi
Germanywasdevelopingtheatombomb,approachedtheUSgovernment.Theyhadfearedthat
iftheNazisdevelopedthebomb,theywoulduseittoterrorizetheworldintosubmission.The
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atombombwasfirsttestedinJuly1945.Bythen,Germanyhadalreadysurrendered.Manyof
thosewhohadhelpedinitsdevelopmentappealedtotheUSgovernmentnottouseitagainst
Japanagainstwhomthewarwasstillcontinuing.Theyalsowarnedofthedangerofstartinga
raceintheproductionofatomicweaponsiftheatombombwasusedagainstJapan.However,
thegovernmentoftheUnitedStatesusedtheatombombsagainsttheJapanesecitiesof
HiroshimaandNagasaki,ashasalreadybeenmentioned.Thetwobombskilledover320,000
peoplealmostinstantaneouslyandcompletelywipedoutlargepartsofthetwocities.The
effectsofthesebombsonthehealthofthosewhosurvivedandontheirchildrencontinuetothis
day.ThegovernmentoftheUnitedStatesjustifiedtheuseoftheatombombonthegroundthat
itbroughttheSecondWorldWarimmediatelytoacloseandthushelpedtosavehumanlives
whichwouldhavebeenlostifthewarhadcontinued.Manyotherpeople,includingmany
Scientistswhohadhelpedinmakingthebomb.condemnedtheuseoftheatombomb.Afterthe
defeatofGermanyandtheendingofthewarinEurope,Japanwasnotinapositiontocontinue
thewarandhercapitulationwasamatterofdays.Somescholarsholdtheviewthatthemain
reasonforusingtheatombombwastoestablishthesuperiorityofUSAintheworldafterthe
warasatthattimeshealonepossessedtheseweapons.Inanycase,thepredictionofthe
scientiststhattheuseoftheatombombwouldleadtoaraceforproducingatomicweapons
cametrue.WithinafewyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar,someothercountriesalsodeveloped
atomicweapons.Alsoothernuclearweapons,thousandsoftimesmoredestructivethantheones
usedagainstJapan,weredevelopedwhich,ifused,cancompletelydestroyallhumanlifeon
earth.
EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
WhatwerethemainfeaturesofthefascistandNazimovements?
Explaintheconsequencesoftheeconomiccrisisof192933.
WhatismeantbythetermAxisPowers
DescribetheconsequencesofthevictoryoffascismonItalyandGermany.
WhatwerethemainaimsoftheforeignpoliciesofItalyandGermany?OfJapan?
Describethemaineventsbetween1936and1939whichcreatedconditionsforanother
worldwar.
WhatdidtheWesternpowersdotocountertheaggressiveactsofJapan,Italyand
Germanybetween1931and1938?
9. DescribethegrowthofnationalmovementsinAsiaaftertheFirstWorldWar.Namethe
Asiancountrieswhichwontheirindependencebetween1919and1939
10. Explaintheterms:PhoneyWar,SecondFront,theBattleofBritain
11. OnanoutlinemapofEurope,showthecountrieswhichwereoccupiedbyGermany
between1936andAugust1939.
12. OnanoutlinemapofAsia,showtheareaswhichwereunderJapaneseoccupationduring
theSecondWorldWar.
13. TrytocollecttheviewsofJawaharlalNehruandtheIndianNationalCongressonfascism
frombooksonIndianfreedommovement.
14. ReadaboutthenewweaponsdevelopedaftertheSecondWorldWarWriteanessay
comparingthedestructivepoweroftheseweaponswiththoseusedintheSecondWorld
War.
15. DoyouthinkWesternpolicyofappeasementofthefascistpowersbroughtaboutthe
SecondWorldWar?Why?Orwhynot?
16. Whatwasthebasicreasonforthepolicyofappeasement?
17. DoyouthinktheUnitedStateswasjustifiedinusingtheatombombagainstJapan?
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18. WhydidtheSovietUnionsigntheNonAggressionPactwithGermany?Whatdidshe
gainfromit?Discuss
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych12part2of2second
worldwareventsbattlesresistancemovements.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh13:AfterSecondWorldWar
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych13]AfterWW2:BirthofUN,
DivisionofGermanyUSSRYugoslavia(Part1of4)
1. Prologue
2. Introduction
3. SecondWorldWar:ImmediateConsequences
4. YaltaConference
5. BirthofUNITEDNATIONS
6. ThePotsdamConference
7. EuropeaftertheSecondWorldWar
8. GERMANY:partition
9. GERMANY:FallofBerlinWall
10. FranceandItaly:riseofcommunism
11. Britain:RiseofLabourParty
12. EasternEurope
13. FallofUSSR
14. RetreatofSocialism
15. Bosnia
Prologue
Sofar,intheOldNCERTClass10,weveseenfollowing
Ch.No.details
9. Imperialism,ColonizationofAsia,AfricaandAmericas
10. WW1
11. RussianRevolution
12. InterwaryearsandWW2
Now13thChapterdealswithWorldafterSecondWorldWar,ColdWar,NAM.
TheUPSCGSSyllabusissilentaboutColdwar,whileNAMistooclichdandoutdatedtopic
forInternationalrelations(IR),stillthis13thchapterremainsrelevantincontextoffollowing
topicsofGSMainspaperIsyllabus:
1. Decolonization
2. Redrawalofnationalboundaries
TheredrawalofnationalboundarieshadbegunwithChapter9itself:whenImperialistcountries
startedcolonizingAsia,AfricaandAmericas,recallthepaperpartitionofAfricaandhow30%
ofitsnationalbordersarestraightlines.
Chapter13istheclimaxintermsofredrawlsofNationalboundaries,wecanseethat:
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych13afterww2birthofundivisionofgermanyussryugoslaviapart1of4.html/print/
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Region
Europe
EasternEurope
Asia
BoundariesredrawnafterWW2
Germany=>EastandWest,latercombined.
FallofUSSRleadsto15independentrepublics
FromCzechoslovakia=>CzechRepublic+SlovakRepublic.
Yugoslaviabreaksinto
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SerbiaandMontenegro
Croatia
Macedonia
Slovenia
BosniaHerzegovina
FromBritishIndiato:India+Pakistan(+laterBangladesh)
Indochina=>Vietnam,Laos,Cambodia
Vietnam=>North+South,latercombined
Korea=>North+South,nevercombined.
ChinaTaiwan
IsraelPalestine
Anyways,letsstartthechapter:
ChapterIntroduction
THEworldhasbeencompletelytransformedduringtheyearssincetheendoftheSecond
WorldWarin1945.Itspoliticalmaphasalsochanged.Theinfluenceandthedominations
whichafewEuropeanimperialistpowersexercisedintheprewaryearsbecamethingsofthe
past.AlargenumberofnationsinAsiaandAfricawhichhadbeensufferingundercolonialrule
emergedasindependentnationsTogether,theyhavebecomeamajorfactorintheworld.The
UnitedStateshademergedasthebiggestpoweraftertheFirstWorldWar.TheSovietUnion
alsoemergedasamightypoweraftertheSecondWorldWar,inspiteoftheterribledevastation
thatshesufferedduringthewarBeforetheSecondWorldWar,theSovietUnionwastheonly
country.Intheworldwhichprofessedsocialism.Afterthewar,anumberofothercountries
joinedher.
Thetwoworldwars,foughtwithinabriefperiodofabout30years,resultedinthelossof
millionsofhumanlives.Thedangerofanewworldwarwhichwoulddestroyhumanlife
altogethercreatedanewawarenessoftheneedforestablishinglastingpeace.Peoplesand
nationsmadeeffortsinthisdirectionbypromotingmutualrelationsbasedonfriendshipand
cooperation.Theyalsocreatedmanynewinstitutionsandagenciesforthepurpose.
However,inspiteoftheseeffortstheperiodaftertheSecondWorldWarhasbeenfullof
stressesandstrains.Ithasseenmanyconflictsandwarsinwhichhundredsofthousandsof
peoplehavebeenkilledeventhoughtheworldhasescapedalargescaleconflagration.
Sincethelate1980s,furtherchangeshavetakenplacemsomepartsoftheworld.Someofthe
consequencesoftheSecondWorldWarand,insomecases,evenoftheFirstWorldWarhave
beenundoneduringthepastfiveyears.Duringthisperiod,someoftheissueswhichdominated
theworldandsomeoftheforcesandfactorswhichshapedtheworldforaboutfourdecades
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afterthewarhavebecomeirrelevant.Thethreatofcommunismwhichhadbeenamajorfactor
indeterminingthepoliciesofmanycountriessincetheRussianRevolutionand,evenmoreso,
aftertheSecondWorldWarisnolongeranissue.CommunistregimesintheSovietUnionand
inthecountriesofEasternEuropehavecollapsed.TheSovietUnionhasbrokenupinto15
independentStates.Manyotherchangeshavetakenplacetheworldoveranditispossibleto
thinkoftheperiodfromthelate19805astheonemarkingthebeginningofanewphaseinthe
historyoftheworldaftertheSecondWorldWar.
SecondWorldWar:ImmediateConsequences
Duringthewar,themajorAlliednationshadheldmanyconferencesandhadissueddeclarations
statingtheprincipleswhichwouldformthebasesofpeace.Thefirstmajordeclarationhadbeen
issuedbyBritainandUSAin1941.ItstatedthatBritainandtheUnitedStateswouldnotseek
anyterritory.Italsosupportedtherightofeverypeopletohavetheformofgovernmentoftheir
choice.Earlyin1942wasissued,asmentionedbefore,theUnitedNationsDeclaration.This
DeclarationsupportedtheoneissuedbyBritainandUSAearlier.Anotherdeclarationstatedthat
alltheChineseterritoriestakenbyJapanwouldberestoredtoher.In1943,Churchill,Roosevelt
andStalin,leadersofBritain,USAandtheSovietUnion,respectively,metatTeheran.They
declaredtheirresolvetobanishthescourgeandterrorofwarandtocreateaworldinwhich
allpeoplesmaylivefreelivesuntouchedbytyrannyandaccordingtotheirvaryingdesiresand
theirownconsciences.
YaltaConference
Earlyin1945whenGermanywasonthevergeofdefeat,theheadsofthethreebignationsmet
atYaltaintheSovietUnion.Heretheyagreedonanumberofissuessuchashowtodealwith
GermanyandthenonGermanterritorieswhichhadbeenliberatedfromGermany.
TheYaltaConferencealsotookthedecisiontosetupaneworganisationtoreplacetheLeague
ofNations.
BirthofUNITEDNATIONS
Subsequently,aconferencewasheldatSanFrancisco,USA,from25April1945.The
conferencewasattendedby50nations.On26JunetheconferenceadoptedtheUnitedNations
CharterunderwhichanewworldorganizationwassetupThiswastheUnitedNations
Organizationwhichwasbasedontheprincipleofthesovereignequalityofallpeaceloving
statesThepurposesoftheUnitedNationsOrganizationweretomaintaininternationalpeace
andsecurity,todevelopfriendlyrelationsamongnationsandtoachieveinternational
cooperationinsolvinginternationalproblemsofaneconomic,social,culturalorhumanitarian
character
Tocarryouttheseobjectives,sixprincipalorgansoftheUnitedNationsOrganization(now
referredtoastheUnitedNationsorsimplytheUN)werecreatedthesewere:
1. theGeneralAssemblycomposedofallthemembersoftheUN
2. theSecurityCouncilcomposedoffivepermanentmembers,viz.theUnitedStates,the
SovietUnion,Britain,FranceandChina,andsixotherstobeelectedbytheGeneral
AssemblyforaperiodoftwoyearsTheSecurityCouncilwasmadeprimarilyresponsible
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3.
4.
5.
6.
forthemaintenanceofpeaceandsecurity(Thenumberofnonpermanentmemberswas
subsequentlyraisedfromsixtoten)
theEconomicandSocialCouncilof18memberstopromoterespectfor,andobservance
of,humanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsforall
theTrusteeshipCouncil
theInternationalCourtofJustice
theSecretariatwithaSecretaryGeneralappointedbytheGeneralAssemblyasitshead.
AnumberofspecializedagenciesoftheUNwerealsocreatedsuchastheUnitedNations
Educational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),theWorldHealthOrganization
(WHO),FoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),theInternationalLabourOrganization
(ILO)(thisbodyhadbeencreatedaftertheFirstWorldWar),etc.Itwasrealizedthatunlessall
thepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncil,whowereatthattimethebiggestpowers,were
agreed,nocourseofactionforthemaintenanceofpeaceandsecuritycouldbeeffective.Hence
itwasprovidedthatanydecisionoftheSecurityCouncilmusthavethesupportofallfive
permanentmembers.ThesettingupoftheUnitedNationswasoneofthemostimportant
consequencesoftheSecondWorldWar.
