Unit Two DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES

The Learning Outcomes for this assignment are:Element Learning Outcome

1

Evaluate the science of Herbology and the role of a Herbalist.

There is a theory in herbology that suggests that the characteristics displayed

by a plant give a direct clue as to its medical benefit. It is believed that the
external characteristics, their colour, shape, smell all indicate a possible
therapeutic effect the plant may offer. As examples consider the following

Euphrasia is a good herbal remedy for the eyes, because it has a black spot in
its corolla that looks like a pupil; Euphorbia, having a milky juice, would be good
for increasing the flow of milk; Hypericum having red juice ought therefore to be
of use in haemorrhages. The orange-yellow sap of Chelidonium indicates that it is
for the bile. Agrimonia bristles with tension, and is an important medicine for
tension. There are many examples given in this lesson.

This theory referred to as the Doctrine of Signatures states that external

characteristics including colour of a substance serve to indicate possible
therapeutic effects of it.

It was noticed that some plants, either by their shape or colour, brought to mind
characteristics of the human body or a disease. This signature was said to
define the therapeutic action of the item in question. People came to believe this
was an indication, a signature from God that this plant would heal diseases that
affected that particular organ or system.

There is some logic in this argument. The pulsatilla with its long stems waves
around in the wind, drifting. The pulsatilla is used successfully to treat people
with drifting tendencies or conditions. Practitioners can remember a lot of
homeopathic remedies if they look for signs of correspondence and coincidences
in the plant product they are considering for a particular condition.

A lot of homeopathic remedies use this method of remembering and sorting out
a remedy. Using these signs of correspondences, and coincidences mean that we
learn a different kind of knowledge and also are more aware of what nature is
giving us to cure ourselves of disease.

Although the doctrine of signatures depends upon a subjective examination of

natural phenomena, this should not be seen as a flaw but as strength. Through
study of the natural history, environmental patterns, chemical properties, taste,
smell, appearance, etc., a person can learn to see similarities between plants
and people. Through experience, the interior eye is trained and certainty in
knowledge and practice is increased.

If the life force is alive and if each cell is vibrating and so alive then the idea of
Gods signature is not so far fetched as to appear rubbish! The doctrine of
signatures operates through at least two different subjective faculties, the
intuition and the imagination. Intuition helps us see patterns in the world
unrelated factors that suddenly they fit together and make sense. Because of
this experience of having things fit correctly, the intuition is satisfying, giving us
a sense of perspective, context, and meaning. The intuitive approach is relatively
acceptable to modern people because it fits in with rational thinking. The one
faculty gathers information; the other fits it in place.

As an example of an intuitive approach to understanding an herb, let us take

Angelica. It grows in damp, shady soil, but has warming; drying properties, which
help it, remove damp and cold from the system. The environment where it grows
is a signature that makes sense to the intuition and is not too far removed from
the rational approach. Angelica is notable for the long hollow tube of the stalk.
This resembles the tubes of the body and gives a clue that Angelica is a remedy
for the bronchial tubes. It is also a signature for the blood vessels especially as
the stalks are a bit red or purple. Angelica removes stagnant blood and warms
and stimulates the circulation. Using both the intuition and imagination we can
understand how angelica helps to appreciate the type of diseases it can be used
for.

If the plant suggested a certain Animal, or if it attracted certain animals to it, the
American Indians accepted that the plant must have an affinity with this animal.
The medicine the animal represents is thought to reside in the plant; Angelica for
instance has a brown, furry resinous root, so it is considered a Bear Medicine.
Spirit Signatures such as the Bear, Snake, Wolf and Turtle Medicines are their
way of classifying medicines.

Snake medicines are used for snakebite and toxic poisoning. The Europeans had
a tradition of using plants that resembled snakes, bistort and plantain for
snakebite; the pioneers adopted this nomenclature. Snake Medicines known to
the Indians and the pioneers include plantain or Snakeweed, Black Cohosh or
Black Snakeroot, Virginia Snakeroot, Echinacea and Corn Snakeroot.

To some extent imagination is important because the way one perceives a plant
is important in understanding the signature it gives. Romanticism is another
useful talent. One person can see many things in a plant that another person
cannot see. Signatures can come to us through all of our senses; sight, sound,
taste, smell and touch.

Even where a plant grows gives us an idea of the conditions it has had to adapt
to. Plants, which grow in wet situations often, relate to organ systems that
handle dampness in the body, such as the lymphatics and kidneys. For example,
milkweed grows in swamps and is useful for the kidneys. Sweet Flag, which also
grows in swamps, is useful for treating mucus problems. It is interesting to note
that sandy, gravely soils are also a signature for kidney remedies such herbs that
grow in sandy soils include Horsetail, Eryngo, Gravel Root, Cromwell, False
Cromwell and Uva Ursi. Plants that grow in the open sunlight are often warming,
drying and cheering. These include calendula, lemon balm, St. Johns Wort, and
Rosemary.

The colour of a plant can also indicate its potential. When the stalk is red or
purple-red we are often able to identify it as a plant useful to use for pulling out
toxic heat and Red Clover mildly thins the blood. Brilliant blue is identified as a
reliable colour signature as most times it indicates antispasmodic benefits. Plants
in this category include Lobelia, Skullcap, blue vervain and the blue oil of
Chamomile. White saps in plants usually represent a consciousness-diminishing
property, white can also represent the bones: Boneset has white flowers,
Solomons Seal has white rhizomes and Comfrey has white roots under the black
covering, all are said to have antispasmodic beneficial properties.

The way an herb looks is also a signature. If you ask someone to describe an
orange, and then you ask another person, each will offer a different description.
Each person will see the orange colour differently.

Even though the identified signatures may seem so strange that they defy
judgment they do work. Examples. Thorny nuts and pods are seen as
representing mental tension, obsessive thought, and mental illness. Plants with

properties perceived to alleviate these symptoms include thornapple, horse

chestnut, and wild cucumber.

Sweet Leaf has a crown like ring of petals around the compound flower head,
this is said to represent mental restfulness. Star Anise looks like the sinuses
radiating outward from the root of the nose, it is used to clear sinus congestion,
especially of the maxillaries. Elder has hollow, tubular stalk. Elder products are
used to open tubes, free blood vessels, prevent blood stagnation, cleanse the
pores of the skin, alleviate fever and clear problems relating to detoxification, the
intestines, etc.

Despite the lack of scientific logic in this thinking, it often proves accurate. For
instance, Dr. Hanschka a researcher thought about bamboo, experimented, and
found it had qualities effective against degenerative processes in the spine,
cartilage and connective tissue. This remedy is now used in cases of arthrosis,
painful joints, and cartilage fragility. Bamboo products are also used to
strengthen the skin, hair, and the arterial walls.

Hairy leaves and stems are seen as signatures identifying them as being
suitable for treating problems relating to the hair of the head. Agrimony or the
body hair or hairs of the mucosa like Comfrey and Mullein can be used for this
purpose. Leaves that are thick from the content of mucilage, for example
Slippery Elm and Coltsfoot are good lung and mucosa remedies. The oily leaves
of many mints, especially Sweet Leaf and Lemon Balm, signify soothing,
balsamic properties.

The action of herbs upon the palate and mouth is not adequately described by
the word taste. There are at least three major reactions. First, the five flavours,
sweet, salty, sour, bitter and hot, then the temperature; in the Greek method this
includes hot, cold, damp, and dry, and finally the impression made on the nerves
of diffusive, tingly, or heavy, dull.

The scent of a plant often gives away its signature. Who has not been left
dreaming when smelling a rose garden? Scents are often based on the presence
of volatile oils and resins that have proven medicinal virtues, substances that
have long histories of use in medicine and commerce. The warm, rich, drying
aroma of Rosemary has a cleansing, sharpening quality to it. This plant was used
to fumigate rooms; it is also a remedy for oedema. Many of the mints have high
contents of volatile oils. It is these oils that usually determine most of their

medicinal power. Spearmint, Chamomile, Wild Bergamot, Lavender, Thyme, Pine,

and many other plants possess properties directly related to volatile oils.

We cannot hear plants but the rustling in aspen leads to restfulness and Pine is
soothing and strengthening to the nerves, at the same time it is an expectorant
and antiseptic.

The time that a plant blooms, and perhaps when they appear in leaf and the
seasons they thrive in often correspond to the timing of symptoms. Pulsatilla
blooms early in the spring, and has, according to homeopath William Boericke
1927 mental suggestibility like an April day. Blood Root flowers slowly unfold
from morning to noon, and then slowly fold back up again. Blood root is used to
cure migraines, worse from morning to noon, better from noon to night and
relieved by lying in the dark.

Within nature there is a hidden, invisible animating force that is however visible
in its effects. Living beings are intrinsically different from inanimate ones. The
laws by which they operate are innately different. Each organism has its own
energy assigned to it from the greater storehouse of Mother Nature. Their life
force is moulded into configurations or signatures, activated by similarity, and
traced through correspondence. The life force maintains the viability, integrity,
and health of the organism.

These signs referred to as signatures are useful for deciding the remedy to
choose, there are certain patterns in a plant and these allow our senses to reveal
the plants medicinal properties. Signatures work by virtue of the similarity they
present between a disease, organ, or people, and a plant. Thus, the idea that
like treats like, or the law of similars, is implicit in the doctrine of signatures.
This is the original way in which similars were observed and used.

About 1790, a German doctor, Samuel Hahnemann, introduced the

pathogenetic interpretation of the law of similars, namely that the medicinal
agent causes the same symptoms that it cures. This became the basis of
homeopathy, which was thus based on a pharmacological principle, rather than a
spiritual or philosophical experience. Hahnemann and many of his followers
considered the law of similars to be a universal healing principle, and there is
good evidence that this is true, that it operates on every level whether it be
spiritual, psychological, or physical. Emmanuel Swedenborg, the eighteenth
century Swedish mystic and seer contrasted correspondences with
representatives, which resembled one another but did not have the same

essence. Correspondences, he showed, operate between the spiritual,

psychological, and physical planes of existence.

God would not place a disease upon the Earth without providing a cure for it,
and a clue to the cures identity. He places a signature upon it by making
remedies resemble the organs or maladies they can cure.

Paracelsus TREES AND HOW MAN SAW THEM IN HISTORY (SOME MYTHS AND
LEGENDS)

We have seen how people, as they emerge out of dreamtime, arrange

knowledge into an orderly system. One group of plants are designated Bear
Medicines, another are Wolf Medicines. After a while, a corpus of knowledge is
collected which can be communicated to an apprentice. Medicine still remains on
the level of dreamtime; the student still was expected to have had the dream or
vision making them a candidate for medical knowledge. Some of these dreams
lead us to Shamanism but from them we can learn of the uses of the herbs.
Members of a family, clan, or tribe have dreams or visions, from generation to
generation, about animals, spirits, and plants their family has gained as helpers.

From time immemorial, the tree has been at the centre of mans thoughts and
life. A primordial, magical, fundamental link has been woven between them,
which, today, seem dangerously broken. Indeed, the tree is rare and drowned in
the spaces of our big cities, invaded by concrete, steel and cars. It is also
sacrificed to the profits of large multinational firms that encourage massive,
worldwide deforestation, highlighting the desertification of the land. Primitive
man used to identify as much with the spirit of an animal as with that of a tree.
People worshipped trees, addressed their prayers to them, comparing them to
the great spirits and secret forces of nature. So it was that, in the different
civilisations of Antiquity, the legends about various gods in the heavenly world
contained the same theme - which they had sprung from a tree.

The Tree of Life or cosmic axis of the world, where sits a divine or spiritual entity,
is a recurrent theme in the beliefs of peoples of the world. Even today, the
Tartars of the Altai, according to a belief and ancient rites, maintain that on the
navel of the world, at the centre of all, grows the biggest tree of the Earth; a
gigantic fir tree whose summit touches the home of God himself

Human qualities, weaknesses and virtues were attributed and compared to

trees, no doubt long before the existence of the zodiac. The Celts set up a very
elaborate calendar on this principle, basing themselves on the phases of the
Moon. Each period of the year corresponded to the properties of a protecting
tree, and the individual born during that period would certainly demonstrate
numerous affinities with the characteristics of the tree. The parallels between the
tree and man, can be seen (given imagination) and are easy to make: the roots
are the head, the branches the limbs, the trunk the torso, the heartwood the
heart. Good and evil are the leaves and fruit of the tree.

According to the Sefer ha-Zohar or Book of Splendour, whose author is

presumed to be Rabbi Simeon Bar Yochai a Jewish mystic of the 11th century, the
tree reaches us in the transcription of Moses of Leon a Spanish occultist of the
16th century, the Tree of Life stretches from high to low, it is the Sun which
lights everything. SOME EVERYDAY PLANTS AND THEIR MYTHS AND LEGENDS

In the introduction to Book XX of his Natural History, dedicated to the virtue of

plants, Pliny the Elder, in the 1st Century AD, wrote: We are going to study here
some of the most wonderful products of nature; in fact, in this short treatise, we
shall talk to man about these foods and their powers, in such a way that he will
be able to see how great is his ignorance of the things which make him live and
also those which allow him to treat the illnesses which afflict him. I shall talk
about the aversions and the bonds between things, which are dumb and have no
feelings, and of which man something that will not fail to amaze you and fill
you with wonder is always the beneficiary in the end. It is what the Greeks
called sympathy and antipathy. Pliny the Elder, The Power of Plants, translated
from the Latin by Francois Rosso, published by Arla, 1995.

The plants whose powers are praised by Pliny the Elder are traditional, classic
ones. This does not take anything away from their magic properties, if you take
magic of course to be the science practised by our ancestors, whose art
consisted of using the elements drawn from natures great garden for the benefit
of others or of thinking about their signatures.

For our ancestor who, one day perhaps, inhaled or chewed the leaves or petals
of meadowsweet or spiraea - a name from which the inspiration came, without
any bad play on words, to create that of aspirin, because this flower naturally
contains salicylic acid. It was without any doubt amazing and wonderful to realise
that this flower, which was part of his daily environment and a plant which he
watched grow and flower so close to him, could have effects on him that are now

said to be febrifuge - fever calming, somniferous - sleep-inducing - or diuretic for

internal use and healing for external use. For how long, therefore, has man
known that spiraea or meadowsweet contains salicylic acid, as well as iron,
calcium and sulphur, without ever having given them these names?

Amanita is a genus of fungi, the most celebrated species of which is no doubt

the death cap, whose shape bears a strange resemblance to a phallus. It
contains two fearsome and deadly toxins, amanitine and phalloidine, which make
it one of the most poisonous fungi in existence even though 0it can be found in
abundance on the edge of woodland. Some species of Amanita are edible: the
jonquil, the solitary or the ovoid amanita, for example.

Using derivatives of Amanita people used it to put themselves into trances or

were able to experience an out of body state. In other words, they were able to
release their spirit so that it could leave their own body and enter that of a sick
man or woman, who was thereby healed. From the perspective of modern
medicine such phenomena may seem quite irrational and without foundation nevertheless one should be aware that, in certain regions of Central Europe and
Asia, such practices still survive. Moreover the results achieved by shamans who
have claimed to have acquired the ability to fly thanks to the hallucinatory
properties of the fly agaric - properties which were doubtless used in certain
mystical and initiation rites in order to reach a visionary or ecstatic state - are
astonishing.

Cacao: The Spanish, led by Christopher Columbus, did not know, that by tasting,
for the first time, the seeds gathered from the tree that the Aztecs called
cacahuatl, they were at the beginning of a prosperous international industry
namely the making and exploitation of chocolate. For the Aztecs the fruit of the
cacahuatl was a food worthy of the gods and the tree, which bore that fruit was
found in a place resembling the Paradise of the Bible. This is the reason why
botanists attributed to the cacao plant the Greek generic name Theobroma,
which means the food of the gods.

The Mexican descendants of the Aztecs used to eat cocoa as beans. They would
eat them, either directly gathered from the tree, whose small size and white
flowers were not unlike those of the cherry tree or after having prepared a drink,
from cocoa butter. The drink consisted of the oil extracted from the bean, to
which they would add honey, vanilla and capsicum. This cocktail had invigorating

and aphrodisiac qualities. Note though that the beans of the cacahuatl were so
precious in the eyes of the Aztecs, that they used them as a means of exchange.
For them, cocoa beans had the same value as gold nuggets; They extracted
theobromine from the seed of the cacao tree, a natural chemical product, which
can also be found in tea, coffee and cola nuts, a produce known for its diuretic
action.

Coffee: The famous qahwa of the Arabs, the name from which we get our
present word coffee, originally meant the drink. A drink that was prepared from
the beans of the coffee tree. However, it is possible that this Arab word came
from a very much older term, since the coffee tree was imported from Ethiopia
into Egypt, Persia and Arabia - particularly the region of Mocha in the Yemen,
which bears the name of a very fine type of coffee - long before it made its
appearance in Europe during the 17th Century, where it became an instant
success.

People must surely have consumed the beans before learning of modern coffee
drinks, they may have crushed, ground and boiled them in water, just as the
Ethiopians had always done. However, everything suggests that the roasting of
coffee only goes back five or six centuries, because no mythical legend about
coffee exists in Ethiopia. Ethiopia was the realm of Sheba, where in the first five
or so centuries BC the incenses and spices of Arabia were exported in vast
quantities to the Middle East, the Orient, Europe and even the Far East.

As for the properties of coffee, coffee is supposed to stimulate the faculties of

the brain and to encourage muscular activity. These effects are due to caffeine a
natural alkaloid, which is identical to theobromine and which is found in a free
state in green coffee. Because coffee is rich in proteins and lipids and contains
magnesium and potassium it is thought of not only as a stimulating drink,
capable of having exciting effects on the nerves and the mind, but also as a tonic
that affects the heart, i.e. it produces a stimulation of the cardiac rhythm.

Maize or Corn: How monotonous our cornfields are as a result of our single
cereal crop farming methods! They are so much part of our countryside that we
no longer notice them, and only remember them when we open a tin of sweet
corn. Every year, throughout the world, about 130 million hectares of ground are
dedicated to the cultivation of maize, maybe just a little less than rice but with
wheat being by far the largest global cereal crop. Imported from the Caribbean at

the end of the 15th Century where the Indians called it mahiz. Corn made its
appearance in Europe at the beginning of the following century.

Maize is thought to have originated in the West Indies and South America,
however, in the 19th century; maize was discovered growing very healthily inside
the Egyptian pyramids, in tombs dating from at least the 11th century BC. In
addition, maize was also discovered in ancient sculptures of very important
Hindu figures in India that date from the same era. So, the stalks of the maize
that are used today to make pastry and paper, and the vegetable oil and flour
that is produced from the grain, as is glue, artificial silk, antibiotics and animal
feed, have undoubtedly been used for a very long time the world over. And this is
not overlooking the important symbolic role it played in Maya mythology.
According to Popol-Vuh, the equivalent of Genesis to the Mayas, man was created
in three stages. In the first stage, he was moulded in clay and destroyed by
flood; in the second, he was sculpted in wood and reduced to ashes by Earths
fire and finally in the third, he was made out of maize and survived. Maize was,
to the Maya the father of humanity

The Maya worshipped maize, which was also their staple food. It is true that this
plant is nutritious, sustaining and energy-giving and even a soup-spoonful of first
cold-pressed corn seed oil taken every day when you get up and before you go to
bed aids the elimination of excess cholesterol in the blood.

Rice: We all know that this cereal, of which more than 3,000 varieties are said to
exist, was and still is the staple diet of billions of human beings on Earth. More
than 500 million tonnes of rice a year are produced in the world, but it is in the
countries of Asia, where the plant is native, that more than three quarters of it is
consumed. According to a Chinese mythical legend, the five cereals: oats, wheat,
millet, barley and rice, were given to men through the medium of five
personages, sent by the gods, riding goats, to visit the town of Canton, each of
these men carried an ear of one of these five cereals in its mouth. Traces of rice
cultivation have been found in Thailand, dating from the 5th millennium BC.
Oryza sativa, to give it its Latin name, is a plant native to the Asian continent; it
became almost a sacred food to the Chinese from the beginning of the 3rd
millennium BC. However, its Sanskrit name, vrihi, from where its present name
comes, could lead you to suppose that the birthplace of this grassy plant is India,
not Thailand or China. It seems that rice was introduced into Iran from the 5th
Century BC and that, from there, it conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt,
followed by Europe.

This cereal is very rich in Vitamins A, B1, B2 and B6, as well as, among others,
calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, sodium, magnesium, manganese, chlorine,
iodine, zinc, fluoride and even arsenic. In addition to being very nutritious, rice
has other virtues. Rice water, for example, is an excellent cure for diarrhoea,
hypertension and overwork.

Rosemary (or Rosmarinus which is its Latin name), means literally the dew of
the sea. In fact, this plant gets its name from the fact that in Ancient Times,
when it was highly prized; it grew profusely in the wild on the banks of the
Mediterranean.

It is actually a small bush with long straight stems capable of growing to a

height of 1 metre that produces beautiful purple or pale blue flowers. Throughout
the whole of the Middle-East and in Egypt, Greece and Rome it was very much
appreciated for its medicinal qualities, which the men of Ancient Times
sometimes credited with magic powers. Later on, Arab doctors, from whom
doctors in the Renaissance drew their inspiration, made an essential oil or
essence of rosemary from it, which was found in every apothecary in France
during the 17th Century. Prior to that, in the Middle Ages, rosemary was present
in all the gardens of the convents and monasteries.

Rosemary is a plant that has tonic, stomachic, antiseptic and analgesic powers.
Infusions of rosemary have sedative and curative effects in the event of stomach
pain, indigestion, problems of the liver and migraines, for example. Bathing in a
decoction of rosemary, preferably wild is recommended for people suffering from
anaemia, who feel weak, tired, exhausted or sapped physically and mentally.
What is probably less well known is that rosemary has, like other plants,
aphrodisiac powers. This is probably the reason why, in Ancient Times, it was
associated with certain nuptial rites. In the 17th Century, Marie de RabutinChantal, Madame de Sevigny, addressing her daughter Francoise in one of her
letters, confides: It is my daily poison, I always have some in my pocket. Here
she was referring to essence of rosemary whose perfume was supposed to act on
the nerve centres, activating the hormonal system and genito-urinary apparatus,
thus producing sexual arousal.