ThePotsdamConference
AnothermajorconferenceoftheheadsofgovernmentofBritain,theUnitedStatesandthe
SovietUnionwasheldatPotsdam(nearBerlin)from17Julyto2August1945.Thedeclaration
issuedbythisconferencementionedthemainaimsoftheAllieswithregardtoGermanywhich
hadalreadysurrenderedGermanyhadbeenpartitionedintofourzones,eachunderthecontrol
ofBritain,France,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.Thedeclarationstatedthattheaimof
theAlliedoccupationofGermanywastobringaboutthecompletedisarmamentofGermany,to
destroytheNaziPartyandtoprepareconditionsforthecreationofademocraticGermany.It
wasalsodecidedtosetupaninternationaltribunaltobringtotrialpersonswhohadcommitted
crimesagainsthumanity.DecisionswerealsotakenregardingtheborderbetweenPolandand
Germany,andthetransferofthenorthernpartofEastPrussiatotheSovietUnionandthe
southernparttoPoland.Thevariousconferencesheldduringandafterthewarinfluencedthe
politicaldevelopmentsafterthewar.
EuropeaftertheSecondWorldWar
ManycountriesinEuropehadbeenliberatedfromGermanoccupationbytheSovietarmies.
ThesecountrieswerePoland,Hungary,Rumania,BulgariaandCzechoslovakia.
TheCommunistpartiesandotherantifascistpartiesinthesecountrieshadplayedanimportant
roleinthestruggleagainstGermanoccupationofthesecountries.Bytheendof1948,the
governmentsofallthesecountriesweredominatedbytheCommunistparties.InAlbaniaand
Yugoslavia,thestruggleagainstGermanoccupationhad,beenledbytheCommunistpartiesof
thesecountries.InthesecountriestooCommunistpartiesformedthegovernments.The
establishmentoftheCommunistpartiesruleinthesecountrieswasasignificantdevelopment
aftertheSecondWorldWarUptotheSecondWorldWar,theonlycountryinEurope,andthe
world,ruledbyaCommunistpartywastheSovietUnion.NowalargenumberofEuropean
countrieswereruledbyCommunistparties.Inthesecountries,otherpoliticalpartieswereeither
notallowedtoexistorhadonlyanominalpresence.Thepoliticalpowerwasexclusivelyinthe
handsoftheCommunistparties.
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ThepresenceofSoviettroopsinthesecountriesensuredthecontinuanceoftheCommunist
partiesmonopolyofpower.Sometimes,theSoviettroopswereusedtosuppressmovements
whichopposedthedominationofCommunistparties.WithintheCommunistparties
themselves,differencesoverpolicieswerenotallowedandthepowerwithin,theCommunist
partiesbecameconcentratedinafewhands.AsintheSovietUnion,dissentevenwithinthe
rulingpartieswasnottoleratedandmanyveterancommunistswereshotorsentencedtolong
periodsofimprisonmentafterfaketrials.Sometimesthesecountrieswerebrandedassatellites
oftheSovietUnion.TheCommunistpartyofYugoslaviawastheonlyrulingCommunistParty
whichrefusedtobedominatedbytheSovietUnion.Butatthesametime,thegovernmentof
Yugoslaviadidnotallowotherpoliticalpartiestofunction.
GERMANY:partition
WithinalittlemorethanfouryearsaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWar,certain
developmentstookplacewhichresultedinthedivisionofGermanyThefourpowersBritain,
France,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwhichwereinoccupationoffourdifferentzones
ofGermanyfolloweddifferentpoliciesindealingwiththesocial,economicandpolitical
problemsintheirrespectivezones.IntheBritish,FrenchandAmericanzones,theeconomic
developmentcontinuedoncapitalistlines.Thetwomajorpartiesinthesezone,werethe
ChristianDemocraticPartyandtheSocialDemocraticParty.In1948,Brain,Franceandthe
UnitedStatesdecidedtomergethethreezonesundertheircontrolwhichwereinWestGermany
andformaseparategovernmentthere.InSeptember1949thesezoneswereunitedanda
separatestateinWestGermanycalledtheFederalRepublicofGermanywithitscapitalatBonn
cameintobeing.
InEastGermanywhichwasunderSovietoccupation,thepoliciespursuedweredifferentfrom
thosethathadbeenfollowedinthewesternzones.Landsweredistributedamongpeasantsand
allthemajorindustriesweretakenoverfromprivatehandsandmadethepropertyofthestate.
In1946theCommunistPartyandtheSocialDemocraticPartyintheSovietzoneofGermany
mergedtoformtheSocialistUnityPartyofGermany.InOctober1949,theSovietzonebecame
aseparatestatecalledtheGermanDemocraticRepublic.TheSocialistUnityPartyofGermany
becametherulingpartyintheGermanDemocraticRepublic.ThusGermanycametobedivided
intotwostates,eachfollowingitsownpatternofsocial,economicandpoliticaldevelopment.
ThedivisionofGermanyintotwoindependentstates,whichlastedforoverfourdecades,wasa
majorconsequenceoftheSecondWorldWar.
GERMANY:FallofBerlinWall
ThedivisionofGermanyhadbeenasourceoftensioninEuropeandamajorfactorintheCold
War.EastBerlinwasthecapitalofEastGermany(GermanDemocraticRepublicorGDR)
whileWestBerlinwhichwaslocatedwithintheGDRterritorywastreatedasapartofWest
Germany(FederalRepublicofGermanyorFRG).
In1961,theGDRauthoritiesbuiltawallbetweenEastandWestBerlintopreventEast
GermansfromgoingawaytoWestBerlin.
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ThebuildingofthewallbecameafurthersourceoftensioninEurope.Theprocessofending
communistruleinGDRandofthereunificationofGermanybeganin1989whentheBerlin
Wallwasopenedandpoliticalpartieswhichwereoutsidethecontrolofthecommunistparty
(calledtheSocialistUnityParty)wereallowedtofunction.Inearly1990electionswereheld
andanewgovernmentcametopower.On3October1990,thedivisionofGermanywasended
andaunifiedGermanyagainemerged.
FranceandItaly:riseofcommunism
InotherpartsofEuropealso,importantpoliticalchangestookplace.TheCommunistpartiesof
FranceandItalyhadplayedanimportantroleintheresistancemovementsinthesecountries.
Theyhademergedaspowerfulpartiesattheendofthewar.
France
InthefirstgovernmentformedinFranceafterthewar,theCommunistPartyofFrancewas
represented.However,itquitthegovernmentin1947becauseofdifferencesovereconomic
policiesandoverthequestionofindependenceforthecountriescomprisingIndoChina.The
FrenchgovernmentwastryingtoreestablishitsruleoverIndoChinawhichtheCommunist
Partyopposed.
Italy
IntheItaliangovernment,theCommunistPartyandtheSocialistPartywereanimportantforce.
In1946,monarchywasabolishedandItalybecamearepublic.In1947theChristian
DemocraticPartycametopowerandtheCommunistPartyquitthegovernment.However,even
thoughtheCommunistandSocialistpartieswereoutofthegovernmentinthesetwocountries,
theyweretogetherapowerfulforceinthepoliticsofthetwocountries.Formanyyears,inboth
thesecountries,thesocialistpartiesbecametherulingpartieseitheraloneorinalliancewith
otherpartiesTheCommunistparties,however,werealmostthroughouttheperiodafter1948
keptoutofthegovernment.Inrecentyears,whiletheItalianCommunistPartyitisnow
calledtheDemocraticPartyoftheLefthasremainedapowerfulforce,theinfluenceofthe
FrenchCommunistPartyhasdeclined
Britain:RiseofLabourParty
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InBritain,theelectionswereheldinJuly1945.TheConservativePartywhoseleaderWinston
ChurchillhadbeenthePrimeMinisterduringthewarlostandtheLabourPartycametopower.
Indiawonherindependenceduringthisperiod.DuringtheLabourPartysrulemanysignificant
changestookplaceintheeconomyofthecountry.Manyimportantindustriessuchascoal
minesandrailwayswerenationalized.Stepsweretakentoprovidesocialsecuritytothepeople,
andtobuildawelfarestateinBritain.In1951,theConservativePartywasreturnedtopower
andtheLabourPartybecametherulingpartyin1964.Thus,neitherofthesepartiesremainedin
powerforlongandbothofthepartiesweremoreorlessequallymatched.Onlyinrecentyears,
thereseemstohavebeenadeclineintheinfluenceoftheLabourParty.
ThepoliticalsysteminmostcountriesofWesternEuropewasbasedontheparliamentaryform
ofgovernment.Theireconomieshadsufferedaserioussetback,anditaffectedtheir
internationalposition.GraduallythroughtheirowneffortsandwithmassiveAmericanaid,
thesecountriesweresoononthewaytorebuildtheireconomiesHowever,thedominationthat
thesecountriesexercisedovertheworldbeforetheFirstWorldWarandtoalesserextentafter
thathaddeclined.TheperiodaftertheSecondWorldWarsawtherapiddeclineoftheir
empires.
EasternEurope
ManychangesofgreathistoricalimportancehavetakenplaceintheSovietUnionandin
countriesofEasternandCentralEurope.Themostsignificantofthesehasbeenthecollapseof
theSovietUnionandtheendingofthecommunistregimesthereandinothercountriesof
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Europe.In1956,threeyearsafterthedeathofStalin,theCommunistPartyofSovietUnionhad
denouncedtheexcessesandcrimescommittedbyStalin.From1985,manyimportantreforms
begantobeintroducedmthepoliticalsystemoftheSovietUnionwithaviewtopromoting
politicaldemocracy.Therewasfreeandopendiscussiononeveryissueandcurbsonthe
freedomofthoughtandexpressionwerelifted.
Reformsineconomywerealsoinitiatedtoendthestagnationthathadsetinandtoimprovethe
livingconditionsofthepeople.Theimportanceofthesereformswasrecognizedtheworldover,
TwoRussianwordswereusedtodescribethesereforms:
perestroika Restructuring
glasnost
openness
TheholdoftheCommunistPartyoverthepoliticallifeofthecountrywasloosenedandother
politicalpartieswereallowedtofunction.
FallofUSSR
Inthemeantime,therewasademandforgreaterautonomybytherepublicswhichconstituted
theSovietUnion.Somerepublicswantedtobecomeindependent.Attemptsweremadetoframe
anewtreatywhichwouldprovidegreaterautonomytotherepublicsandatthesametime
preservetheUnionHowever,inAugust1991,therewasanattempttostageacoupbysome
leadersoftheCommunistParty.Thoughthecoupcollapsed,theSovietUnionbegantobreak
up.Manyrepublicsdeclaredtheirindependence.On25December1991,MikhailGorbachev,
whowasthePresidentoftheSovietUnionduringthisperiodandhadinitiatedthereforms
mentionedearlier,resignedandtheSovietUnionformallyceasedtoexist.InplaceoftheSoviet
Unionwhichhadbeenamajorinfluenceonworldhistoricaldevelopmentforaboutseven
decades,thereemerged15independentrepublics.Thoughtheruleofthecommunistpartieshas
endedinalltheserepublics,manyofthemarefacedwithseriouspoliticalandeconomic
problems.Therearealsomanyproblemsbetweentherepublicsalthough12ofthemhave
formedaloosefederationcalledtheCommonwealthofIndependentStates.However,the
namesofrepublicshavechanged.Thenewnamesare
NewName
OldName
1. RussianFederation RSFSR
2. Kazakhstan
KazakhSSR
3. Estonia
EstonianSSR
4. Latvia
LatvianSSR
5. Lithuania
LithuanianSSR
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6. Ukraine
UkrainianSSR
7. Moldova
MoldavianSSR
8. Armenia
ArmenianSSR
9. Georgia
GeorgianSSR
10. Azerbaijan
AzerbaijanSSR
11. Turkmenistan
TurkmenSSR
12. Uzbekistan
UzbekSSR
13. Tajikistan
TajikSSR
14. Belarus
ByelorussianSSR
15. Kyrgyzstan
KrighizSSR
EquallyimportantchangeshavetakenplacemthosecountriesofEuropewhichwereruledby
communistparties.Therehadbeenoutburstsofresentmentinsomeofthesecountriesagainst
SovietcontrolandagainsttheSovietsupportedcommunistgovernmentssincethe1950s.There
wereoccasionswhenSoviettroopswereusedtosuppresstheunrestinthesecountries.The
changesintheSovietUnionaffectedthesecountriesdirectly.Thereweremassupheavalsinall
thesecountriesinthelate1980s.By1989,Sovietcontroloverthemcametoanend.The
monopolyofpoliticalpowerenjoyedbythecommunistpartiesinthesecountrieswasended.