St. Johns Wort from earliest times has had the reputation of chasing away evil
and demons. It was customary to pick it on the day of the Summer Solstice, the
21st of June, which corresponds with its flowering period. It was recommended

that one should wear it on that day to attract the favour of the gods. This
tradition, which goes back to Antiquity, was maintained in the Middle Ages, when
the Christians gave the plant the name St. Johns-Wort. This was a reference to
John the Baptist, Gods envoy, whose saints day was celebrated a few days
later on the 24th of June, in accordance with the general calendar of the Roman
Catholic Church.

The French name for the plant, millepertuis, comes from the fact that the leaves
around the golden yellow five-petalled flowers seem to be riddled with thousands
of little holes. The Old French word pertuis, or holes, comes from the Latin verb
pertusiare, meaning to pierce.

St. Johns-Wort, should be picked on the Summer Solstice and allow the flowers
and fresh leaves to macerate for five days in a mixture of olive oil and white
wine. St. Johns-Wort: is also a stimulant and a digestive, an astringent that helps
the contraction of tissues and mucal membranes, and an aperitif useful for
restoring a persons appetite and strengthening the stomach functions. In
addition the plant is a diuretic, drives out worms and reduces fever. St. JohnsWort, taken as an infusion, treats bronchitis and asthma, combats fever, and
clears the liver and the stomach. It is thus another of the miraculous plants
which may be found in the great garden of Nature.

Sugar: The word cane comes from the Greek word kanna, meaning a tube or
pipe; it also means a reed or a musical instrument. Later on the word was used
to mean a cannon. Sugar cane is not a reed like other reeds; it is a sugar reed,
the word sugar coming from the Arab word sukkar, which itself came from the
Sanskrit carkara, meaning a seed or grain and which also gave the Greek word
sakkharon. Sucrose became the chemical name for the sugar, which was
extracted from the cane and also from the sugar beet. As everyone knows, when
cane sugar is heated to a high temperature, it loses water, takes on a brownish
colour and turns into a caramel.

So, as the etymology of its name suggests, sugar cane came originally from
India. Imported into Greece in the 1st Century AD it was originally used mainly
for medicinal purposes. Then the Arabs cultivated it before the Europeans
discovered it, along with lots of other riches, during the first colonisations of the
crusades. As its etymology also indicates, myths and symbols relate to the sugar
cane itself The reed is a symbol of fragility but also of human flexibility

You can possibly understand why the Greeks, and the Romans after them,
appreciated the medicinal virtues of sugar rather than its taste.

The roots of the sugar cane especially were used, in the form of a potion, to
soothe the effects in rheumatic inflammation caused by gout or serious attacks
of fever. Indeed, these roots were well known for their diuretic properties,
because they facilitated the elimination of uric acid.

Tea has an Asiatic origin. The actual word tea is supposed to be derived either
from the Malay word teh or from the Chinese te. According to the Ancient
Chinese, it was the mythical Emperor Shennong, rightly called The Emperor of
Remedies who, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, so the legend goes,
showed his people the virtues of 365 medicinal plants, among which were the
exhilarating and fortifying properties of tea leaves. In addition, he also revealed
to them all the acupuncture points of the human body. He was in some way an
ancestral father of Chinese medicine. However, in Europe, it was only in the
middle of the 17th Century that tealeaves made their appearance. These leaves
are sometimes oval, sometimes toothed and sometimes pointed; they come from
a bush, of Asian origin, which can reach a height of eight metres. Tea was an
immediate success in Great Britain, which has not diminished since then. As well
as being appreciated for its delicate taste, which is sometimes a little bitter or
very perfumed, depending on its origin or the blending used, its therapeutic
properties were equally well known to the Chinese, before being discovered and
cleverly exploited by our own herbalists. There are many varieties of tea, of
which some are blended with flowers, like jasmine tea for example, hence the
perfume. Tea has diuretic properties, makes an excellent psychological and
nervous tonic, helps muscular relaxation and eliminates toxins. The mixture of
vitamin C, tannin and chlorophyll, which tea contains, makes it an excellent
remedy against infections. However, just like coffee, and sometimes even more
than coffee, tea can upset your sleep and make you nervous and agitated. It is
inadvisable to drink it in the evening.

Wheat was an attribute of Osiris, the Egyptian goddess of resurrection, and

likewise of Demeter, the great Greek goddess of fertility. In French its
etymological root, the Indo-European bhle, signified both flower and leaf. This
gave the Frankish word blad, meaning product of the Earth, then blet in Old
French and finally ble.

Taken together, wheat and bread are symbolically related to metamorphosis, the
alchemy of the body and of the soul, and of earthly, material food being able to
become spiritual and celestial food. It is no coincidence that Jesus, who said of
himself I am the Bread of Life John (6.33), should have been born at Bethlehem,
which means the House of Bread in Hebrew By the same token, one of his
famous parables uses the grain of wheat to illustrate Mans destiny upon Earth.
In his words: Verily, verily I say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the
ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit John
(12.24).

Starch, the primitive form of wheat, was already present in the areas we would
now call the Middle East around the middle of the eighth millennium BC. Without
knowing that wheatgerm was rich in phosphorous, magnesium and calcium, our
ancestors were nonetheless aware of its beneficial effects even before having
made it into bread.
SOME FLOWER MYTHS AND LEGENDS

The earliest reference to a language of flowers comes in the Dream Book of

Artimedorus written by a Greek who lived around 170 AD. Although this book
doesnt give us specific symbols it recounts that each flower in a garland has its
own meaning.

The Chinese have a rich folklore of flower signatures. The peach flower
represents good luck and happiness while the fruit symbolizes longevity. In art
and literature, the plum stands for purity and nobility. The tree peony is the king
of flowers, the most beautiful of the beauties and represents beauty in
paintings, pottery and embroidery. The tall and graceful lily with white flowers is
said to embody purity, brightness, freedom and happiness. The white Arabian
jasmine (Jasminum sambac) examples shy beauty. Each flower lasts only 12-20
hours, opening at dusk and climaxing around 10 pm, the time to collect them for
perfume. The aroma is as sweet as roses, as delicate as plums and as exquisite
as orchids, pleasing both refined and simple noses.

The chrysanthemum is a favourite ornamental plant in China where 1000

species have been developed, although it was originally regarded only as an
edible and medicinal plant. It is part of the Taoist elixir of immortality and
symbolized longevity even before the third century when a physician, Ge Hong,
investigated a village of people in Henan province who were noted for living to a

ripe old age. He reported that the roots of the wild chrysanthemum that covered
the river valley medicated the water they drank.

A language of flowers surfaced in Britain in early Elizabethan days. A sort of floral

alphabet appeared with cowslips for counsel, gillyflowers for gentleness and
marigolds for marriage.

Flowers are the showstoppers of botany; the enchanting, delicate, yet sensuous,
pinnacle of a plants beauty. The flowers of herb plants have a special appeal.
They generally have soft colours and shapes and flower in abundance with an
innocence that evokes images of old-fashioned cottage gardens. Yet there are a
few stunners among them like the Madonna lily whose flowers were once used to
treat bruises and epilepsy.

Flowers have many uses, they can be eaten, they sooths our nerves, cleanse our
skin and make fragrant gifts. The worlds favourite flower, the rose, offers all
these possibilities and is probably unsurpassed in its range of herbal
applications. While the leaves of herbs provide the permanent structure, colour
and continuous pleasure of a herb garden, it is the flowers which, for a brief
moment, can make our spirits soar.

Lavender is the essence of an English herb garden. It traditionally lines the

pathway and promises sweet lavender bags to scent the winter months. To see
whole fields of lavender in bloom is an unforgettable treat. It becomes one of
those visions tucked in the mind to be called upon in troubled times.

The Language of Flowers

Angelica
inspiration

Apple
temptation

Balm
sympathy

Basil, sweet
good wishes

Bay leaf
unchanging affection

Bay tree
glory

Belladonna
silence

Betony
surprise

Birch
meekness

Bluebell
constancy

Borage
bluntness

Box
stoicism

Broom
ardour

Bugloss
falsehood

Buttercup
promises of riches

Carnation
pure love

Cedar
strong and incorruptible

Chamomile
energy in adversity

Chervil
sincerity

Chickweed
rendezvous

Chicory
frugality

Clover
happiness

Coltsfoot
justice

Columbine
folly

Coriander
hidden worth

Cowslip
pensiveness

Crocus
youthful gladness

Daffodil
regret

Daisy
innocence

Dandelion
oracle

Eglantine
simplicity

Elder
zealous

Evening primrose
uncertainty

Fennel
worthy of praise

Flax
domestic industry

Forget-me-not
true love

Foxglove
insincerity

Geranium
comfort

Harebell
grief

Hawthorn
hope

Heartsease
tender thoughts

Holly
domestic happiness

Hollyhock
ambition

Honeysuckle
fidelity

Hop
injustice

Houseleek
domestic energy

Hyssop
cleanliness

Ivy
wedded love

Jacobs ladder
descend

Jasmine
amiability

Juniper
protection

Lavender
acknowledgement of love

Lilac
first emotions of love

Lily (white)
purity, modesty

Lily-of-the-valley
return of happiness

Lime tree
conjugal love

Lupin
dejection

Marigold (African)
vulgar minds

Marigold (French)
jealousy

Marigold (calendula)
sunny disposition

Marsh mallow
beneficence

Meadowsweet
uselessness

Mignonette
your qualities surpass your charms

Mint
virtue

Motherwort
concealed love

Mugwort
happiness

Myrtle
love

Nasturtium
patriotism

Olive
peace

Orange blossoms
chastity

Parsley
festivity

Passion Flower
religious fervour

Pennyroyal
flee away

Peppermint
warmth of feeling

Pink
perfection

Poppy
sleep and dreams

Primrose
early youth

Rocket
rivalry

Rosemary
remembrance

Rose (full bloom)

secrecy

Rose (white)
purity

Rose (pink)
love

Rose (red)
passion

Rue
the herb of grace

Saffron
marriage and mirth

Sage
esteem, domestic virtue

Snowdrop
consolation and hope

Sorrel
affection

Southernwood
jokey, bantering

Spearmint
warmth of sentiment

Star of Bethlehem
reconciliation

Strawberry
perfection

Sweet pea
delicate pleasures

Tansy
I declare war against you

Teasel (Fullers)
misanthropy

Thyme
activity

Valerian
accommodating disposition

Vervain
enchantment

Vine
mirth, intoxication

Violet
faithfulness

Wallflower
fidelity in misfortune

Weeping willow
forsaken

Witch hazel
a spell

Wormwood
absence

Yarrow
war and healing

Yew
sorrow

This list is from the World of herbs, Lesley Bremness written for the Channel 4
series about Herbs. ISBN 0-85223-821-5 and the following two passages of
Sacred Flowers and Sacred herbs.

Sacred Flora

Flowers were given religious significance either from their association with a
holy person, or because of their association with a themed garden. Or perhaps it
was attributed to a physical attribute, such as the purity of the lotus or the
passion flower with its layers of images; the shape of the spear seen in the leaf,
the five wounds in the five anthers, the tendrils like the cords and whips, the
ovary column as the pillar of the cross, the stamens like hammers and the dark
circle of threads symbolizing the crown of thorns. As a simpler statement, the
four petalled flowers of the cruciform family, mustard, radish and salad rocket
with the delicate purple veining on each petal, represent the crucifixion.

The lotus also has a powerful image of nobility and elegance. It emerges from
the mud unspoiled to offer its pure colour and pleasing fragrance. It has become
a symbol of the process of enlightenment for Buddhists. In Japan, it is the
emblem of Paradise and in Hindu theology a different variety of lotus represents
the womb, which gave birth to the god Brahma. It also represents the seven
chakras or centres of consciousness in yogic philosophy.

The iris was the Christian symbol of royalty and often appeared in religious
paintings as a garland crown above the Virgin, or as a single flower in the hand
of baby Jesus or as a clump growing outside the stable. Other paintings include
images of the columbine (or aquilegia) representing the seven gifts of the spirit.
Painters wishing for accurate symbolism would paint seven flowers on the stem.
The daisy for innocence, the wild strawberry for righteousness, and the violet for
humility can all be seen in Botticellis paintings and in the Unicorn Tapestries.

Sacred Herbs

There are nine herbs listed in an ancient Anglo-Saxon text, the Lacnunga, and
there is a certain fascination in the belief that they could protect against
physical, mental and emotional ailments. The herbs are chervil, crab-apple,
fennel, mugwort, maythen (chamomile), stime (watercress), waybroed (plantain),
wergula (nettle) and the previously unidentified atterlothe. It has now been
translated to cockspur grass by the Archaeological Unit in Bury St Edmunds and
this is likely the Cocks head fitch (Onobrychis), or sainfoin, of Culpepers Herbal
of 1645. This group of rather unruly and unattractive herbs could be given a bit
of style by planting them with paths in the shape of a Celtic knot design with the
crab-apple tree in the centre.

The six herbs betony, vervain, peony root (named after Paeon, the physician of
Olympus), plantain, yarrow and the rose were worn in an amulet to ward off evil
and many sacred herbs were burned on hilltops on St Johns Day (23 June). It was
believed that they purified the air and protected people, livestock and crops. St
Johns Wort was the best known. WHAT IS A PLANT?

What is a Plant? To begin, the parts of a flowering plant are root, stem, leaf,
flower and fruit.

The Root

Roots are underground parts of plants but not all underground parts are roots.
They have two main functions:

they anchor the plant in the ground;

they absorb water and minerals from the soil.

Many roots, like the carrot, also serve as food storage organs for their plants.

A taproot is a single main root with distinctly smaller branch roots. Fibrous roots
are thin and all are, more or less, the same size. The development of the root
system depends both on the type of plant and on soil conditions, varying from
the use of only a few inches of soil to 50-foot-deep forays in search of water. A
single plant with a highly branching root system typically develops millions of
roots totalling hundreds of miles in length and thousands of square feet in
absorbent surface area.

Root bark may also be employed in herbal medicines.

The subject of herbal roots includes forgotten roots and earthy flavours, exotic
cosmetics and Biblical aromatics, see the lesson on Herbs from the Bible.

Like other solid fragrant substances, aromatic roots hold their perfume for years
because the odorous molecules evaporate more slowly than in a liquid. This
factor made them particularly valuable to ancient civilizations.

As meat became more affordable very few of the edible wild roots made their
way into the vegetable gardens and so herbal roots for the cooking pot lost their
popularity. In the seventeenth century, there were theories about the windiness,
brain damage, melancholy and various negative states caused by eating roots.

Roots made a culinary comeback in 1699, when the book Acetaria: A Discourse
of Sallet was published by John Evelyn. This book is an adventure in salad
making with instructions for gathering and preparing over 72 herbal roots, stalks,
leaves, buds, flowers and fruits. Roots were boiled, sliced and tossed in oil and
vinegar; some were boiled in wine, some pickled and others served with a white
sauce. Evelyn includes in his book treatment methods for the roots of beet,
carrot, daisy, dandelion, garlic, goats beard, mallow, onion, parsnips, parsley,
radish, sweet cicely and turnip.

One native root herb not mentioned by John Evelyn and no longer used is the
early purple orchid (Orchis mascula). It was eaten in difficult times but was also
used in fertility rites because its double ovoid shape resembles testicles. Indeed
the botanic name is from the Greek orkhis meaning testicle. Sadly, this orchid is
now rare and we may lose its unusual properties. This plant provides a lesson in
the valuable potential that can disappear forever when even one plant species is
lost. The tubers of the Orchis mascula contain bassorine, a starchy material that
is more nutritious than any other single plant product. One ounce of the root, raw
or cooked, will sustain a man for a whole day. Its root, dried and powdered, was
used to make a thick nourishing drink called salop.

A similar nourishing drink is still served in China. It is made from powdered lotus
root which creates a thick, white gelatinous drink, served warm and eaten with
a spoon. It is very soothing for upset stomachs and occasionally available at tea
houses for visitors suffering from travel sickness. Aromatic roots have strong
legendary links. Elecampane (Inula helenium) is named after Helen of Troy who
was said to have been gathering this herb when she was abducted and Mary
Magdalene used spikenard to anoint the feet of Jesus.

Today, a herb garden can include many fine roots and bulbs such as: Welsh
onion, everlasting onion, garlic, wild garlic, marsh mallow, angelica, horseradish,
roseroot, elecampane, soapwort, parsley, aniseed, sweet cicely, chicory,
dandelion, sea holly and dong-kwai-Chinese angelica. Ginseng needs crisp frost
and snow in winter to create a good root so perhaps in the colder parts of
Scotland a worthwhile root could be grown.

The Stem

Some parts of herbaceous perennial plants that many people consider roots are
actually underground portions of the plants stem. These are classified as
rootstocks or rhizomes, stolons, corms and bulbs.

A rootstock grows horizontally in the ground, sending down roots from its lower
side and one or more erect stems or sometimes leaves from its upper side. One
feature that distinguishes it from a true root is the presence of scaly leaves at
regular intervals along its length. The rootstock lives from year to year, sending
up new growth each season. Some rootstocks are thick and fleshy: others are
long and thin. Some thin rootstocks develop locally thick parts for food storage:
these are called tubers the potato being the best-known example.

The portion of the plant that everyone recognizes as the stem is more precisely
called the aerial stem. Its main function is to bear leaves, the stem with its
leaves being called the shoot. Herbaceous stems are those that contain no
woody tissue; these usually die down at the end of the growing season, unlike
their woody counterparts in trees and shrubs. Erect stems are those that grow
more or less upward without special support; vines have stems that trail on the
ground or climb by attaching themselves to other plants or objects. In addition to
bearing leaves, the aerial stem performs the vital functions of transporting water
and minerals up from the roots to the leaves and transporting manufactured food
substances as they are distributed to all parts of the plant for use or storage.

The Leaf

Leaves come in all sizes and shapes including some that look more like stems or
like flowers but the typical leaf has a flat blade and a stalk, or petiole, which
attaches it to the stem. Some leaves manage without a petiole these are called
sessile. Leaves tend to grow in regular patterns on the stem; opposite leaves
grow in pairs from opposite sides at the same point along the stem; alternate

leaves grow on opposite sides but at different points on the stem; whorled leaves
grow in groups of three or more around the stem at one point. Radical leaves
grow directly from a non-aerial stem. Simple leaves have a one-piece blade;
compound leaves consist of individual leaflets, which grow either from a single,
point (palmate leaf) or oppositely along the leaf stalk (pinnate leaf). See the
accompanying illustration at the end of these notes.

The leaf is the part of an herb plant most commonly used, and from it we have
culinary, cosmetic, medicinal, aromatic, decorative and household uses. There is
also the odd, unexpected encounter - for example, painters like Gainsborough
and Constable used parsley leaves as a model for trees in their landscape
paintings. Also, a desire for aromatic herb leaves can claim to have affected
history. In the sixteenth century, Cardinal Wolseys palace at Hampton Court
began to outshine Henry VIIs so charges were drawn up against him that
included extravagant expenses. A major complaint concerned his purchase of
vast amounts of the aromatic leaves of sweet flag for strewing on the floors of
his many rooms.

An herb garden appeals to all the senses and leaves are the major contributor to
these pleasures as they offer such a wide range of colours, textures, sizes and
scents. Some fragrances are sweet like bergamot, chamomile, eau-de-cologne
mint, sweet myrtle and southernwood; some are savoury like tarragon, thyme
and sage; some are clean and fresh like lemon verbena, spearmint, angelica and
the apple-scented leaves of sweet briar after a light rain; some have a medicinal
scent, like camphor leaf, and some are pungent, like wormwood.

To smell a leaf, it is usually necessary to press it hard enough to break the cell
walls of the tiny glands holding the aromatic essential oils, thus releasing the
aroma to the air. Usually a gentle rubbing will suffice. In some leaves, though,
like sweet myrtle, the scent pockets are deeply imbedded so a little more
pressure is required to release the spicy orange fragrance. Hot sun will draw the
scented essence from the leaves of several herbs as they evaporate to create a
protective aura around the plant in certain conditions. Hence the name of the
Blue Mountains in Australia which are that colour because of the eucalyptus
trees, the smell of the eucalyptus is over-powering.

There are several different leaf scents within a single species; for example,
among the thymes we find the scent of Common Thyme, Lemon Thyme, and
among others the caraway scent of Thymus.

For a spectrum of leaf colour, herbs would be difficult to surpass. We find bright
green Lemon Balm; the steely blue of Jackmans Blue Rue; the silver of Curry
Plant; the strong yellow of golden Moneywort or creeping Jenny; the vibrant
purple of dark opal basil; plus a full range of variegated leaves. Salvia tricolor
has pink, cream and green leaves while a leaf of the variegated form of purple
sage can display purple, dark green, pink, peach and cream.

The primary function of the average green leaf is to carry on photosynthesis the process by which plants use the energy of sunlight to combine simple
substances absorbed from the soil and the air into complex food substances. In
the process, plants use up carbon dioxide from the air and produce oxygen. At
night the balance reverses, and plants use up oxygen just as we do; but overall
the amount of oxygen produced is greater than that consumed. The critical agent
in photosynthesis is the green pigment chlorophyll: only green plant parts are
photosynthetic. Green leaves contain various other pigments as well, but these
show up only when the leaf dies and its chlorophyll breaks down. The yellow and
red autumn colours of many trees are due to leaf pigments that are present but
are masked by the chlorophyll while the leaves are alive.

The Flower

Perhaps when you read earlier that the function of the stem is to bear leaves,
you thought, What about the flower? The stem does bear flowers, but botanical
flowers are merely specialized shoots - specialized for reproduction. The typical
flower consists of several whorls, circular ranks of parts set on a receptacle, the
somewhat enlarged end of a stem or flower stalk. The outermost whorl is the
calyx, a set of sepals that protect the flower before it opens. The next whorl is
the corolla, consisting of modified, usually white or brightly coloured leaves
called petals. One or more whorls of club-shaped stamens come next; these are
the male organs that provide the fertilizing pollen. The centre of all this attention
is the female organ, the pistil, consisting of one or more carpels. A carpel is
made up of a bulbous ovary that contains the ovules and a stalk; the stigma is
rough or sticky to capture pollen for fertilization. (The next lesson is Botany if you
find this difficult to followdont worry!)

Flowers that have the complete set of parts - sepals, petals, stamens and one or
more pistils - are complete; those that are missing one or more parts are
incomplete. Perfect flowers have both stamens and pistils; imperfect flowers
have only one or the other. Some plants bear both staminate and pistillate
flowers on the same plant; others have the two kinds on different plants. The
transfer of pollen from stamen to pistil - the pollination necessary for seed to
form - is accomplished in various ways, depending on the plant and physical

circumstances. The usual ways are by direct contact between stamen and
stigma.