Therewerefreeelectionsandnewgovernmentswereformed.Itisnotablethatthesefar
reachingchangestookplaceinmostcountrieswithouttheuseofviolence.Insomecountries,
leaderswhohadmisusedtheirpositionforpersonalgainandpowerweretriedandjailed.Many
communistpartiesnolongerrulingpartiesintheircountriesexpelledsomeoftheirformer
leaderswhohadcommittedexcesseswhentheywereinpower.Inonecountry,Rumania,the
CommunistPartyleaderwhoforabout15yearshadbeenthevirtualdictatorwasexecuted.The
WarsawPact,themilitaryalliancewhichwasheadedbytheSovietUnionandofwhichthe
communistruledstatesofEuropeweremembers,wasdissolvedin1991.
RetreatofSocialism
ThecollapseoftheSovietUnionandofcommunistgovernmentsinEuropehasbeenamajor
factorinendingtheColdWar.Ithasalsobeenseenasmarkingtheretreatofsocialism.Itcan,
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however,besaidthatthesystemwhichwasbuiltinthesecountrieswasonlyadistortedversion
ofthesocialistidealandthatsocialjusticewhichwasfundamentaltothatidealhasbecomea
partoftheconsciousnessofthepeopletheworldover.
ThechangesinEasternandCentralEurope,asintheformerSovietUnion,havenotbeen
withoutproblems,botheconomicandpolitical.
CzechoslovakiahademergedasanewstateaftertheFirstWorldWarhasbrokenupinto
twoindependentstatestheCzechRepublicandtheSlovakRepublic.
InunifiedGermany,therehavebeenmanyinstancesofviolencebyneoNazisagainst
immigrants.
Bosnia
DevelopmentsofatragicnaturehavetakenplaceinYugoslaviainrecentyears.Yugoslavia
whichhademergedasastateaftertheFirstWorldWarwasruledbyacommunistpartysince
theendoftheSecondWorldWar.ThecommunistgovernmentofYugoslaviahadkeptitself
freefromtheSovietUnionalmostfromthebeginning.Yugoslaviawasoneofthefoundersof
theNonAlignedMovement.Shewasafederationofsixrepublics.Infouroftheserepublics,
theruleofthecommunistpartiescametoanendin1990.By1992,Yugoslaviabrokeupinto
fiveindependentstatesthenewstateofYugoslaviacomprising
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SerbiaandMontenegro,
Croatia,
Macedonia,
Slovenia
BosniaHerzegovina
However,theproblemsofYugoslaviadidnotendwithitsbreakup.AlargepartyofBosnia
HerzegovinaisunderthecontrolofSerbiansandCroats.Abloodywarhasbeengoingon
betweenBosnianCroats,BosnianSerbsandBosnianMuslims,particularlybetweenthelatter
two,causingterriblesufferingstothepeople.
WhilethesedevelopmentshavetakenplaceinonepartofEurope,inanother,Western,part
(includingGermany),therehadbeenamovetowardsEuropeanunityItconsistsincreatinga
Europewithoutborders,withacommoncurrencyandunrestrictedmovementofgoodsand
peopleandultimatelyapoliticalunionwithacommonparliament.Somestepshavealready
beentakeninthisdirection.Itmay,however,berememberedthattheconceptofEuropeanunity
atpresentexcludesallEastEuropeancountriesandsomeothers.
Inthenextparts,wellsee
2. coldwar,formationofmilitaryblocs(NATO,CEATOetc)andNAM
3. IndependenceofAsiancountriesafterWW2+KoreanandVietnamWar.
4. IndependenceofAfrica
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URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych13afterww2birth
ofundivisionofgermanyussryugoslaviapart1of4.html
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh13:ColdWar,NATO,NAM
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych13]AfterWW2:ColdWar,
NATO,CENTO,SEATO,WarsawandNAM(Part2of4)
1. TheColdWar
2. MilitaryBlocs
1. NATO
2. SEATO
3. BaghdadPact
4. CENTO
5. WARSAWPact
3. ArmsRace
4. EndofColdWar
5. NONALIGNEDMOVEMENT(NAM)
1. BandungConference
2. NAM:oppositiontoMilitaryblocs
3. NAM:BelgradeSummit
4. Nehrusspeech@1stNAMconference
TheColdWar
AmajorfeatureofthehistoryoftheworldforalmostfourdecadesaftertheendoftheSecond
WorldWarwastheantagonismbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionandthearmed
confrontationbetweenthemilitaryblocsheadedbythem.ThiswastheperiodoftheColdWar
andtheraceinthedesigningandproductionofevernewweaponsofmassdestruction.Itposed
adangertotheverysurvivalofhumankind.
SincetheendoftheFirstWorldWar,theUnitedStateshademergedasthestrongestpowerin
theworld.AftertheSecondWorldWar,herpowerhadgrownstillmorecomparedwiththe
Europeanpowerswhohaddominatedtheworldforcenturies.Thiswasbothinthespheresof
economicandmilitarystrength.Aftersheacquiredtheatombomb,theawarenessofherpower
wasfurtherstrengthened.TheUnitedStatesatthattimewastheonlycountrywhichpossessed
theatombomb.
NexttotheUnitedStatesthemightiestpowerintheworldaftertheSecondWorldWarwasthe
SovietUnion.Shehadsufferedmorethananyothercountryinthewar.Besidesthe20million
peoplethatshelostduringthewar,hundredsofhertownsandthousandsoffactorieshadbeen
completelydestroyed.However,inspiteoftheselosses,herpowerandprestigehadincreased.
Thiswastosomeextentduetotheveryimportantrolethatshehadplayedindefeating
Germany.Sincetherevolution,shehadbeenostracizedandboycottedandhadfacedtheopen
hostilityoftheotherbigpowers.However,afterthewar,anumberofcountriesinEurope,as
hasalreadybeenmentioned,wereruledbycommunistparties.TheSovietUnionexercisedalot
ofinfluenceoverthegovernmentsofthesecountries.Asaresultofthesedevelopments,the
isolationoftheSovietUnionhadcometoanend.Also,inmanycountriesofEurope,aswellas
ofAsia,communistpartieshademergedstrongerafterthewar.Thesepartiesweregenerally
supportersoftheSovietUnion.Someofthesepartieswereactivelyengagedinorganizing
http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych13afterww2coldwarnatocentoseatowarsawandnam.html/print/
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revolutionsintheircountries.Forexample,thecommunistshadbeenamajorforceinthe
resistanceagainstGermanoccupationofGreece.Alargepartofthecountrycameundertheir
controlwhentheGermanarmyretreatedfromthere.However,afterthewarwasover,
monarchywasrestoredinGreeceandthenewgovernmentbegantosuppressthecommunists.
Thisresultedinacivilwarwhichlastedtill1949whenthecommunistswerefinallydefeated.
Duringthewar,Britain,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionhadtogetherfoughtagainstthe
fascistcountries.Manydeclarationsissuedduringthewarhademphasizedthattheunityamong
thesecountrieswouldcontinueafterthewaralsoandwouldbethebasisofadurablepeaceand
internationalbrotherhood.Thesedeclarationshadarousedhopesallovertheworld.However,
thewarwashardlyoverwhenconflictsandtensionsbegantoemergebetweenBritainandthe
UnitedStatesontheonehandandtheSovietUnionontheother.Therelationsbetweenthem
begantodeteriorateandcametobecharacterizedbywhathasbeencalledtheColdWar
Gradually,theColdWarbecamemoreandmoreintenseandtheworldwasdividedintotwo
majorblocstheUnitedStatesandWestEuropeancountriesformingoneblocandtheSoviet
UnionandthesocialistcountriesofEasternEuropeformingtheother.Sometimesthecoldwar
becamehotbutthehostilitiesremainedconfinedtospecificareas.
ThemostimportantreasonfortheoutbreakoftheColdWarwastheWesterncountriesfear
ofcommunism.WiththeincreaseinthemightoftheSovietUnion,theemergenceof
governmentsruledbycommunistpartiesinEasternandCentralEuropeandthegrowing
strengthofcommunistpartiesinmanypartsoftheworld,alarmedthegovernmentsofthe
UnitedStates,BritainandotherWestEuropeancountries.In1949,thevictoryofthe
CommunistPartyofChinainthecivilwarwhichhadbeenragingthereforabouttwodecades
addedtothealarm.TheUnitedStatesopenlydeclaredthatherpolicywastopreventthespread
ofcommunism.OneoftheobjectivesofthemassiveeconomicaidthattheUnitedStatesgave
toWestEuropeancountrieswasalsotocontaincommunismTheUnitedStatesbegantolook
uponeverydevelopmentintheworldfromthisstandpoint,whetheritpromotedorhelpedin
checkingcommunismBritainandWestEuropeancountriesbecamealignedwiththeUnited
Statesandbegantofollowapolicymainlyaimedatcurbingthegrowthofcommunism.This
hadmanyadverseconsequencesfordemocracy,andfreedommovementsinthecolonies
Restrictionswereimposedonthelibertiesofthepeople,forexample,intheUnitedStates,and
justifiedonthegroundofnationalsecurityandpreventingcommunistinfluence.Thefreedom
movementsinmanycountriesbegantobeconsideredunsympatheticallybycountrieswhich
werenotthemselvescolonialpowersbutwerealignedtothecolonialpowers.Forexample,the
UnitedStatessupportedFranceinsuppressingthefreedommovementinIndoChina.Countries
whichwantedtopursueanindependentpolicyandpromoterelationswiththeSovietUnion
werelookeduponwithsuspicion.Allthesefactorsmadetheinternationalsituationtensehi
someareasitresultedinwarsandinmanyotherareasitledtoprolongingofconflicts.
Thegrowingtensionintheworldwasworsenedbythesettingupofmilitaryblocs.
MilitaryBlocs
NATO
In1949,NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)wasformedfordefenseagainsttheSoviet
Union.ThemembersofthisallianceweretheUnitedStates,Canada,Denmark,Norway,
Iceland,Portugal,Britain,France,Belgium,HollandandLuxemburg.Turkey,Greece,the
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FederalRepublicofGermanyandSpainbecameitsmemberslater.ANATOarmywascreated
whichestablisheditsbasesinmanycountriesofEurope.Similarmilitaryalliancesweresetup
bytheUnitedStatesandBritaininotherpartsoftheworld.
SEATO
In1954SouthEastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO)wassetupwiththeUnitedStates,
Britain,France,Australia,NewZealand,Thailand,thePhilippinesandPakistanasmembers.
BaghdadPact
In1955theBaghdadPactwasbroughtintobeing.ItconsistedofBritain,Turkey,Iraq,Pakistan
andIran.TheUnitedStatesestablisheditsmilitarybasesallovertheworldforuseagainstwhat
sheconsideredthedangerofcommunistaggression.Theformationofthesealliancesandthe
establishmentofmilitarybasesworsenedthealreadytenseinternationalsituation.These
alliancesandthemilitarybasescametobelookeduponbycountries,whichwerenotmembers
ofthealliances,asadangertopeaceandtotheirindependence.Insomecountrieswhichwere
membersofthesealliances,theseallianceswereveryunpopular.Forexample,whentherewasa
revolutioninIraqin1958,thatcountrywithdrewfromtheBaghdadPactwhichhadbeennamed
aftercapitalofIraq.
CENTO
ThenameofBaghdadPactwasthenchangedtotheCentralTreatyOrganization(CENTO).
ThesealliancesweregenerallyunpopularinthecountriesofAsiaandAfricaasallthe
imperialistpowersofEuropeweremembersofthesealliancesandusedittosuppressthe
movementsforfreedom.MostofthecountriesofAsiaandAfricawhichhadwontheirfreedom
refusedtojointhesealliances.
WARSAWPact
AsagainsttheseWesternandWesternsponsoredalliances,theSovietUnionandthesocialist
countriesofEuropePoland,Czechoslovakia,Hungary,Rumania,BulgariaandtheGerman
DemocraticRepublicformedtheWarsawPact.Underthispact,theSovietUnionstationedher
troopsinthesecountries.However,theSovietUnionandtheothermembersoftheWarsawPact
didnothaveanymilitarybasesinotherpartsoftheworld.TheSovietUnionhadtreatiesof
friendshipandmutualassistancewithChina.
ArmsRace
Theformationofthemilitaryallianceswasaccompaniedbyanotherdangerousdevelopment.