Flowers can occur alone or in various kinds of clusters called inflorescences. The
plants of primary interest to us are classified as angiosperms and gymnosperms.
Angiosperms are the flowering plants, a group numbering over 20,000 species.
The gymnosperms, represented by only some 500 species, are trees and shrubs,
including the conifers.

An herb plant in flower is preparing to reproduce. Most flowers are made up of

four concentric parts. The outer part attached to the stem is the calyx or sepals,
which are usually green. When the flower is in bud the calyx form a protective
layer over the corolla or petals folded inside. The corolla is that which we
normally think of as the flower, and is the part used in most recipes. Sometimes
the petals are joined together to create a tube as in the foxglove.

Pollination occurs when the pollen from the stamens is transferred to the ripe,
sticky surface of the stigma. Wind or insects can do this. Most of the herb flowers
which attract our interest are insect pollinated as these are the plants which
have evolved bright colours, scent and glands of sweet nectar to entice bees and
butterflies and, in passing, entice us, too.

When the pollen lands on the stigma it begins to grow. Each grain develops a
tube, which grows down the style into the ovary. The tip of this tube carries two
pollen cells to be released into an ovule that also contains two cells. One pollen
cell joins with the egg cell to create the new seed embryo and the other two cells
join to create the food supply, rather like a placenta. The two parts are stored
together in the seed coat. When a bee visits a flower, for nectar and pollen,
which it eats, it carries some on its body to the next plant it visits. If the next
flower species is too different, the pollen tube will not grow on the alien stigma,
so if the bee travels from a thyme flower to a marjoram flower nothing happens.
But if the plant is the same variety or very near, cross-fertilization will occur.
Sometimes this creates interesting new varieties.

The Fruit

In botany, fruit has a much broader and yet more definite meaning than in
popular usage: it is the ripened ovary or ovaries -sometimes with associated
other parts - of a flower or flower cluster. True or simple fruits develop from

ovaries only; accessory fruits like strawberries or rose hips develop from ovaries
and one or more other parts of the flower. With few exceptions -seedless grapes
and pineapples, for example - a fruit forms only after pollination. Botanically,
nuts, beans, corn grains, tomatoes and dandelion seeds are just as much fruits
as are blueberries, oranges, cherries and peaches. You may be surprised to find,
though, that tomatoes, cucumbers and oranges are berries; walnuts and
almonds are drupes like cherries and peaches; and peanuts are legumes like
peas and beans. More in the next lesson

Seeds

Our long and intimate association with seeds is revealed in archaeological digs,
which show seeds both in the digestive tract of our ancestors and in the culinary
and craft debris of their living quarters. Seeds have always been an important
dietary source of protein, minerals and trace elements and the seeds of Fat Hen,
a common weed and reasonable salad herb, were found among the stomach
contents of the mud-preserved Iron Age Tollund Man in Sweden. Another seed
from prehistoric finds is that of Marsh Mallow or the Wild Hollyhock.

Mustard seed has also been in use for thousands of years both as a condiment
and as a medicine. Ancient Greek physicians held this seed in such high esteem
for its ability to relieve respiratory congestion and pain that they attributed its
discovery to the legendary healer Aesclepius. The Greek philosopher and
botanist Theophrastus 372-286 BC and Dioscorides, a physician and botanist
writing in the first century AD, paid tribute to mustard as well as aniseed and dill
seed. In the same century in Rome Pliny, in his 37 volumes of Natural History,
noted 40 remedies with mustard as chief ingredient.

It was also a culinary favourite of the Romans who named mustard from
mustum, the must or newly-fermented grape-juice in which they steeped the
seed, and ardens for fiery. Indeed, the Romans cooked an encyclopaedic range
of animal and vegetable species and seemed to find the idea of a dish served
unadorned as incomprehensible. They made complicated sauces with interesting,
if unusual, mixtures of herbs and spices and Mustard seed was one of the main
ingredients in their extravaganza of flavours. Recipes from the first-century
Roman Cookery Book of Apicius include Mustard in a coating for preserved meat
and turnips, mixed with Pine Kernals and cumin to serve with boiled beets and
green beans; in a sauce with Lovage and Thyme for boiled ostrich and many
more.

Bulbs and Corms

A stolon is much like a rootstock, but it grows along the surface of the ground,
sending roots down and stems up at intervals. A runner, like that of the
strawberry plant, is a type of stoloui.

A corm is a short, thick, vertical underground stem that survives from one season
to the next in a dormant state. The second season it produces one or more aerial
stems and also one or more new corms. The new corms store food produced by
the growing plant and then go through the next dormant period to produce their
own plants and corms the following season. The bulbs of gladiolus are actually
corms.

Bulbs are different from corms, although the latter are often called bulbs. A bulb
consists of a short, erect stem enclosed by fleshy leaves as in onions or leaf
bases as in daffodils that serve to store foods between growing seasons.

Botany is the branch of biology dealing with plant life. There are numerous
subdivisions such as cytology, morphology, anatomy, histology, physiology,
paleobotany, ecology, phytogeography, and pathology. Each of the abovementioned divisions deals with important phases of plant life, from the one-cell
stage to complete fruition and final dissolution.

Herbalism or herbology is that branch of the science, which deals with

therapeutic properties of herbs. It can be readily seen that this is quite separate
and apart from botany; and yet, the science of herbology is dependent upon
botany for its source of supply.

The true science of herbology consists of knowing the chemistry and corrective
therapeutic effects in every herb we use in the treatment of disease. Their
peculiarities, how best to administer them, whether they are stimulants or
depressants, solvents or builders, how they act on the brain, nerves, glands,
heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, bone, skin, stomach, pancreas, spleen, and so on.

A herbalist or botanic physician is one whose therapeutics are confined to the

use of herbs, roots, barks, seeds, flowers, and berries. It is self-evident, therefore,
that a real herbalist or botanic physician is a true, natural physician. His aid is
confined to the substances, which Mother Nature has so bountifully provided;

those substances that are organic in their chemistry, that is endowed with life,
and is harmonious with the chemistry of a man. This is diametrically opposed to
the pernicious practice of administering poisons, serums, vaccines, and inorganic
drugs, for which cell life has abhorrence.

A thorough understanding of the classification of herbs, according to their

therapeutic action, is the foundation of success in the treatment of disease by
this means. First comes proper diagnosis coupled with knowing which herb or
herbs are indicated and how best to apply them. The alpha and omega of
herbology.

Historically, most plants that can be categorized as herbs make it on the basis of
some medicinal concoction derived from root, leaf, bark, flower, or fruit. Paging
through an old herbal a book dealing with the medicinal aspects of plants you
will find the names of hundreds of plants; some you may never have heard of,
others you may have thought were weeds, still others you considered trees or
shrubs and you frankly never considered a hundred-foot poplar an herb! Could
such a definition take in too many plants?

In its essential spirit, in its proper garden meaning, a herb is a garden plant
which has been cherished for itself and for a use and has not come down to us as
a purely decorative thing. To say that use makes an herb is only one side of the
story. Vegetables, quasi-vegetables, herbal whatnots, and medicinal weeds are
not herbs and never will be herbs, for all the dictionaries.

The definitions of a poison contained in various medical and lay dictionaries are
somewhat at variance with each other. In one dictionary by an eminent medical
authority, we find a lengthy list, which includes many substances, and herbs,
which we know to be non-poisonous, and definitely healing in their action in or
on the human body. Among those listed, we find wild cherry, lobelia, camphor,
castor oil, milk, bloodroot, pennyroyal, cubeb, and so on. We shall learn, as we
progress, that many of the so-called poisons are, in reality, highly valuable, and
certainly non-injurious remedies, when properly used.

An herb isnt even always an herb! Herbaceousness is a botanical quality, and in

our consideration of herbs, we are not necessarily speaking in botanical terms.
The primary definition given the word herb by the dictionary is: a seedproducing annual, biennial, or perennial that does not develop persistent woody
tissue but dies down at the end of a growing season. This is the botanical
definition of an herb. But this definition would eliminate from our herbal

landscape plants that are traditionally regarded as herbs-rosemary or thyme, for

example-as well as some plants historically regarded as herbs-like poplars and
sunflowers. Tied to this definition of herbs are such words as herbaceous and
herbage, which relate to the absence of woody tissue as a plant characteristic.
However, the herbaceous character of a plant doesnt make it a herb for our
purposes, and, since some of the plants we will be considering herbs do have
woody tissues, these terms can only loosely be applied.

An herb is a seed plant whose stem does not develop woody tissue, as that of a
shrub or tree, but persists only long enough for development of flowers and
seeds. Herbs are annual, biennial, or perennial, according to the lifespan of their
roots.

The practice of herbalists is to include all substances in the plant kingdom which
are in harmony with, and conducive to, cell growth and reproduction.

Vocabulary

ABDOMEN
Lower part of the trunk between the diaphragm and the pelvic girdle.

ABORTIFACIENT
An agent that causes abortion.

ABSOLUTE
In perfumery, an aromatic extract prepared by repeated washing of a melted
concrete with warm alcohol (ethanol) in a batteuse. The alcoholic solution so
formed is then dewaxed by chilling to reduce its solubility in the alcohol
sufficiently to precipitate the wax, which is then removed by filtration. The
alcohol is recovered from the filtrate by distillation under reduced pressure. The
absolute remains as a residue representing the highest concentration of, and
closest approach to the quality of, the corresponding natural fragrance in general
use in perfumery.

ABSORPTION

A process of soaking, as water is absorbed by a sponge Process by which

substances cross through the mucous membranes or skin. The products of
digestion are absorbed from the small intestine into the blood stream.

ACCORD
A harmonious blend of a small number of aromatic materials.

ACETAL
The organic product of a chemical reaction between an alcohol and an aldehyde

ACHENE
A small, dry, one-seeded fruit, without a predictable opening - does not split
open spontaneously - and formed from a single carpel; usually one of many, like
an unshelled Sunflower seed.

ACID
A compound which can donate hydrogen ions, as hydrogen chloride in contact
with water donates hydrogen ions to water molecules to form oxonium ions.

ACID VALUE
A measure of the proportion (or concentration) of free acid present in a product,
such as an essential oil, measured as the number of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide required to neutralize the free acid in one gram of the sample.

ACIDIC
Having the properties of an acid, as in the case of an aqueous solution containing
a higher concentration of oxonium ions than hydroxide ions. A solution of pH less
than 7.0.

ACOUSTIC
Anything that is associated with sound or the sense of hearing

ACTINOMORPHIC
A flower which is radically symmetrical; also called regular

ACUMINATE
Tapering gradually to a point at the apex

ACUTE
Coming sharply to a point at the apex

ADAPTOGEN
Increases overall resistance and vitality; strengthens the general or non-specific
resistance of the body to stress, including physical, mental and environmental.
Acts in a non-specific manner to increase the adaptability of the body to stresses,
such as physical, mental or environmental

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

A nucleotide involved in energy metabolism and is required for RNA synthesis.

ADIPOSE TISSUE
Fatty tissue; fat deposits.

ADRENAL CORTEX
part of the adrenal gland located above the kidneys, which produces several
steroidal hormones

Adrenaline Hormone
produced by the medulla of the adrenal gland.