Thiswastheracefordeadlierweaponsofdestruction.Youhavealreadyreadabouttheuseof
twoatombombsagainstJapantowardstheendoftheSecondWorldWar.Foraboutfouryears
aftertheSecondWorldWar,onlytheUnitedStatespossessedatomicweapons.In1949,the
SovietUniontestedherfirstatombomb.Afewyearslaternuclearweaponswhichwere
thousandsoftimesmoredestructivethantheatombombsusedagainstJapan,weredeveloped.
Thesewerethethermonuclearorhydrogenbombs.Thetestingaloneofthesebombscreated
serioushazardstolife.Manymovementswerelaunchedinallpartsoftheworldtodemanda
banonthetestingandmanufactureofnuclearweapons.Mostoftheleadingscientistssuchas
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EinsteinandLinusPaulingalsosupportedthisdemand.
However,thearsenalsofnuclearweaponsintheworldwentonincreasing.Therearesomany
nuclearweaponsintheworldtodaythattheworldcanbedestroyedmanytimesover.Along
withthenuclearweaponsandmanyotherkindsofweaponry,newbombers,submarinesand
missileshavebeendevelopedwhichcancarrytheseweaponsoverthousandsofkilometers.The
raceforarmamentswhichwasapartoftheColdWarhascreatedthedangertotheverysurvival
ofhumanrace.Vastresourceshavebeenspentondevelopingtheseweapons.Theseresources,
iftheyhadbeenutilizedforpeacefulpurposes,wouldhavegonealongwayinabolishingwant
andpovertyofwhichmillionsofpeopleallovertheworldarevictims.
EndofColdWar
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Inthe1970sandearly1980s,somebeginningsweremadetoendtheColdWar.Agreements
werereachedbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUniontoeliminatesomecategoriesof
carriersofnuclearweaponsandtoreducethenumberofcertaintypesofweaponsinstalledin
certainareas.TheprocessofendingtheColdWar,however,sufferedmanysetbacks,for
example:
Afghanistan
In1979,SoviettroopsenteredAfghanistan.Thisdevelopmentincreasedthetensionbetweenthe
UnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.
StarWars
TheUnitedStateslaunchedaprogrammeofdevelopingnewandevenmoredeadlyweapons,
popularlyknownastheStarWars.Theseweaponswouldhavemeanttakingtheconflictinto
outerspaceandlaunchingattacksfromthere.
However,theworldsituationbegantoimproveafterthemid1980sandbytheendofthe1980s
itcouldbesaidwithmuchcertaintythattheeraofColdWarhadcametoanend.Byearly
1989,SoviettroopswerewithdrawnfromAfghanistan.Manyotherchangestookplacefromthe
late1980sanditisgenerallyagreedthatwearenowlivinginapostColdWarworld.Thiscan
beconsideredasthemostsignificantandpositivedevelopmentthathastakenplaceinrecent
years.
NONALIGNEDMOVEMENT(NAM)
ManynewlyindependentnationsofAsiaandAfricaaswellasmanynationsinothercontinents
didnotlikethemilitaryblocs.Theybegantofollowapolicyofnonalignmentwithanymilitary
bloc.TheiremergenceplayedaveryimportantroleinreducingtheintensityoftheColdWar
andincreatinganatmosphereofpeace.Acrucialroleinpromotingnonalignmentandpeace
wasplayedbyIndiaafterherindependence.
TheemergenceofthecountriesofAsiaandAfricaasindependentnationsmarkedanewphase
inthehistoryoftheworld.Thesecountrieswhichhadbeensuppressedandkeptunder
subjugationforalongtimecametotheirownandbegantoplayanimportantroleintheworld.
SimilardevelopmentshavealsotakenplaceinCentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean.
ThecountrieswhichwereunderEuropeancolonialruleinthispartoftheworldhavebecome
independentTheUnitedStatesfrequentlyinterferedintheinternalaffairsofthesecountries,
particularlywhenradicalgovernmentscametopowerandtriedtoasserttheirpoliticaland
economicindependence.OneofthesignificantdevelopmentsinthisregionwastheCuban
revolutionwhichoverthrewthecorruptanddictatorialgovernmentheadedbyBatistaon31
December1958.In1961,theUnitedStatessentmercenariestoCubabuttheinvasionendedina
fiascoandwascrushedinlessthanthreedays.
Havingcommonproblemsandsharingcommonaspirations,thepeoplesofthesecountries
begantoacttogetheralthoughtherewasnoorganizationbindingthem.However,theybeganto
developsomecommonunderstandingonworldaffairs,particularlyonthequestionofthe
independenceofnationswhichwerestillunderforeignrule.
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BandungConference
In1955,animportanteventtookplacewhichhelpedtostrengthentheunityofAfricanand
Asiancountries.ThiswastheAfroAsianconferencewhichwasheldatBandunginIndonesia.
Theconferencewasattendedby23Asianand6Africancountries.TheleadersofthreeAsian
nations,India,ChinaandIndonesiaplayedanimportantroleinthedeliberationsofthis
conference.ThegrowingimportanceoftheAfroAsiancountrieswasreflectedintheUnited
NationswhereonanumberofissuesthecountriesofAsiaandAfricafunctionedasagroup.
NAM:oppositiontoMilitaryblocs
AnothersignificantdevelopmentintheworldaftertheindependenceofAsianandAfrican
countrieswastheemergenceofNonAlignedMovement.YouhavereadbeforeabouttheCold
Warandtheformationofmilitaryblocsandthegrowthoftensioninmanypartsoftheworld.
MostofthenewlyindependentcountriesofAsiaandAfricarefusedtojointheColdWar.They
consideredtheformationofmilitaryblocsasaseriousdangertopeaceandtotheir
independence.Thesecountrieswerefacedwiththeenormoustaskofsocialandeconomic
reconstructionwhichcouldbedoneonlyinaworldfreefromwarandtension.Somecountries
inAsiahadjoinedthemilitaryalliancesandhadallowedforeignbasestobesetupontheirsoil.
Theextensionofmilitaryalliancesandthesettingupofforeignbaseswereconsideredbymost
AsiancountriesasathreattotheirIndependenceandasourceoftension.Hencetheyopposed
thesealliances.Theywerealsoawareofthedangerwhichthecontinuanceofimperialismin
somepartsofAsiaandAfricaposedtothemandtoworldpeace.TheNonAlignednationsof
AsiaandAfrica,therefore,wereintheforefrontofthestrugglefortheliquidationof
colonialism.Nonalignmenthasprimarilybeenapolicyaimingatthestrengtheningof
independence,endingofcolonialismandpromohngworldpeace.Itwasnotmerelyapolicyof
noninvolvementwithmilitaryblocsbutapolicyforcreatingabetterworld.
IndiaunderthePrimeMinistershipofJawaharlalNehruplayedapioneeringroleinmaking
nonalignmentamajorforceintheworld.Theotherleaderswhoplayedanimportantroleinthe
NonAlignedmovementwere:
President
Sukarno
Nasser
Tito
Country
Indonesia
Egypt
Yugoslavia
NAM:BelgradeSummit
ThefirstsummitconferenceofNonAlignednationswasheldatBelgradeinYugoslaviain
September1961.Itwasattendedbyheadsofstateorgovernmentof25countries.Besides
YugoslaviaandCuba,fromEuropeandtheAmericas,respectively,theotherparticipating
countrieswerefromAsiaandAfrica.Threeothercountriesattendedasobservers.Thestatement
issuedattheendofthisconferenceaffirmedthebasicprinciplesofnonalignmentsuchas
1.
2.
3.
4.
thestabilizationofpeace
liquidationofcolonialismandimperialisminalltheirforms
peacefulcoexistencebetweennations
condemnationofracialdiscrimination
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5.
6.
7.
8.
oppositiontomilitaryalliances
disarmament
respectforhumanrights
establishmentofeconomicrelationsbetweennationsbasedonequalityandfreefrom
exploitation
Thepopularityofthepolicyofnonalignmentwasreflectedbythenumberofcountrieswhich
joinedthegroupofNonAlignednations.Beginningwith25Countrieswhichattendedthe
Belgradeconferencein1961,therearetoday109countrieswhicharefollowingthepolicyof
nonalignment.TheyaredrawnfromAsia,Africa,EuropeandtheAmericas.TheTenthSummit
oftheNonAlignedMovementwasheldatJakarta,inIndonesia,inSeptember1992.The
SeventhSummithadbeenheldatNewDelhiwithIndiasPrimeMinisterIndiraGandhiasthe
Chairperson,andtheSixthSummitatHavana,inCuba,in1979undertheChairmanshipof
PresidentFidelCastro.TwomovementsofnationalliberationthePalestineLiberation
OrganizationandSouthWestAfricaPeoplesOrganizationweremadefullfledgedmember
statesoftheNonAlignedMovement.(Asmentionedearlier,Namibia,whosestrugglefor
independencewasledbySWAPO,hasalreadybecomeindependent),AllcountriesofAfrica,
includingSouthAfrica,aremembersoftheNonAlignedMovement.
Movementhasplayedaveryimportantroleinworldaffairs,particularlyinendingcolonialism
andinpromotingpeace.TheNonAlignedcountriesarealsoworkingforthecreationofanew
internationaleconomicorderinwhichtheeconomicrelationsbetweennationswouldbebased
onequality,nonexploitationofonenationbyanother,andthenarrowingdownofeconomic
disparitiesbetweennations.
Nehrusspeech@1stNAMconference
ThewordNonAlignedmaybedifferentlyinterpreted,butbasicallyitwascoinedandusedwith
themeaningofbeingNonAlignedwiththegreatpowerblocsoftheworldNonAlignedhasa
negativemeaning.Butifwegiveitapositiveconnotationitmeansnationswhichobjectto
liningupforwarpurposes,tomilitaryblocs,tomilitaryalliancesandthelike.Wekeepaway
fromsuchanapproachandwewanttothrowourweightinfavourofpeace.Ineffect,therefore,
whenthereisacrisisinvolvingthepossibilityofwar,theveryfactthatweareunalignedshould
stirustofeelthatmorethaneveritisuptoustodowhateverwecantopreventsuchacalamity
downuponus
Somesix,sevenoreightyearsago,nonalignmentwasararephenomenon.Afewcountrieshere
andthereaskedaboutitandothercountriesrathermadefunofitoratanyratedidnottakeit
seriously.NonalignmentWhatisthis?Youmustbeonthissideorthat!thatwasthe
argument.Thatargumentisdeadtoday,thewholecourseofhistoryofthelastfewyearshad
shownagrowingopinionspreadinfavouroftheconceptofnonalignment.Why?Becauseit
wasintunewiththecourseofevents,itwasintunewiththethinkingofthevastnumbersof
people,whetherthecountryconcernedwasNonAlignedornot,becausetheyhungered
passionatelyforpeaceanddidnotlikethismassingupofvastarmiesandnuclearbombson
eitherside.Therefore,theirmindsturnedtothosecountrieswhorefusedtolineup.
Themostfundamentalfactoftheworldtodayisthedevelopmentofnewandmightyforces.We
havetothinkintermsofthenewworld.Thereisnodoubtthatimperialismandtheoldstyle
colonialismwillvanish.Yetthenewforcesmayhelpotherstodominateinotherwaysoverus,
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andcertainlytheunderdevelopedandthebackward.Therefore,wecannotaffordtobe
backward.
WehavetobuildinourowncountriessocietieswherefreedomisrealFreedomisessential,
becausefreedomwillgiveusstrengthandenableustobuildprosperoussocieties.Thesearefor
usbasicproblems.Whenwethinkintermsofthesebasicproblems,warbecomesaneven
greaterfollythanever.Ifwecannotpreventwar,allourproblemssufferandwecannotdeal
withthem.Butifwecanpreventwar,wecangoaheadinsolvingourotherproblems.Wecan
helptoliberatethepartsoftheworldundercolonialandimperialruleandwecanbuildupour
ownfree,prosperoussocietiesinourrespectivecountries.Thatispositiveworkforustodo.
Innextpartswewillsee:
3. IndependenceofAsiancountriesafterWW2+KoreanandVietnamWar.
4. IndependenceofAfrica
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh13:Neocolonization,VietnamWar
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych13]AfterWW2:Asian
Independence,Koreanwar,VietnamWar,KhmerRouge(Part
3of4)
1. AsianCountries:Independence
2. India
3. Burma
4. Indonesia
5. SriLanka,Thailand,PhilippinesandMalaysia
6. ChineseRevolution
7. TheKoreanWar
8. VietnamPartition
9. VietnamWar
10. Cambodia:KhmerRouge
AsianCountries:Independence
TheriseandgrowthofnationalisminAsiaandAfricahasbeenbrieflymentionedinChapter
12.TheperiodaftertheSecondWorldWarsawtheemergenceofmostcountriesofAsiaand
Africaasindependentnations.Onecountryafteranotherinthesecontinentsbecame
independent.Theywontheirindependencethroughlongandhardstrugglesagainstcolonial
powers.Tosomecountriesindependencecameonlyafterlongandbitterarmed,struggle,to
otherswithoutmuchbloodshedbutnotwithoutalongperiodofstrife.Generally,thecolonial
powerswerenotwillingtogiveuptheirholdonthecoloniesandleftonlywhentheyfoundthat
itwasnotpossibletomaintaintheirruleanymore,DuringtheSecondWorldWar,many
imperialistcountrieshadbeenoustedfromtheircolonies,butafterthewartheytriedto
reestablishtheirrule.Forsometimetheysucceededindoingsobutwereultimatelyforcedto
withdraw.