ADSORBENT

A substance to which certain molecules will stick, as molecules of certain ink

dyes stick to cotton fibres, making the stain difficult to remove.

ADSORPTION
The adherence of molecules to a surface of some kind by the formation of
relatively weak intermolecular bonds

ADULTERANT
An impurity accidentally or deliberately introduced into a product, rendering it of
inferior quality.

AEROBIC
Oxygen dependent (i.e. aerobic bacteria: depends on oxygen to survive)

Aetiology
Origin and cause of a disease.

AGARBATHIE
An Indian incense stick.

AGEING
the process of allowing a product to mature. In perfumery, refers to the
mellowing of a perfume compound over a period of about a month, by allowing it
to stand in a closed vessel in a cool place of even temperature. This allows
REACTIVE ingredients of the perfume to interact to the point of equilibrium, at
which the fragrance of the perfume is at the peak of its perfection.

Agglutination
Clumping together of cells in fluid

AGUE

A malaria-like fever

AGLYCON
any product of the hydrolysis of a glycoside other than a sugar. The hydrolysis of
glycosides during the distillation of an essential oil may introduce into the oil
constituents that, as such, may not occur in the oil naturally. These are volatile
aglycons, which are mainly of terpenoid constitution.

ALBUMIN
The chief protein of blood plasma

ALBUMINURIA
The presence of albumin in the urine.

ALDEHYDE
an organic compound characterized by the presence in its molecules of a
carbonyl group of atoms and a hydrogen atom bonded to the carbon atom of the
carbonyl group.

Alimentary canal
Digestive tract, from the mouth to the anus.

Allergy
Exaggerated response by the bodys immune system to a specific external
antibody, for example pollen, which does not produce a response in the majority
of people.

ALOPECIA
Baldness.

ALOPECIA AREATA

Baldness occurring in patches.

ALLOPATHIC
Medicine oriented to the suppression of symptoms; modem, scientific based
medicine.

ALTERNATE
Arranged singly at different points along a stem or axis

ALTERATIVE
Herbs that restore normal body function, favourably alters the course of an
ailment. In medicine, this is a substance that gradually alters or changes a
condition. Often, it is a medicine that cures an illness by gradually restoring
health.

ALBEDO
The pith, or inner rind, of a citrus fruit

ALCOHOL
an organic compound characterized by the presence in its molecules of one or
more hydroxy-functional groups bonded directly to a hydrocarbon structure other
than a benzene ring.

alcohols
group of hydrocarbon compounds frequently found in volatile oils

ALCOHOLYSIS
A reversible reaction between an alcohol and an ester of which the result is the
interchange of the hydrocarbon part of the alcohol molecules with the alcohol
part of the ester molecules. Thus, in the maturing of finished, alcoholic perfumes,
the ethanol used as diluents can react, slowly and incompletely, with, for
example, esters of terperoid alcohols, such as geraniol, citronellal and nerol.

aldehydes
class of organic compounds standing between alcohols and acids

ALKALI
a compound which when dissolved in water gives rise to a higher concentration
of hydroxide ions than oxonium ions. Examples are sodium, potassium and
calcium hydroxides and the gas ammonia.

ALKALINE
any substance which when dissolved in water gives a solution of pH greater than
7.0.

Alkaloid
active plant constituent containing nitrogen and which usually has a significant
effect on bodily function.

ALKYNE
An unsaturated hydrocarbon the molecules of which each contain one or more
triple covalent bonds

ALLERGEN
A substance which causes an allergic reaction as, for example, reddening and
irritation of the skin following sensitisation by contact with the same allergen. A
substance to which some persons are allergic may not give rise to sensitisation
in others.

Allopathic
system of medicine that uses drugs with effects opposite to the symptoms
produced by the disease - in contrast to homoeopathy.

ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

any form of medical diagnosis and treatment which is not generally regarded as
orthodox, i.e. conforming to long-established principles.

AMENORRHOEA
Scanty or absent menstruation.

AMINE
An organic compound the molecules of which are characterized by the presence
of one or more amino-functional groups.

Amino ACIDS
a carboxylic acid the molecules of which are characterized by the presence of
one or more amino-groups, in addition to a carboxyl group. these building blocks
for the bodies various proteins are sometimes added to dietary supplements. The
full complement is found in animal products but plant proteins usually contain
only a selection, which is why vegetarians should eat both pulses and grains
together in order to balance amino acid intake. The individual acids have a
number of therapeutic uses, including in rheumatoid arthritis, recurrent
infections and fertility treatments. Amino acids, which may be encountered in
products, are: arginine, cysteine, cystine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phylalanine, tautine, tryptophan, tyrosine and valine.

ANAEROBIC
Non-oxygen dependent i.e. anaerobic bacteria: grows in the absence of oxygen.

Anabolism
Building of complex substances from simple components. The opposite to
catabolism.

ANAESTHETICS
Use of drugs to make a patient unaware, abolishes the sensation of pain

ANALGESIC

A substance, which produces insensibility to pain without loss of consciousness.

ANALPHRODISIAC
Diminishes libido.

ANALYSIS
In chemistry, any process for determining the composition of a substance.

ANASTOMOSIS
Joining together of two pieces of tissue, for example, the joining of the jejunum
to the stomach after a partial gastrectomy.

AnaphrodisiaC
reduces sexual desire and excitement.

Anatomy
Study and knowledge of the basic structure of man or animals.

ANDROECIUM
A collective term for all the stamens

Androgen
any substance that produces results similar to that of the male hormone.

ANNUAL
A plant that completes a cycle of development from germination of the seed
through flowering and death in a single growing season.

ANODYNE

Eases pain, not as potent as a narcotic or analgesic.

Anterior
Front or forward part of the body.

ANTHELMINTIC
A medicine, which expels or destroys intestinal worms, such medicines are also
called vermifuges

ANTHER
The terminal part of a stamen containing the pollen sacs

ANTHROPOSOTHIC
philosophy developed by Rudolf Steiner in the 1930s, which teaches that health
is related to internal vital force and energy.

Anti-allergenic
reduces hypersensitivity to a particular substance

Anti-androgenic
inhibits the activity of masculinising hormones

Anti-arrhythmic
prevents or alleviates abnormalities in the rhythm of the heart beat

Anti-arthritic
alleviates the symptoms of arthritis

Anti-asthmatic

relieves attacks of dyspnoea that result from spasmodic contractions of the

bronchi

Anti-bacterial
destroys or inhibits the growth of bacteria.

Antibacterial/antiseptic
inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms, especially bacteria

Antibiotic
Substance either made from a fungus or living microorganism or synthesized; it
has the ability to kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic organisms.

Antibilious
Against biliousness.

Antibody
Specific substance produced by the body as a reaction to and in an attempt to
dispose of a foreign substance-antigen.

ANTI-CATARRHAL
An agent that reduces the formation of mucus or which promotes its excretion or
decreases inflammation of the mucous membranes

Anti-coagulant
prevents clotting of the blood

Anti-convulsant
agent relieving convulsions

Anti-depressant
prevents or relieves a pathologically dejected mood

ANTI-DIARRHOEA
Soothes diarrhoea by astringent, adsorbent or antibiotic effects.

Antidote
A medicine which counteracts the action of another, particularly a poison.

Anti-dyspeptic
relieves digestive impairment and irritation

ANTI-EMETIC
Calms nausea or vomiting.

Anti-flatulent
relieve excess gas in the gastrointestinal tract

Anti-fungal
suppresses the growth or reproduction of fungus which cause infections

ANTI-GALACTIC - Inhibits the secretion of breast milk.

Antigen
any substance which, when introduced into the body, causes the formation of an
antibody.

Anti-gingival
decreases inflammation of the - gums

Anti-gonadotropic
inhibits the activity of hormones that stimulate the ovaries or testicles

ANTI-HAEMORRHAGIC
Combats haemorrhage by assisting in the transport or manufacture of
coagulation factors or decreases the flow of blood.

Anti-HAEMORRHOIDAL agent
that decreases inflammation of rectal vasculature

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY
an agent that or suppresses counteracts inflammation.

ANTI-LITHIATIC
Opposes the formation of biliary (bile) or urinary calculi.

ANTI-MICROBIAL
Herbs that help the body withstand infections or infestations, destroys or inhibits
the growth of microorganisms.

Anti-nauseate
preventing the unpleasant sensation that typically precedes vomiting

ANTIOXIDANT
prevents or slows the natural deterioration of cells that occurs as they age due
to oxidation.

Anti-protozoal

destroys or checks the growth or reproduction of parasitic protozoa

ANT-PARASITIC
vermifuge Expels parasites,

Anti-periodic
A medicine, which prevents the periodic return of attacks of a disease, such as a
period, fever.

ANTI-PHLOGISTIC
A substance used to reduce inflammation.

ANTI-PRURITIC
Relieves itching.

Anti-psoratic
alleviating the symptoms of psoriasis (Burdock, Cleavers, Blue Flag, Tea Tree Oil,
Yellow Dock, Oregon Grape)

ANTI-PYRETIC
A medicine which tends to reduce or prevent a fever such medicines are also
referred to as febrifuges and refrigerants.

Anti-rheumatic
agent decreasing pain, fever, and inflammation of the joints

Anti-scrofulous
Preventing or curing scrofulous diseases and preventing scurvy

ANTI-SCORBUTIC
Treats scurvy

Antiseptic
A substance that will destroy infection-causing microorganisms. Preventing
putrefaction

ANTIS-SPASMODIC
relieves sudden and sometimes painful constriction of smooth muscles in
tubular organs, medicine that relieves or prevents involuntary muscle spasms or
cramps, such as epilepsy, spastic paralysis and painful menstruation.

Anti-thermic
cooling; antipyretic

Anti-thiaminic
causes the enzymatic destruction of vitamin B1

Anti-thrombotic
prevents the formation or development of blood clots

Anti-tumour
inhibits the growth of neoplasms

Antitoxin
Antibody that neutralizes bacterial poisons-toxins

ANTI-TUSSIVE
Inhibits or relieves cough.

Anti-ulcer
inhibits the development of benign inflammatory lesions in the lining around the
stomach

Anti-varicosity
treats swollen or knotted veins, particularly in the legs

Antiviral
suppresses the replication of pathologic viruses

anxiolytic
relieving anxiety and tension aperient: mildly laxative

APERIENT
Mild laxative.

Aperient
A mild and gentle-acting laxative medicine. Aromatic: A substance with a spicy
scent and pungent but pleasing taste. Aromatic herbs are useful for the
fragrance, and are often added to medicines to improve their palatability just the
fragrance and flavour alone can provide a psychological lift.

APEX
The tip.

APHRODISIAC
Stimulates sexual energy (historically this term meant an herb that toned the
reproductive system)

APHTHOUS ULCER
an epithelial ulceration located in the mouth.

APHTHOUS SORE MOUTH

the presence of small, white lesions (cold sores) in the mouth

APPRESSED
Pressed flat or close up against something.

AQUA REGIA
An extremely powerful acid formed by mixing nitric and hydrocloric acids.

ARIL
An outer covering or appendage of some seeds

AROMA CHEMICAL
any chemical having a useful odour and which is harmless and legal when
properly used as a fragrance or flavour ingredient.

AROMACHOLOGY
the study of psychological effects of odours, particularly those of essential oil
used in aromatherapy.