Theachievementofindependencewastheresultprimarilyofthestrugglesofthepeoplesofthe
colonies.However,thechangesintheinternationalclimatewhichfollowedtheSecondWorld
WarhelpedthepeoplesstrugglingforindependenceImperialismasawholehadbeenweakened
asaresultofthewar.Theeconomiesofmanyimperialistcountrieshadsuffered.Forceswithin
theimperialistcountrieswhichwerefriendlywiththepeoplesstrugglingforindependencealso
hadgrownpowerful.FreedomanddemocracywerethemajoraimsforwhichtheAllieshad
foughtagainstthefascistcountriesandtheseaimshadbeenmadethebasisforarousingpeoples
allovertheworldagainstfascism.Thefulfilmentoftheseaimscouldnolongerbeconfined
onlytoEurope,ashadbeendoneaftertheFirstWorldWar.Inmanycolonieswhichfascist
countrieshadoccupiedbyoustingtheoldercolonialpowers,thefreedommovementshad
playedanimportantroleinthestruggleagainstfascistoccupation.Forexample,Japanhadto
facetheresistanceofthefreedommovementsinthecountriesofEastandSouthEastAsiawhich
shehadoccupied.Itwasnoteasytorestoretheruleoftheformercolonialpowersoverthese
countries.
Anothermajorinternationalfactorwhichfacilitatedtheendofimperialismwastheemergence
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oftheSovietUnionandothersocialistcountriesasamajorforce.Thesecountrieswereinimical
toimperialismandoftengaveaidandsupporttothefreedommovementsinthecolonies.
Similarly,themovementsofsocialismwhichhadgrownpowerfultheworldover,includingin
thecolonialcountries,alsosupportedthemovementsoffreedominthecolonies.
Theentireinternationalcontextinwhichthefreedommovementswerelaunchedhadchanged
aftertheSecondWorldWar.Attheinternationalforums,particularlyattheUnitedNations,the
causeoftheindependenceofcoloniesbegantogainpopularity.Theinternationalopinionwas
clearlyagainstthecontinuationofimperialism.Imperialistcountriesresortedtovariousmeans
tomaintaintheirrule.Theytriedtocreatedivisionsinthefreedommovements.Theyresortedto
theuseofterror.Insomecountriestheytriedtoinstallgovernmentswhichwerenominallyfree
butwereinfacttheirpuppets.However,mostofthefreedommovementswereabletodefeat
thesemethodsofdisruption.
AnimportantroleintheachievementofindependencebythecountriesofAsiaandAfricawas
playedbytheunitywhichfreedommovementsinvariouscountriesachieved.Thefreedom
movementinonecountrysupportedthefreedommovementsinothercountries.Theroleof
countrieswhichhadachievedtheirindependencewasverycrucialinthisregard.These
countriessupportedthecauseofthosepeopleswhowerestillundercolonialruleattheUnited
Nationsandotherinternationalforums.Theyalsogaveactivehelptothefreedommovements.
IndiaplayedacrucialroleinpromotingthecauseoffreedominAsiaandAfrica.Besidesthe
movementsinthecoloniesforindependence,therewerealsomovementsinAsianandAfrican
countriestooustoutdatedpoliticalsystems,tomodernizethesocialandeconomicsystemsand
toassumecontrolovertheresourcesofonescountrywhichhadremainedunderforeigncontrol
evenafterfreedom.ThesemovementsexpressedtheresolveofthepeoplesofAsiaandAfrica
tobecomefullyindependentaswellastolaunchprogrammesofrapidsocialandeconomic
development.WithintwodecadesoftheendoftheSecondWorldWar,thepoliticalmapof
AsiaandAfricahadbeencompletelychanged.
India
WithinafewyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar,alargenumberofAsiancountriesbecame
independentOneofthefirsttowinherindependencewasIndia.Indiahad,however,been
partitionedandalongwithIndia,anotherindependentstate,Pakistan,alsocameintobeing.
(Pakistanbrokeupin1971whenhereasternpartnowBangladeshbecameindependent).
TheindependenceofIndiawasofgreatimportanceinthehistoryoffreedommovementsin
AsiaandAfrica.ThepoliciespursuedbythegovernmentofindependentIndiaunderthe
leadershipherfirstPrimeminister,JawaharlalNehru,helpedinstrengtheningthefreedom
movementsinothercountriesandinhasteningtheachievementofindependencebythem.
Burma
Burma,renamedMyanmarrecently,achievedherindependencefromBritainafewmonthsafter
Indiabecameindependent.In1944,theAntifascistPeoplesFreedomLeague(AFPFL)had
beenformedinBurma.ItsaimwastoresisttheJapaneseinvasionofBurmaandtowin
independenceforBurma.Afterthewar,theBritishtriedtorestoretheirruleoverBurma.This
ledtotheintensificationofthemovementforfreedom.Inthecourseofthestruggle,many
leadersoftheBurmesefreedommovementwereassassinated.However,Britainwasforcedto
agreetothedemandforfreedomandBurmabecameindependenton4January1948.
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Indonesia
ThebeginningofthenationalistmovementinIndonesiahasbeenreferredtointheprevious
chapter.AfterthedefeatofJapan,Sukarno,oneofthepioneersofthefreedommovementin
Indonesia,proclaimedtheindependenceofIndonesia.However,soonaftertheBritishtroops
landedthereinordertohelptheDutchtorestoretheirrule.Thegovernmentofindependent
IndonesiawhichhadbeenformedbySukarnoresistedtheattempttoreestablishcolonialrule.
Thereweredemandsinmanycountriesoftheworldtoputanendtothewarwhichhadbeen
startedinIndonesiatorestoretheDutchrule.InAsiancountries,thereactionwasparticularly
intense.TheleadersoftheIndianfreedommovementdemandedthatIndiansoldiers,whohad
beensenttoIndonesiaasapartoftheBritisharmyshouldbewithdrawn.AfterIndiabecame
free,sheconvenedaconferenceofAsiannationsinsupportofIndonesiasindependence.The
conferencemetinNewDelhiinJanuary1949andcalledforthecompleteindependenceof
Indonesia.TheresistanceoftheIndonesianpeopleandthemountingpressureofworldopinion
andAsiancountriescompelledHollandtosettheleadersofIndonesianpeoplefree.On2
November1949,HollandrecognizedtheindependenceofIndonesia.
SriLanka,Thailand,PhilippinesandMalaysia
Withinafewmonthsof,Indiasindependence,SriLanka(Ceylon)also
becamefreeinFebruary1948.
ThailandhadbeenoccupiedbyJapanandafterthedefeatofJapanbecame
THAILAND
independent.
Duringthewar,JapanhaddrivenouttheAmericanforcesfromthe
PHILIPPINES Philippines.In1946,thegovernmentoftheUnitedStatesagreedtothe
independenceofthePhilippines.
InMalayaBritishrulehadbeenreestablishedafterthewar.In1957,Malaya
MALAYASIA
(nowMalaysia)becameanindependentnation.
SRILANKA
ChineseRevolution
YouhavereadearlierabouttheunitybetweentheKuomintangandtheCommunistPartyof
ChinawhichhadbeenbuiltundertheleadershipofDr.SunYatSenforthecomplete
independenceandunificationofChina.ThisunityhadbeenbrokenafterthedeathofSunYat
SenandacivilwarstartedinChinabetweentheKuomintangundertheleadershipofChiang
KaiShekandtheCommunistPartyofChina,whosemostimportantleaderwasMaoZedong.
AftertheJapaneseinvasionofChina,thetwopartiesandtheirarmiescooperatedforsometime
toresisttheJapaneseaggression.However,theconflictsbetweenthetwoneverceased.The
KuomintangunderChiangKaiShekwasapartywhichmainlyrepresentedtheinterestsof
capitalistsandlandlords.TheCommunistParty,ontheotherhand,wasapartyofworkersand
peasants.IntheareasunderCommunistPartyscontrol,theestatesoflandlordshadbeen
expropriatedandthelanddistributedamongthepeasants.Becauseofthepoliciespursuedby
theCommunistParty,itgraduallyhadwonovermillionsofChinesepeopletoitsside.The
CommunistPartyhadalsoorganizedahugearmycalledthePeoplesLiberationArmy(PLA).
AfterthedefeatofJapanandthedrivingoutoftheJapaneseforcesfromChina,thecivilwar
againbrokeout.ThegovernmentoftheUnitedStatedgavemassiveaidtoChiangKaiShek,but
by1949hisarmieswerecompletelyrouted.Withtheremnantsofhistroops,ChiangKaiShek
wenttoTaiwan(Formosa),anislandwhichhadbeenoccupiedbyJapanaftershehaddefeated
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Chinain1895.Seethemap:
On1stOctober1949,thePeoplesRepublicofChinawasproclaimedandtheCommunistParty
ofChinaundertheleadershipofMaoZedongCametopower.
ThevictoryoftheCommunistrevolutioninChinawasaworldshakingevent.Themost
populouscountryintheworldhadcomeundercommunistrule.Besidesthesocialistcountries
ofEurope,therewerenowtwomightypowersintheworldtheSovietUnionandChina
Whichwereruledbycommunistparties.ImperialismwasfurtherweakenedinAsiaasaresult
oftheChineserevolution.
ChinavsUSA
TheestablishmentofthePeoplesRepublicofChinawasadefeatfortheUnitedStates.She
refusedtorecognizethegovernmentofChinaforovertwodecades.AccordingtotheUnited
States,thelegalgovernmentofChinawasthatofChiangKaiShekinTaiwan(Formosa).
BecauseoftheUSattitude,themostpopulouscountryintheworldwasdeniedeven
membershipoftheUnitedNationsforovertwodecades.
ChinavsIndia
Formanyyears,friendlyrelationsexistedbetweenIndiaandChina.Together,thetwocountries
playedaveryimportantroleinthefreedommovementsofthepeoplesofAsiaandAfricaandin
bringingabouttheunityoftheAsianandAfricannations.However,towardstheendofthe
1950s,theforeignpolicyoftheChinesegovernmentbegantochange.In1962,China
committedaggressionagainstIndiawhichdealtasevereblownotonlytothefriendship
betweenIndiaandChinabutalsototheunityofAsianAfricannations.Chinasrelationswith
theSovietUnionalsobegantodeteriorate.ShesupportedPakistanagainstIndiaovervarious
issues.After1970,herrelationswiththeUnitedStatesbegantoimprove.Shewasadmittedto
theUnitedNationsandisnowoneofthefivepermanentmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncil
(UNSC).
ChinaafterMao
ThereweremanyturmoilsinthepoliticalandeconomiclifeofChinaaftertheestablishmentof
communistrulethere.AfterthedeathofMaoZedongin1975,manychangeshavetakenplace
intheeconomicpoliciesofthecountry.Theseareaimedatmodernizingtheeconomy.Forthis,
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foreigncompaniesandforeigncapitalhavebeeninvitedandareplayinganimportantrole.
Manypracticeswhichwereatonetimeconsideredbasictotheconceptofsocialismhavebeen
givenup.TherehavealsobeenchangesinChinasforeignpolicy.Therehasbeenan
improvementinChinasrelationswithIndia.InthepoliticallifeofChina,however,therehas
beenlittlechangeanditcontinuestobeundertheexclusivecontroloftheCommunistParty.
Thedemandfordemocracyvoicedbystudentsandotherssomeyearsagowassuppressed.
TheKoreanWar
Korea,asyouhavereadbefore,hadcomeunderJapaneserulein1910.AfterJapansdefeatin
theSecondWorldWar,shewasdividedintotwozones,thenorthernzoneunderSoviet
occupationandthesouthernzoneunderAmericanoccupation,tobringaboutthesurrenderof
Japanesetroops.TheaimwastomakeKoreaanindependentstate.However,asinthecaseof
GermanyinEurope,twodifferentgovernmentsinKoreawereformedin1948.SeetheMap
DemocraticPeoplesRepublicofKorea(NorthKorea)undertheleadershipofKorean
Communists
TheRepublicofKorea(SouthKorea)byagroupofpartiesundertheleadershipof
South
SyngmanRhee.