AROMATHERAPY
The use of essential oils for the treatment of human disorders. Essential oils
should not be taken internally except under the supervision of a duly qualified
medical practitioner.

AROMATIC

Herbs that contain volatile, essential oils that aid digestion and relieve gas. Also
an organic chemical compound derived from benzene; also called aromatic
compound

Aromatic
Having an aroma.

Arteriosclerosis
build-up of fatty deposits in the blood vessels leading to narrowing and
hardening of the arteries, and associated with heart disease and strokes.

Arthrology
Study of joints.

Articulation
The action or movement of a joint

Aseptic
Area that is free from infective organisms.

ASCARIS
A genes of intestinal worms.

ASCENDING
Rising upward gradual from a prostrate base.

ASPIRATE
To remove fluid or air from a cavity within the body.

ASTRINGENT
A substance that causes the contraction, shrinkage or thinning of tissue; reduces
the secretions of mucous; has haemostatic properties thus, checking the
discharge of mucous, blood, and the like.

Astringent
used to describe a herb which will precipitate proteins from the surface of cells
or membranes thus producing a protective coating.

ASYMMETRIC CARBON ATOM

a carbon atom bonded to four different atoms or groups of atoms.

ATOM
The smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical change

ATOMIC NUMBER
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which is equal to the number
of electrons that the atom contains.

ATOMIC WEIGHT
As a close approximation, the ratio of the weight of one atom of an element to
the weight of a hydrogen atom taken as one atomic weight unit. For accurate
scientific work, atomic masses are used, where the atomic mass of an element is
the ratio of the mass of one atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of one atom
of the isotope carbon-12.

ATONIC
Lacking in tone, debilitated.

Auditory
Concerned with the mechanism of hearing.

AWNA
bristle characteristic of the spikelets in some grasses.

AXIL
The angle formed by a stem with a branch, leaf stalk or flower stalk growing
from it.

AXILLARY
Growing from an axil.

AXIS
The main stem of a plant, or a central line of symmetry, development or growth.

AYURVEDIC
An Eastern form of medicine (based in India) that focuses on the balance of
body chemistry through diet, meditation, exercise and herbal medicine.

AZULENES
Members of a family of dark blue, practically odourless, volatile, unsaturated
cyclic hydrocarbons occurring in essential oils obtained by distillation from
certain plants, such as chamomiles, some species of artemisia and pepper.

B CELL
a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies that enhance immunity.

BACH FLOWER ESSENCES

Natural remedies based on raw plant material extracted in water and preserved
with brandy discovered by Dr. Edward Bach and based on the premise that
disease begins from emotional discord.

Bacteria
Microscopic organisms which are classified by their shape and staining
capabilities. They live in many areas of the natural environment and only a few
of them are pathogenic to the human body.

balneotherapy
treatment by medicinal baths

Balsamic
a substance, which heals or soothes

Basal metabolism
Minimal rate at which the resting body uses energy.

BATTEUSE
A large, cylindrical vessel, standing upright and fitted with a vertical stirrer, used
for breaking up a mass of a molten concrete immersed in warm ethanol.
Once the concrete has been dispersed in the alcohol in the form of small
globules, the alcohol can extract the essential oil it contains efficiently, forming
an alcoholic extract solution ready for the next stage in the preparation of an
absolute.

BECQUEREL RAYS
The rays emitted from uranium.

BACTERICIDAL
kills bacteria.

Balsamic
Of the nature of a balsam. Usually applied to substances containing resins and
benzoic acid.

BASIC NOTE
a fragrance note of extended persistence; an aromatic material of very low
volatility.

Benign
Not malignant.

BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERTROPHY

A non-malignant enlargement of the prostate gland.

BENZENE RING
Term used in reference to the molecule structure of the unsaturated, cyclic
hydrocarbon, benzene, C6H6.

BENZENOID COMPOUND
a compound the molecules of which each contain one or more benzene rings.

BERRY
A stone less, pulpy fruit containing one or more embedded seeds e.g. grape.

Beta-carotene
an orange-yellow plant pigment that is converted in the body into vitamin A is a
very effective receptor of free radical oxygen..

BIENNIAL
Completing the cycle from seed to death in two years or seasons.
Biennial: A plant that requires two seasons to complete the growth cycle from
germination of seed through flowering and death.

Bifurcation
Forking or division into two branches.

BILABIATE
Two-lipped.

Bile
thick, bitter fluid secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which aids
the digestion of fats.

Biochemistry
Study of the chemistry of living processes.

Biotin
a lesser known B-vitamin; deficiency is believed to contribute to severe cradle
cap in babies and dermatitis.

BIPINNATE
Pinnate, with pinnate leaflets.

BITTER
Herbs that have a bitter taste that serve as tonics for the gastrointestinal
membrane, stimulates secretion of digestive juices.

Bitter tonic
A substance with an acrid, astringent, or disagreeable taste that stimulates the
flow of saliva and gastric juice. Such tonics are taken to increase the appetite
and to aid the digestive process.

BLADE

The broad, thin part of a leaf or petal

Blood
Though broader in definition than this brief explanation, blood encompasses the
physical blood in the body that moistens the tissues, muscles, skin, and hair and
nourishes cells and organs.

Blood clotting
the process by which the proteins in blood ate changed from a liquid to a solid,
by an enzyme, in order to check bleeding.

Blood deficiency
A lack of blood with signs of anaemia; dizziness; scanty menses or
amenorrhoea; emaciated body; spots in the visual field; impaired vision; numb
arms or legs; dry skin, hair, or eyes; lustreless, pale face and lips; fatigue; and
poor memory.

Blood sugar
levels of glucose in the blood.

BLOOM
A powdery, whitish coating on leaves, stems or fruit.

BRACT
a modified leaf that forms either on the flower stalk or as part of the flower
head. Bracts are often mistakenly referred to as flowers.

Bronchodilator
expands the internal diameter of air passages in the lungs

Bronchial

relating to the air passages of the lungs

BUCCAL
Pertaining to bucca (cheek)

BUD
a protuberance on a stem, from which a flower, leaf or shoot develops.

BULB
a thick, rounded, underground organ consisting of layered, fleshy leaves and
membranes.

Bulk laxative
increases the volume of faeces producing larger, softer stools.

CAC-, CACOA prefix indicating a diseased or deformed condition.

CACHEXIA
Weakness and emaciation caused by a serious disease.

CALCIUM
essential to maintain healthy bones and teeth as well as involved in a number of
biochemical processes. Calcium is found in dairy products, leafy vegetables,
pulses, nuts and seeds (especially sesame). Absorption can be affected by bran
and a high-fat diet.

CALCULI
Stones. Generally refers to either kidney stones or gallstones.

Calmative
mildly sedative cardiotonic: having a tonic effect on the heart carminative:
relieving flatulence cathartic: strongly laxative

CALYX
The outer part of a flower, usually consisting of green, leafy sepals.

Cancer
Malignant growth in which the cells develop in a way that is no longer controlled
and may spread throughout the body.

Capillary permeability
the exchange of carbon dioxide, oxygen, salts and water between the blood in
the capillaries and tissues.

CAPSULE
A dry, many-seeded, spontaneously splitting fruit that arises from a compound
pistil.

Carbohydrate
Basic structure of starch or sugar

Calibration
Measurement of an object

Calorie
Amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of water through 10C. The calorie value
of food is the number of calories it would yield, as energy, if completely used.
Nutritionally the Kilocalorie is used and is written as 1 Calorie, with a capital C.

Carcinogen/Carcinogenic

Substance that will cause cancer to develop.

Cardiac
Products that have an effect upon the heart.

Cardiology
Study of the heart.

CARPEL
The wall of a simple pistil, or part of the wall of a compound pistil

CARMINATIVE
Promotes elimination of intestinal gas relieves flatulence. The after-dinner mint is
the most familiar carminative. It is a substance, which checks the formation of
gas, and helps dispel whatever gas has already formed.

CAMPHENE
a terpene found in many essential oils including cypress oil and camphor oil.

Cardiotonic
strengthens the action of the heart muscle

CARRIER OIL
a fixed oil of vegetable origin, such as Jojoba Oil, Avocado Pear Oil or Grapeseed
Oil, used in aromatherapy as a solvent and diluents for essential oils.

CARRON OIL
A liniment consisting of equal parts of linseed oil and limewater.

CATABOLIC/Catabolism
Promoting catabolism breaking down of complex compounds into simpler ones

CATALYST
A substance which can alter the speed of a chemical reaction and which remains
unchanged in mass and composition at the end of the reaction.

CATARRH
an inflammation of any mucous membrane, but especially one affecting the
respiratory tract

CATHARTIC/Purgative
A substance producing watery evacuations. Technically, a cathartic is similar to,
but more powerful than a laxative.

CATKIN
A downy or scaly spike of flowers produced by certain plants. The pussy on the
willow is a familiar example. A spike-like flower cluster that bears scaly bracts
and petal-less, unisexual flowers.

CAULINE
Relating to or growing on a stem.

Cerebral circulation
blood supply to the brain.

CERUMEN
Ear Wax.

Cellulose Complex

carbohydrate that forms a basic structural material of all plants.

Cephalic
Concerned with the head.

Cervical
Concerned with the neck or cervix.

Cervix
Literally means neck, may mean cervix of uterus, tooth or bladder.

Chemotype
visually identical plants with significantly different chemical components,
resulting in different therapeutic properties; abbreviated to ct. as in Thymus
vulgaris ct. alcohol

Chi
Energy, life force; chi circulates, protects, holds, transforms, and warms.

Chi deficiency
A lack of chi or energy with signs of low vitality; lethargy; weakness; shortness
of breath; slow metabolism; frequent colds and influenza with slow recovery; low,
soft voice; spontaneous sweating; frequent urination; and palpitations.

CHLOROPHYLL
the mixture of magnesium-containing organic pigments - chlorophyll a (green)
and chlorophyll (yellowish-green) found in green plants and which is necessary
for photosynthesis.

CHOLAGOGUE

Contracts the gallbladder to force the expulsion of bile from the liver into the
gallbladder and large intestine.

CHOLEIRETIC
Stimulates the secretion and production of bile by the liver.

CHOLERA INFANTUM
Diarrhoea in infants and young children.

Cholesterol
fat-like material present in the blood and most tissues which is an important
constituent of cell membranes, steroidal hormones and bile salts. Excess
cholesterol has been blamed for the build-up of fatty deposits in the blood
vessels seen in arteriosclerosis.

CHOLINE
essential in human nutrition and fat metabolism, choline is related to other Bvitamins and is a constituent of lecithin. It also forms acetylcholine, which is
important in the transmission of nerve impulses. Supplements have been given
for neurological disease, including Alzheimers.

CHOREA
Involuntary muscular twitching of the extremities and face. Chorea may follow
an infection, or it may be a disease in itself.

Chromium
this is included in a number of supplements aimed at the slimming market.
Deficiency is now believed to be associated with the development of chronic
degenerative diseases and it is also important in the production of insulin, which
is needed to control blood sugar levels.

Chromosome
Thread of genetic material. One of 23 pairs in the cell nucleus.

Chyme
Liquid food in the stomach or small intestine.

cicatrizant
promoting formation of scar tissue and healing coumarin: a chemical compound,
with a high boiling point 29OOC found within the lactones; hardly volatile with
steam thus found mainly in expressed oils and sparingly in some distilled
essential oils; characteristic smell of new-mown hay

Cilia
Small hair-like structures on the outer surface of cells.