North
RheewasananticommunistandwantedanalliancewithChiangKaiShektopreventthespread
ofcommunism.Boththestatesorganizedtheirarmiesandtherewerefrequentclashesbetween
them.In1948,theSoviettroopswithdrewfromKoreafollowedbytheAmericantroopswho
withdrewin1949.BoththegovernmentsofKoreafavouredunificationofthecountrybutthere
wasnomeetinggroundbetweenthem.
InJune1950warbrokeoutbetweenNorthandSouthKorea.TheChineserevolutionhad
alreadytakenplaceandtheUnitedStatesfearedfurtherexpansionofcommunisminthisarea.
TheUnitedStatessenttroopstosupportSouthKoreainthewar.Troopsfromsomeother
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countriesalignedwiththeUnitedStatesalsofoughtinKorea.Thesetroopsfoughtasthetroops
oftheUnitedNationsbecausetheSecurityCounciloftheUnitedNationshadpasseda
resolutioncondemningNorthKoreaandhadaskedmembersoftheUnitedNationstoaidSouth
Korea.AftertheentryoftheAmericanforcesinthewar,theChineseforcesalsoenteredthe
warandthesituationtookaveryseriousturn.Therewasarealdangerofanotherworldwar
breakingout,asbythistimetheSovietUnionalsohadacquiredatomicbombs.However,
thoughthewarinKorearagedforthreeyears,itdidnotturnintoaworldwar.Thearmistice
wassignedin1953Korearemaineddividedintotwoseparatestates.Indiaplayedavery
importantroleinbringingthewarinKoreatoanend.Eventhoughthewarwasconfinedto
Korea,hundredsofthousandsofpeoplewerekilled,includingover142,000Americans.
TheKoreanwaraddedtothedangerofanotherworldwar.Italsoworsenedthetensionsinthe
worldandledtotheintensificationoftheColdWar.
VietnamPartition
OneofthemostheroicbattlesforfreedomwasfoughtbythepeopleofVietnam.Thiscountry
alongwithLaosandCambodiacomprisedIndoChinawhichhadcomeunderFrenchcolonial
rule.AftertheFrenchgovernmentsurrenderedtoGermany,manypartsofIndoChinawere
occupiedbyJapan.ThemovementforthefreedomofIndoChinafromFrenchrulehadstarted
manyyearsearlier.ThegreatestleaderofthepeopleofVietnamwasHoChiMinh.Hehadbeen
engagedinorganizingthecommunistandthenationalistmovementsinVietnamsincesoon
aftertheendoftheFirstWorldWar.TheVietnamesepeopleunderHoChiMinhsleadership
resistedtheJapaneseoccupationandorganizedapeoplesarmycalledtheVietMinh.Bythe
timetheSecondWorldWarended,theVietMirthcontrolledalargepartofVietnam.InAugust
1945,theDemocraticRepublicofVietnamwasproclaimedwithHoChiMinhasPresident.
However,theBritishtroopsaswellasthetroopsofChiangKaiShekarrivedinVietnaminthe
pretextofcompletingthesurrenderofJapanesetroopsthere.InOctober1945,theFrenchtroops
alsoarrivedwiththeaimofrestoringFrenchrule.In1946,theFrencharmystartedfighting
againsttheVietMinh.TheyalsosetupagovernmentwithBaoDal,whohadheadedthepuppet
governmentunderJapanearlier,astheruler.ThewarbetweentheVietMinhandFrance
continuedforeightyears.In1954,theFrenchforcessufferedasevereblowatthehandsofthe
donetoVietnamasaresultoftheheavyVietMinhatthefortressofDienBienPhu.The
FrenchdefeatatDienBienPhuhasbecomefamousbecauseapeoplesarmywithoutany
sophisticateddefeatedthearmyofapowerfulimperialistcountry.ThedebacleatDienBien
PhucompelledtheFrenchgovernmenttostartnegotiationswiththegovernmentofDemocratic
RepublicofVietnam.InJuly1954aninternationalconferencewasheldatGeneva.Itwas
agreedtopartitionVietnamtemporarilyintoNorthVietnamSouthVietnamandtohold
electionsalloverVietnamwithintwoyearstounifythecountryunderasinglegovernment.
CambodiaandLaos,theothertwocountriesofIndoChinaweremadeindependent.Seethe
Map:
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VietnamWar
WiththepartitionofVietnam,anotherphaseinthefreedommovementinVietnambegan.The
governmentthatwasestablishedinSouthVietnam,withthesupportoftheUnitedStates,
refusedtoabidebythedecisionsoftheGenevaconferencewithregardtotheholdingof
electionsandtheunificationofVietnam.Itcametobeincreasinglyregardedasbeingunderthe
controloftheUnitedStateswhichwasopposedtotheunificationofVietnamundertheleader
shipofthecommunistparty.Intheearly1960s,uprisingsbrokeoutinSouthVietnamagainst
thegovernmentthere.ThiswasfollowedbythemassivemilitaryinterventionoftheUnited
StatesinVietnam.HundredsofthousandsofAmericantroopsweresenttherewithsomeofthe
mostadvancedweaponrytosuppressthepopularuprising.Thewarcontinuedforanumberof
years.TheSouthVietnamesepeopleledbytheNationalLiberationFrontcarriedonguerilla
warfare.TheyhadthesupportofNorthVietnam.TheAmericantroopscarriedthewarinto
NorthVietnam.IncalculabledamagewasdonetoVietnamasaresultoftheheavybombingsby
Americanforces.TheAmericantroopsalsousedweaponsofbacteriologicalwarfare.Vastareas
ofVietnamweredevastatedandhundredsofthousandsofpeoplekilled,TheAmericanforces
alsosufferedheavycasualties.
TheUnitedStateswasalmostcompletelyisolatedintheworldoverthewarinVietnam.Besides
theoppositiontothiswarbyscoresofgovernments,therewasaworldwidemovementof
protestagainsttheU.S.governmentandofsolidaritywiththepeopleofVietnam.Theonly
movementofthiskindhademergedinthe1930sinsupportoftheRepublicancauseinthe
SpanishCivilWarandagainstGermanyandItalywhowereactivelyhelpingthefascistsin
Spain.TheoppositiontothewargrewintheUnitedStatesitselfonanunprecedentedscale.
ThousandsofAmericansrefusedtobedraftedintheU.S.armyandmanyAmericansoldiers
deserted.Noothersingleissuehadunitedmillionsofpeopleallovertheworldasthewarin
Vietnam.However,theU.Sgovernmentcontinuedthewareventhoughitwasclearthatshe
couldnotwinit.
Earlyin1975,thewartookadecisiveturn.ThearmiesofNorthVietnamandoftheNational
LiberationFrontofSouthVietnamsweptacrossthecountryroutingtheAmericansupported
troopsofthegovernmentofSouthVietnam.InJanuary1973,theAmericantroopshadbegunto
withdrawfromVietnam.DuringthewarinVietnam,58,000ofthemhadlosttheirlives.By30
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April1975,alltheAmericantroopshadwithdrawnandthecapitalofSouthVietnam,Saigon,
wasliberated.NorthandSouthVietnamwereformallyunitedasonecountryin1976.Thecity
ofSaigonwasrenamedHoChiMinhCityafterthegreatleaderoftheVietnamesepeoplewho
haddiedafewyearsearlierin1969.
TheemergenceofVietnamasaunitedandindependentnationisanhistoriceventinthehistory
oftheworld.Asmallcountryhadsucceededinwinningherindependenceandunificationinthe
faceofthearmedoppositionofthegreatestpowerintheworld.ThehelpgiventoVietnamby
thesocialistcountries,thepoliticalsupportextendedtoherbyalargenumberofAsianand
Africancountries,andthesolidarityexpressedbythepeoplesinallpartsoftheworldhad
helpedinbringingvictorytothepeopleofVietnam.
Cambodia:KhmerRouge
ThewarinVietnamhadalsospreadtoCambodiaIn1970,thegovernmentofPrinceNarodom
Sihanoukwasoverthrownandapuppetgovernmentwasinstalledthere.ThetroopsoftheUSA
andSouthVietnamhadcarriedthewartoCambodiaonthegroundthattheVietnamesewere
receivingtheirsuppliesfrombasesinCambodia.BythetimetheUnitedStateswithdrewfrom
thewarin1975,apartywhichcalleditselfKhmerRougehadtakencontrolofCambodiaunder
theleadershipofPolPot.ThegovernmentofPolPotestablishedaregimeofterrorinCambodia
andstartedfollowingapolicyofgenocideagainstitsownpeople.Theestimatesofpeople
murderedbytheKhmerRougevaryfromonetothreemillion.
GenocidebyKhmerRougeTroops
In1979,PolPotsgovernmentwasoverthrownwiththehelpofVietnamesetroops.However,
thewarinCambodiacontinuedastheKhmerRougestillhadsomeareasunderitscontrolinside
thecountry.ItalsooperatedfromacrosstheborderwithThailand.Inthemeantime,three
groups,includingtheKhmerRougeandthegroupledbyNarodomSihanouk,cametogetherin
oppositiontothegovernmentinCambodiawhichwassupportedbyVietnam.
PeacewasrestoredinCambodiarecently.TheUnitedNationsbroughtthevariouswarring
factionstogetherandanagreementwassignedundertheauspicesoftheUnitedNations.The
VietnamesetroopswerewithdrawnfromCambodia.In1993,electionswereheldanda
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coalitiongovernmentwasformed.TheKhmerRouge,however,remainedoutsidethe
governmentanditstroopscontinuedtheirarmedattacksinsomepartsofthecountry.
Inthenext(andlast)partofChapter13,wellseetheIndependenceofAfrica.
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MrunalOldNCERTWorldHistoryCh13:AfricanIndependence
[OldNCERTWorldHistorych13]AfterWW2:African
Independence:Egypt,FrenchGuniea,MauMaurebellion,
Apartheid(Part4of4)
1. WestAsia
2. SyriaandLebanon
3. Israel
4. AfricanIndependence
5. Egypt:Naseer
6. Libya:Gaddafi
7. Algeria:DeGaulle
8. GoldCoast=GHANA:Nkrumah
9. Guinea
10. Kenya:MauMaurebellion
11. PortugueseColonies
12. SouthAfrica:apartheid
13. NelsonMandela
14. Namibia
15. AFRICARenamingofPlaces
16. World@1990
17. EXERCISES
WestAsia
SyriaandLebanon
AsinotherpartsofAsia,therewasanupsurgeforfreedominWestAsiaalsoimmediatelyafter
theSecondWorldWar.Youhavereadinthepreviouschapteraboutthemovementofthe
peopleofSyriaagainsttheFrenchrule.Afterthewar,theFrenchtriedtorestoretheirauthority
overSyriaandLebanonbut,inthefaceofoppositionfromthepeopleofthesecountriesandthe
worldopinion,theywereforcedtowithdraw.BothSyriaandLebanonbecameindependentby
theendof1946.
TherewasanupsurgeinalltheArabcountriesatthistimeandthe1950ssawtheiremergence
asindependentnations.Somecountrieswhichhadbeennominallyfreeassertedtheir
independence.Therewerealsomovementstooverthrowtheoutdatedpoliticalsystemswhich
existedinsomecountries.Alltheseledtoconflictsand,insomecases,prolongedwarsbetween
theArabcountriesandtheimperialistpowers.TheperiodsawthegrowingpowerofArab
nationalismwhichledtoeffortsbytheArabpeopleandgovernmentstocometogethertoface
andsolvecommonproblems.TheArabLeaguewasformedcomprisingalltheArabstates.
However,beforemanyoftheArabcountriescouldgaintheirindependence,adevelopmenttook
placeinWestAsiawhichwastobecomeasourceoftensionandleadtomanywarsintheyears
tocome.ThiswasthecreationofthestateofIsrael.
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Israel
Mrunal:IsraelPalestinehasbeendiscussedindetailinaseparatearticle:clickme
Palestine,ashasbeenmentionedbefore,hadbecomeaBritishmandatein1919.TheBritish
troopsagainoccupiedthecountryin1945.PalestinewasinhabitedbyArabsandJews.A
movementcalledtheZionistmovementclaimedthatPalestinewasthehomelandofallthe
Jews,wherevertheymaybeliving,andshouldberestoredtothem.Thepersecutionwhichthe
JewsinEuropehadsufferedforcenturieshadculminatedintheNaziGermanyspolicyof
exterminatingthem.MillionsofJewswerekilledinGermanyandinthosecountriesofEurope
whichhadbeenoccupiedbyGermany.Theterribletragedyhadwonthemthesympathyand
supportoftheworld.
TheBritishinPalestinehadpermittedsomeJewsfromoutsidePalestinetosettlethere.The
Zionistshad,meanwhile,beencampaigningforaJewishstatethere.Thishadcomplicatedthe
freedommovementinPalestinethemajorityofwhoseinhabitantswereArabs.In1947the
UnitedNationspassedaresolutionaccordingtowhichPalestinewastobedividedintoanArab
stateandaJewishstate.However,in1948,theBritishwithdrewtheirtroopsfromPalestineand
soonafterthestateofIsraelwasproclaimed.ThisledtoawarbetweentheArabstatesand
Israel.TheArabstatesweredefeatedinthewar.
ThecreationofIsraelbecameasourceoftensioninWestAsia.TheArabstatesrefusedto
recognizeherasalegitimatestate,ThepoliciespursuedbythegovernmentofIsraelfurther
addedtothebitterness.About900,000Arabswereforcedtoleavetheirhomesandlandsin
Palestineandwererenderedhomeless.TheyfoundshelterinvariousrefugeecampsinArab
states.MostcountriesofAsiaandAfricacondemnedtheIsraeligovernmentstreatmentofthe
ArabsofPalestineandforfollowingracistpolicies.In1956,IsraeljoinedBritainandFrancein
invadingEgypt.LatertherewereotherwarsbetweenIsraelandtheArabstatesasaresultof
whichIsraeloccupiedlargepartsoftheterritoriesofotherArabstates.
TheseterritoriesincludetheGazaStrip,theGolanHeightsandtheWestBank.Morethana
millionPalestiniansliveintheoccupiedterritories.InspiteoftheresolutionsoftheUnited
Nations,IsraelrefusetovacateArabterritoriesandrestoretherightsofthePalestinianArabs,
manyofwhomliveasrefugeesinvariousArabstates.In1964,thePalestineLiberation
Organization(PLO)wasformedtofightfortheestablishmentofaPalestinianstate.Itenjoys
thestatusofamemberstateoftheNonAlignedMovement.Recentlyanagreementwassigned
betweenthegovernmentofIsraelandthePLO.Underthisagreement,thePLOrecognizedthe
stateofIsraelandthegovernmentofIsraelagreedtogivethePalestiniansautonomyinsome
areaspresentlyunderIsraelioccupation.
AfricanIndependence
Youhaveseeninthe[WorldHistory]ColonizationofAfricaarticle,thatwiththeexceptionof
EthiopiaandLiberia,almosteverypartofAfricahadbeenconqueredbyEuropeanimperialist
powersbytheendofthenineteenthcentury.AftertheFirstWorldWar,theonlychangethat
tookplacetherewasthetransferoftheformerGermancoloniesinAfricatothevictorious
Alliedpowers.However,theperiodaftertheFirstWorldWarsaw,asinAsia,aresurgenceof
nationalistmovementsinAfrica.AftertheSecondWorldWar,thedisintegrationofthecolonial
ruleinAfricabegan.TheachievementofindependencebyNorthAfricancountrieshasbeen
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mentionedalready.ThecountriesofsouthernAfricabegantogaintheirindependenceafterthe
mid1950s.Withintwodecades,almosteverycountryinAfrica,withtheexceptionofSouth
AfricaandSouthWestAfrica(Namibia),becameindependent.
ThefreedommovementsinAfrica,asinotherpartsoftheworld,weretheconsequenceofthe
growthofnationalismandtheincreasingresentmentagainsttheexploitationandoppressionby
thecolonialcountries.Theinternationalsituationfurtherstrengthenedthesemovements.The
SecondWorldWarhadresultedinthegeneralweakeningofimperialism.Ithadalsoshattered
themythoftheinvincibilityofsomemajorcolonialpowersinAfricasuchasFranceand
BelgiumwhichhadsuffereddefeatinEuropeduringthewar.Thecollapseofcolonialismin
Asiawithinafewyearsafterthewaralsohadatremendousimpactonfreedommovementsin
Africa.ThequestionofAfricasfreedomgraduallybecameoneofthemajorissuesintheworld.
Egypt:Naseer
Recallthe[WorldHistory]ColonizationofAfricaarticle.AftertheFirstWorldWar,Egypthad
becomeaBritishmandate.However,underthepressureofthenationalistmovement,Egypt
hadbeendeclaredindependentin1922,thoughBritishtroopscontinuedtoremainthere.After
theSecondWorldWar,thedemandforthewithdrawalofBritishtroopsgainedstrength.There
wereseriousclashesbetweentheEgyptiansandtheBritishsoldiersinwhichhundredsof
Egyptianswerekilled.ThediscontentwasalsodirectedagainstthekingofEgyptwhohadbeen
installedbytheBritish.ThediscontentagainsttheBritishandthekingledtoarevolutionin
1952whentheEgyptianarmyundertheleadershipofLt.ColonelGamalAbdalNaseerand
GeneralMuhammadNaguiboverthrewthemonarchyanddeclaredEgyptarepublic.Thenew
EgyptiangovernmentdemandedthewithdrawalofBritishtroopsandtheywerewithdrawnin
June1956.
ThegovernmentofEgyptundertheleadershipofColNasserbegantheeconomicreconstruction
ofthecountry.EgyptrefusedtobealignedwiththeUnitedStatesandthelatterstoppedthesale
ofarmstoEgypt.Egypt,however,begantoreceivemilitaryandeconomicaidfromtheSoviet
Union.In1956,EgyptannouncedthenationalizationtotheSuezCanalwhichhadbeenunder
thecontrolofBritainandFrance.Threemonthslater,Israel,BritainandFrance,accordingtoa
plan,invadedEgypt.TheaggressioncommittedagainstEgyptledtoworldwideprotests.The
countriesofAsiavoicedtheirvehementcondemnationoftheinvasion.Thereweremassive
protestdemonstrationsagainsttheBritishgovernmentinsideBritainalso.TheSovietUnion
warnedtheaggressorcountriesthatunlesstheywithdrewfromEgypt,shewouldsendherforces
tocrushtheaggressors.Almosteverycountryintheworld,includingtheUnitedStates,
denouncedBritain,FranceandIsraelintheUnitedNations.Theuniversalcondemnationof
aggressionledtothewithdrawalofBritishandFrenchforcesfromEgypt.Theendingof
aggressionstrengthenedfurthertheunityofAsianandAfricancountriesingeneralandofArab
countriesinparticular.Italsoshowedthegrowingstrengthofthecountrieswhichhadwontheir
independenceonlyafewyearsago.TheSuezWaralsoaddedtotheprestigeandinfluenceof
theSovietUnionasafriendofthepeopleswhoweretryingtoasserttheirindependence.
Libya:Gaddafi
In[WorldHistory]ColonizationofAfricaarticle,wesawthatLibyahadcomeunderItalian
rulein1911.DuringtheSecondWorldWar,someofthemostferociousbattlesbetween
GermanandBritishtroopswerefoughtinLibya.Attheendofthewar,thecountrywas
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occupiedbyBritainandFrance.In1951,Libyabecameindependentwithamonarchicalformof
government.From1960shebecameoneofthelargestpetroleumproducingcountriesinthe
worldandasaresultsomesectionsofLibyansocietygrewveryrichwhilethemajorityofthe
populationremainedextremelybackward.Thekingdidnotpermitanyoppositiontohisrule.
TheUnitedStatesbuiltoneofitsstrongestairbasesonLibyanterritory.In1969,agroupof
armyofficerscapturedpowerandsoonafterabolishedthemonarchy.Thenewgovernment
proclaimedthatitwouldgiveprimacytotheunityandsolidarityoftheArabpeople
Algeria:DeGaulle
The1950ssawtheemergenceofanumberofindependentnationsinNorthAfrica.However,
theindependencewasprecededbyyearsofstruggleagainsttheimperialistcountrieswhich
wantedtoretaintheircolonialpossessions.AsinIndoChina,theFrenchreturnedtoTunisia,
MoroccoandAlgeria.However,in1956TunisiaandMoroccowontheirindependence.
TheNorthAfricancountrywhichhadtowagethelongestandthehardestbattleforfreedom
wasAlgeria.ShehadbeenconqueredbyFranceasearlyas1830thoughithadtakenFrance
anotherfourdecadestofullyestablishherrulethere.AsinIndoChina,thestruggleagainst
FrenchruleinAlgeriahadalonghistorybehindit.In1954thenationalistorganisationofthe
peopleofAlgeriacalledtheFLN(NationalLiberationFront)gaveacallforanarmedstruggle
againsttheFrenchruleArmedclashesresultedinthousandsofcasualtiesonbothsides.By
1958,theAlgeriannationalistshadorganizedalargearmyoftheirownandproclaimedthe
formationofagovernmentoftherepublicofAlgeria.ThewarinAlgeriahadserious
consequencesinsideFrance.ItcreatedpoliticalinstabilityinFrance.TheCommunistPartyof
FrancealongwithmanyotherFrenchleadershadbeensupportingthecauseofAlgerian
independence.However,manysectionsintheFrencharmywereundertheinfluenceofthe
FrenchsettlersinAlgeriawhowereopposedtoanynegotiationswiththeAlgerianleadersover
thequestionofindependence.In1958,GeneraldeGaullebecamethePresidentofFrance.He
concededtherightoftheAlgerianpeopletoselfdeterminationandopenednegotiationswith
theleadersoftheFLN.
ThispolicywasopposedbysomesectionsoftheFrencharmyinAlgeria,whorevoltedagainst
deGaulleandevenmadeattemptstoassassinatehim.However,therevoltwassuppressed.On1
July1962,areferendumwasheldinAlgeriaandthepeopleofAlgeriavotedalmost
unanimouslyforindependence.On4July1962Algeriabecameanindependentrepublic.The
independenceofAlgeriahadbeenwonatthecostofover140,000Algerianlives.
GoldCoast=GHANA:Nkrumah
ThefirstcountryinsouthernAfricatogainindependencewasGhana.Therewasapowerful
kingdomofGhanainWestAfricaduringtheeighthtothetwelfthcenturies.TheBritishhad
conqueredapartofthisregiontowhichtheygavethenameGoldCoast.Themostprominent
leaderofthepeopleoftheGoldCoastcolonywasKwameNkrumah,whoin1949had
organizedtheConventionPeoplesParty.Astrongtradeunionmovementhadalsoemergedin
GoldCoast.TheConventionPeoplesPartyandthetradeunionsjoinedtogethertodemand
independencefromBritain.However,mostoftheirleaderswerearrestedandattemptswere
madetosuppressthedemandforfreedom.After1950,theBritishgovernmentstarted
introducingcertainconstitutionalreforms.UnderpressurefromthePeoplesPartywhichhad
wonaresoundingvictoryinelections,theBritishgovernmentagreedtotheindependenceof
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GoldCoast.Thenewindependentstatewhichcameintobeingon6March1957calleditself
Ghana,afterthenameoftheoldWestAfricankingdom.ThepartofTogolandwhichhadbeen
underBritishcontrolalsojoinedGhana.
Guinea
ThenextcountrytoachieveherindependencewastheFrenchcolonyofGuineainWestAfrica.
In1958,whileembroiledinthewarinAlgeria,Franceheldareferenduminhercolonieswhich
hadbeengroupedtogetherasFrenchWestAfricaandFrenchEquatorialAfrica.Thepeopleof
GuineavotedforcompleteindependenceandGuineawasproclaimedarepublicon2October
1958.
TheachievementofindependencebyGhanaandGuineagaveadditionalconfidencetothe
freedommovementsinotherpartsofAfricaandacceleratedthepaceofachievementof
independencebyothernations.ThepromotionofthecauseofAfricanfreedomwasamajor
objectiveofIndiasforeignpolicyfromthetimeIndiawonherindependence.Indiasstruggle
forfreedomhadalsobeenasourceofinspirationtoAfricannationalists.
Theyear1960isgenerallyregardedastheAfricaYear.Inthatyear,seventeencountriesin
Africagainedtheirindependence.TheseincludedalltheFrenchcoloniesinFrenchWestAfrica
andEquatorialAfrica,NigeriaandCongo(formerlyBelgianCongo,nowcalledZaire).
Between1961and1964,anumberofcountriesinEastandCentralAfricaalsobecame
independent.ThesewereKenya,Uganda,Tanganyika,Zanzibar,Nyasaland,Northern
Rhodesia,RwandaandBurundi.
SierraLeone,Gambia,Lesotho(formerlyBasutoland)andBotswana(formerlyBechuanaland)
alsogainedtheirindependence.
Kenya:MauMaurebellion
ThefreedommovementinKenyawasledbyJomoKenyatta,leaderoftheKenyaAfrican
Union.In1952,arevoltbypeasantshadbrokenout.ThisisknownastheMauMaurebellion.It
wasdirectedagainsttheseizureoflandbytheBritishcolonialauthorities.Tosuppressthe
rebellion,15,000Kenyanswerekilledandabout80,000senttoconcentrationcamps.Jomo
Kenyattawasimprisonedin1953onthechargeofsupportingtheMauMaurebellion.Having
failedtosuppressthefreedommovement,BritainhadtogiveinandKenyabecameindependent
in1963.
ManyofthenewlyindependentcountriesofAfricafacedseriousproblemsduringtheyears
followingtheirindependence.Theimperialistpowerstriedtheirbesthimaintaintheirholdover
theirformercoloniesbydirectinterventionandbycreatingdissensions.InCongo,forinstance,
Belgium,withthehelpofsomeothercountriesandthemercenariesfromvariouscountries,
broughtaboutthesecessionoftherichprovinceofKatanga.OntheappealofPatriceLumumba,
PrimeMinisterofCongo,UnitedNationstroopsweresenttobringaboutthewithdrawalof
foreigntroopsandmercenaries.However,PatriceLumumbawasassassinatedandthecountry
thrownintochaosforanumberofyears.
PortugueseColonies
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Beforetheendofthe1960s,almostentireAfrica,withtheexceptionofPortuguesecoloniesof
Angola,MozambiqueandGuineaBissauandCapeVerdeIslands,andSouthAfrica,SouthWest
AfricaandRhodesia,hadbecomefree.Powerfulfreedommovementshadstartedinthe
Portuguesecolonies.Theyhadorganizedtheirliberationforcesandhadsecuredthehelpof
manycountriesintheirstruggleforfreedom.InApril1974,thePortuguesearmy,whichhad
beenmainlyusedtosuppressthefreedomstrugglesinthecolonies,overthrewthe50yearold
dictatorshipinPortugalwiththesupportofthepeople.Thecommunists,socialistsandother
radicalelementsinthearmedforcesandthenewgovernmentofPortugalwereopposedtothe
continuationofthePortugueseruleinAfrica.Theyenteredintonegotiationswiththefreedom
movementsinthePortuguesecoloniesandby1975alltheformerPortuguesecoloniesinAfrica
becameindependent.Zimbabwe(formerlySouthernRhodesia)becameindependentinApril
1980.
SouthAfrica:apartheid
SouthAfricaUnionofSouthAfricasince1910andRepublicofSouthAfricasince1961
hasbeenanindependentcountryinthesensethatshewasnotruledfromanothercountry.The
governmentofSouthAfricawas,however,amongthemostoppressiveregimesintheworldin
thetwentiethcentury.Itwasundertheexclusivecontrolofthewhiteminoritypracticingthe
worstformofracism.UnderthesystemofapartheidestablishedinSouthAfrica,allpeople
wereclassifiedandseparatedonthebasisofrace.Eachgrouphadtoliveinaseparatearea.
Therewereseparateschoolsanduniversities,separatetheatres,separateshoppingcentres,
separatecoachesintrainsforwhitesandblacksandothers.Theteamsforsportsalsowere
formedonthebasisofrace.Marriagebetweenpersonsbelongingtodifferentraceswasa
criminaloffence.Therewererestrictionsonmovementfromone,placetoanother.Thebest
landsinthecountrywereunderthecontrolofthewhiteswhohadalltheeconomicandPolitical
power.Thenonwhiteshadnovoteandnosayinthegovernanceofthecountry.Thesystemof
apartheidwasusedtomaintaintheruleofthewhiteminorityoverabout80percentofthe
populationwhichcomprisedblackandcolouredpeopleaswellaspeopleofIndianorigin.This
system,inthenameofseparationoftheraces,deniedhumanrightstothemajorityofthe
population.
ItmayberecalledthatMahatmaGandhihadstartedthefightagainstracialdiscriminationin
SouthAfricalongbeforehebecamealeaderofthefreedommovementinIndia.
DemonstratorsprotestingagainstapartheidlawsweremassacredatSharpevilleinSouthAfrica,
22March1960.ThemainorganizationoftheSouthAfricanpeoplewhichledthemovementfor
endingtheruleofthewhiteminorityandestablishinganonracistdemocraticSouthAfricawas
theAfricanNationalCongress(ANC).Itwassetupin1910.Themovementagainstthe
obnoxioussystemofapartheidwasintensifiedinthe1950s.Thegovernmentdependedonthe
useofterrortomaintainitsrule.Therewereincidentsofmassacresofpeacefulprotestors.In
1960,theAfricanNationalCongresswasbannedandmostofitsleaderswerearrestedThe
ANCthenorganizeditsownarmytofight.againsttheracistregime.
SouthAfricawasincreasinglyisolatedfromtherestoftheworld.Indiahadbeenfromthe
beginningintheforefrontinsupportofthestruggletodismantletheapartheidregime.Shewas
thefirstcountryintheworldtoseverrelationswithSouthAfricaandtoextendherfullsupport
tothepeopleofSouthAfricaManyothercountriesfollowedthesuit.TheUnitedNationsalso
condemnedthepoliciesofSouthAfrica.Inthe1980ssomeWesterncountrieswhichhad
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maintainedmilitaryandeconomicrelationswithSouthAfricaalsoimposedsanctionsagainst
her.Bytheendofthe1980s,theinternationalisolationoftheSouthAfricanregimewas
complete.
NelsonMandela
Fromtheendofthe1980s,theprocessofendingthesystemofapartheidbegan.Thebanonthe
AfricanNationalCongresswasliftedanditsleadersreleased.AmongthemwasNelson
Mandelawhohadbeeninprisonfor26yearsandhadbecameasymbolofthestruggleagainst
apartheidManyapartheidlawswereabolishedandnegotiationswerestartedbetweentheANC
andtheSouthAfricangovernmentforframinganewconstitutionwhichwouldgiveallSouth
Africanstherighttovote.ElectionsinwhichallSouthAfricansforthefirsttimeweregiventhe
lighttovote,washeldinApril1994.Aftertheseelections,anewnonracistanddemocratic
governmentcametopowerinSouthAfrica,NelsonMandelawaselectedpresidentofthe
country.
Thuswithinthelastthreedecades,mostofAfricahasbecomeindependentandthe
independenceoftheremainingpartscannotbedeferredforlong.
Namibia
ThelastcountryinAfricatobecomeindependentwasNamibia,formerlySouthWestAfrica.It
wasaGermancolonybeforetheFirstWorldWarandwashandedovertoSouthAfricaasa
mandateafterthedefeatofGermanyinthatwar.SouthAfricatreatedSouthWestAfricaas
hercolonyandrefusedtowithdrawfromthereisspiteoftheresolutionsoftheUnitedNations.
ThefreedommovementtherewasledbytheSouthWestAfricaPeoplesOrganization
(SWAPO)whichwasformedin1960.ItgainedmomentumwhenSWAPOstartedawarwith
thehelpofitsguerillaforcestoliberatethecountry.ItwasmadeamemberoftheNonAligned
Movement.TheNonAlignedMovement,theAfricangovernmentsandtheUnitedNations
playedanimportantroleinthesuccessofthefreedommovementinNamibia.Thewarin
Namibiacametoanendin1989whenSouthAfricaagreedtoaplanfortheindependenceofthe
country.SWAPOwonamajorityofseatsintheelectionswhichwereheldinNovember1989
andon21March1990Namibiabecameindependent.
AFRICARenamingPlaces
ManyAfricancountrieshavechangedtheirnames.Thecolonialpowershadgiventhemnames
whichhadlittletodowiththeirpasthistoryandculture.Somecountriesandcitieshadbeen
namedaftercolonialadventurers,forexample,Rhodesia,Leopoldville,Stanleyville,etc.The
Africanpeoplesaretryingtoovercomethedamagecausedtothemduringthecolonialrule.
Renamingtheircountriesandcitiesaftertheiroriginalnamesisapartoftheireffortto
reestablishandasserttheirindependenceandnationalidentity.Theneedtouniteinthefaceof
commontasksandforachievingcommonaimsledtotheemergenceoftheunityofallAfrican
statesTheseaimsincludedthesafeguardingoftheirindependenceandtohelptheliberation
movementsinthosecountriesinAfricawhichwerestillfightingfortheirindependence.The
mostsignificantsteptakeninthisdirectionwastheformationoftheOrgandationofAfrican
Unity(OAU)in1963.
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ClicktoEnlarge
World@1990
Inspiteofthemanypositivechangesthathavetakenplaceinrecentyears,theworldinthe
1990sisnotwithouttensionsandconflicts.Whilethedangerofwarinvolvingtheuseof
nuclearweaponshasended,oratleastreceded,therehasbeennoreductioninthearsenalsof
weaponsofmassdestruction.Theirveryexistenceisasourceofthreattothesurvivalof
humankind.Similarly,withtheendoftheColdWar,whethertheworldhasmoved,irreversibly,
toaperiodofdetenteand,muchmoreimportantly,cooperationisstilltobeseen.Withthe
collapseoftheSovietUnion,theUnitedStatesbecametheonlysuperpowerintheworld.
WhiletheWarsawPacthasbeendissolved,NATO,themilitaryblocheadedbytheUnited
States,hascontinuedtoexist.Therehavebeenmisgivingsthatthepresentsituationwouldmake
itpossiblefortheUnitedStates,theonlysuperpowernow,todictatetoothers.
Theworldinthe1990s,withallitsproblems,isaverydifferentplacetoliveincomparedwith
anyprecedingagePeopletheworldoverhaveamuchgreatersayinshapingtheirdestinythan
everbefore.Forthefirsttimeinhumanhistory,thecreationofOneWorldhasbecomea
possibilityinwhichallpeopleswouldcooperatewithoneanotherandwouldcontributetheir
besttoenrichtheirownlivesandoftheentirehumankind.
EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
WhatweretheimmediateconsequencesoftheSecondWorldWarinEurope?
HowwasthepoliticalmapofEuropeafterthewardifferentfromtheprewardays?
WhatismeantbyColdWar7Whatwerethefactorswhichgaverisetoit?
TracethehistoryofthefreedommovementsinAsiancountries.
WhatwerethemainaimsoftheforeignpolicyoftheUnitedStates?Whatwasthereason
forthemilitaryinterventionoftheUnitedStatesinVietnam?Whatwereits
consequences?
6. WhatwastheimpactofthePortugueserevolutionof1974onthePortuguesecoloniesin
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Africa?
7. WhatarethecountriesinAfricainwhichthestruggleforliberationisstillgoingon?
8. Whatismeantbynonalignment?Whydidmostofthenewlyindependentcountries
followthispolicy?
9. TracethehistoryofthefreedommovementsinAfrica
10. DescribethechangeswhichhavetakenplaceinSouthAfricaafter1989
11. TracethedevelopmentsthatledtothecollapseoftheSovietUnion.
12. DescribethemainchangeswhichhaveoccurredinGermanyandthecountriesofSouthern
Europesince1989
13. OnanoutlinemapofEurope,showthecountrieswhichcametohavecommunist
governmentsaftertheSecondWorldWar
14. CollectinformationontheAfricancountrieswhichgainedtheirindependenceafter1960,
Showthesecountriesonamap
15. TrytogetacopyofthedeclarationissuedbythesummitoftheNonAlignedMovement
heldatJakartain1992Displayitintheclassroom
16. PreparealistofcountrieswheresummitsoftheNonAlignedMovementhavebeenheld
aswellasalistofparticipatingcountries
17. CollectinformationaboutdevelopmentswhichhavetakenplaceinSouthAfricaafter
1993andprepareareport
18. CollectinformationaboutthesituationinYugoslaviaandthestepstakentoimplementthe
agreementbetweenIsraelandPLOsince1993.
19. DiscussthefactorswhichledtotheweakeningofimperialismaftertheSecondWorld
War
20. DoyouthinktheColdWarhasfinallyended?
21. SomecountriesofAsiahadbecomemembersofmilitaryalliances.Doyouthinkithelped
instrengtheningtheirindependence?Why?Orwhynot?Giveargumentswithexamples
22. DiscusstheimpactoftheemergenceofAsianandAfricancountriesasindependent
nationsontheworld.
23. What,inyourview,ledtothecollapseoftheSovietUnionandofthecommunist
governmentsthereandmothercountriesofEurope?Doyouthinkthiscollapsemeansthat
ideasofsocialismarenolongerrelevant?Discuss.
24. DoyouthinkthepostColdWarworldisasaferplacetoliveinandthereisnodangerof
anycountrydominatingoverothercountries?
URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych13afterww2african
independenceegyptfrenchgunieamaumaurebellionapartheidpart4of4.html
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