Circulatory stimulant
increases blood flow.

Citronellal
a volatile oil with a lemon aroma found in a number of herbs including
lemongrass and used for flavourings and insect repellents.

Citronellol
a volatile oil with a rose-like aroma found in rose geranium and other species.

CLASPING
Partly or completely surrounding the stem.

CLEANSING HERB
a herb that improves the excretion of waste products from the body.

CLAW

The narrow, curved base of a petal or sepal in some flowers.

CLYSTER
Enema.

CMT
Chinese Medical Theory

Coagulate
agent causing clotting of the blood

Cold
Low metabolism. Cold, coldness, cold signs: Lowered metabolism with such
symptoms as clear to white bodily secretions, chills, body aches, poor circulation,
pale complexion, lethargy, no thirst or sweating, frigidity, impotence, infertility,
night time urination, frequent and copious urination, loose stools or diarrhoea,
undigested food in the stools, poor digestion, lack of appetite, aching pain in
joints, slowness of speech, slow movements, low fever but severe chills, aversion
to cold and craving for heat, and hypo- conditions, such as hypothyroidism,
hypoadrenalism, and hypoglycaemia.

Coitus
Sexual intercourse.

COLIC
Spasmodic abdominal pain due to any of the various causes.

COLITIS, MUCOUS
Inflammation of the colon accompanied by excessive production of mucus.

COLYMB

A generally flat-topped flower cluster with pedicels varying in length, the outer
flowers opening first

Composite
A flower actually made up of many separate flowers, complete of themselves,
which are united in a single head. This is the characteristic flower of the
Compositae or daisy family.

COMPLETE
A flower with stamens, pistils, sepals and petals all present.

COMPOUND
made up of two or more definable parts. In chemistry, a substance composed of
atoms of two or more elements bonded together in fixed and definite proportions
by mass.

Cooling blood
A function of herbs that clear heat out of the blood; symptoms of heat include
rashes; nosebleeds; vomiting, spitting, or coughing up of blood; blood in the stool
or urine; night fevers; delirium; and haemorrhage.

COMPOUND PISTIL
A pistil made up of two or more partially or completely united carpels

CONE
a rounded, more or less elongated cluster of fruits or flowers covered with scales
or bracts

Conception
Moment of fertilization.

CONSCIOUSNESS
State of being awake.

Cooling
used to describe herbs that are often bitter or relaxing and will help to reduce
internal heat and hyperactivity.

Co-enzyme Q1O
another popular ingredient of supplements, this occurs naturally in heart, liver
and muscles and is associated with the release of energy. Production can be
impaired by diet and ill health and the co-enzyme is thus promoted as a suitable
energy-giving supplement, helpful for the elderly, athletes or those in physically
and mentally demanding work.

Copper
this is needed for the production of a number of enzymes involved in brain
metabolism and excess is believed to lead to mental disturbances. Taking the
contraceptive pill can raise blood copper levels with a consequent reduction in
zinc absorption and post-natal depression has also been linked to high copper
levels in the body.

CORDATE
Heart-shaped, with the point at the apex

CORM
A bulblike but solid, fleshy underground stem base

COROLLA
The petals of a flower, which may be separate or joined in varying degrees.

Coronary vasodilator
increases the blood flow through the blood vessels of the heart

Corpuscle
See Red blood corpuscle and White blood corpuscle.

Corrective
Restoring to a healthy state

Corroborant
Another term for a tonic or other substance, which is invigorating

Cortex
Outer layer, for example of the brain, adrenal gland or kidney.

CORYZA
Catarrhal inflammation of the nose

Counterirritant
An irritant that distracts attention from another, usually an agent applied to the
skin to produce a superficial inflammation, which reduces or counteracts a
deeper inflammation

Coumarin
active plant constituent that affects blood clotting

COVALENT BOND
A bond between two atoms consisting of a shared pair of electrons.

COVALENT COMPOUND

a compound consisting of atoms of two or more elements joined by covalent

bonds.

Cranial
anything concerned with the skull.

CREEPER
A shoot that grows along the ground, rooting all along its length

CRENATE
Having rounded teeth along the margin

CRETINISM
A condition originating in the foetal state of in early infancy due to severe
thyroid deficiency, resulting in severely retarded mental and physical
development.

Crucifer
Flower of four petals arranged in a cross-like formation. This is the characteristic
of the Cruciferae or mustard family.

CULM
The hollow stem of grasses and bamboos.

cultivar
cultivated variety: a plain produced by horticulture or agriculture not normally
occurring naturally; labelled by adding a name to the species as in Lavandula
angustifolia Maillette

CYANOSIS
A bluish coloration of the skin due to oxygen starvation of the cells of the body.

CYANOSIS, CARDIAC
Cyanosis due to heart failure.

CYCLIC
In chemistry, descriptive of a molecule containing one or more rings of atoms,
such as the molecules of benzene and cyclohexane.

CYME
A branding, relatively flat-topped flower cluster whose central or terminal flower
opens first, forcing development of further flowers from lateral buds.

Cysteine
see Amino acids.

Cystine
see Amino acids.

Cytology
Microscopic study of cells

Cytoplasm
Clear jelly-like substance that supports the intracellular contents.

Cytotoxic
produces a toxic action on a specific variety of cells, especially neoplastic cells

Damp, dampness

Excessive fluids in the body with symptoms of feelings of heaviness;

sluggishness; secretions that are turbid, sluggish, sinking, viscous, copious,
slimy, cloudy, or sticky; excessive leucorrhoea; oozing, purulent skin eruptions;
lassitude; oedema; abdominal distension; chest fullness; nausea; vomiting; loss
of appetite; lack of thirst; and achy, heavy, stiff, and sore joints.

Damp heat
A condition of dampness and heat with symptoms of thick, greasy, yellow
secretions and phlegm; jaundice; hepatitis; dysentery; urinary difficulty or pain;
furuncles; and eczema.

DECIDUOUS
Falling off each season as leaves; bearing the deciduous parts as trees.

DECOCTION
a preparation made by simmering a botanical in water for an extended period.
Usually, a decoction is made of hard substances, such as roots, bark, or seeds,
since it takes long exposure to heat to extract their active principles. The water is
only simmered, however, for vigorous boiling may destroy the vital properties of
the plant. Usually an ounce of the botanical is combined with a pint of boiling
water, covered, and simmered for a half-hour or more. Some herbalists prefer to
use more than a pint to compensate for the liquid lost during the simmering. The
preparation is strained and cooled before administration. It should be used
immediately for it loses viability rapidly.

DECOMPOUND
having divisions that are also compound.

Decongestant
relieves congestion, usually nasal.

DECUMBENT
Lying on the ground but having an ascending tip.

DECURRENT
Descriptive of leaves whose edges run down onto the stem.

Deficiency
A lack of something, usually chi, blood, yin, yang, or essence.

Deficiency heat
heat due to yin deficiency, resulting in emaciation and weakness with heat
symptoms; deficiency heat occurs because the cooling, moistening fluids -yin are
lacking.

Deficient yang
See Yang deficiency.

Deficient yin
See Yin deficiency.

DEMULCENT
Oily or mucilaginous substances that soothe the intestinal tract, providing a
protective coating and allaying irritation, applied to drugs which sooth and
protect the alimentary canal.

DENTATE
Sharply toothed, with the teeth pointing straight out from the margin

DEOBSTRUENT
clearing away obstructions by opening the natural passages of the body.

Depressant
reduces nervous or functional activity.

Depurative
A purifying agent, cleanses and removes toxins, purifies the blood

Dermatic
Applied to drugs with an action on the skin.

Detergent
In medicine, as in the laundry, a substance used for cleansing.

DERMATOLOGY
The study of the histology, physiology and pathology of the skin and the
treatment of skin diseases

DETOXIFICATION - A process of eliminating toxins from the body that have been
stored through various channels of metabolic pathways.

DIAPHORETIC
A substance taken internally to promote sweating. Such medicines are also
called sudorifics and have been used along with sweat baths throughout history
to promote general and specific health.

Digestive
Aiding digestion.

Digestive enzymes
these are sometimes included in supplements to help with the breakdown of
food, although as a healthy digestive tract produces a well balanced cocktail of
them it may not always be a good idea to add a few additional ones. The
digestive enzymes most commonly encountered in supplements are protease,
which breaks down protein; amylase, which breaks down starch; and lipase that
breaks down fats.

DIGESTION
An extraction process by which gentle heat is applied to the macerating product
in order to speed the rate of reaction, thereby extracting the bioactive
constituents more rapidly and thoroughly.

DIGITATE
Compound, with the elements growing from a single point.

DILATED
Expanded, broadened, flaring

depurative
purifying or cleansing diaphoretic: causing or increasing perspiration; sudorific
digestive: aiding digestion

DIPHTHERIA
an acute, infectious, bacterial disease characterized by a membranous
exudation that covers the mucous membranes, usually in the neck area.
Symptoms may include pain, swelling, obstruction of breathing, and prostration.
The disease can result in heart damage and is often fatal.

DISK FLOWER
One of the tubular flowers or florets in the centre of the flower head of a
composite flower such as the daisy.

DISSECTED
Cut into fine segments

DIURETIC

eliminates excess fluids. Diuretics in Chinese medicine also enhance proper fluid
metabolism by increasing absorption of fluids into the deep tissues of the body.
Thus, the seemingly contradictory symptoms of oedema and dry skin can be
eliminated together through the use of diuretics.

DOUBLE
Descriptive of flowers that have more petals than normal

DOUBLE BOND
a linkage between two atoms, consisting of two bonding pairs of electrons

DOUBLY SERRATE
Serrate, with small teeth on the margins of the larger ones

DROPSY
The excessive accumulation of fluid within the body. It may be localized or
general. If general, it may indicate possible kidney trouble or heart disease.

DRUPE
A fleshy fruit containing a single seed in a hard stone e.g. peach

Dryness
Characterized by dehydration with symptoms of extreme thirst; dry skin, hair,
mouth, lips, nose, and throat; dry cough with little phlegm; and constipation.

DYSBIOSIS
A dysfunction or imbalance in the microflora of the intestines.

DYSCRASIA
1. A depraved or abnormal state.

2. An abnormal blood condition.

The term has generally fallen into disuse.

DYSENTERY
Intestinal inflammation with frequent watery stools, often with blood or mucus

DYSENTERY
A condition characterized by inflammation and bleeding of the mucous
membrane lining the inside of the intestines. Dysentery may by due to microbial
infection. Bacteria of the Shigella genus cause one type. An amoeba causes
amoebic dysentery.

DYSMENORRHOEA
Painful or difficult menstruation.

DYSPEPSIA
Impaired digestive strength.

DYSPNOEA
Sense of difficulty in breathing, often associated with lung or heart disease

ECBOLIC
That which induces labour of causes abortion.

ECZEMA
Inflammation of the skin accompanied by itching and the presence of a watery
discharge. It may be acute or chronic, but is not contagious.

ELECTUARY

A soft medicated confection. A medicine made by mixing drugs with honey or

syrup to form a paste.

ELEMENT
a substance composed of atoms, the nuclei of all of which contain the same
number of protons. It follows that the atoms of an element will all contain the
same number of electrons external to the nucleus, equal to the number of
protons. This number is unaffected by the presence of neutrons in the nuclei of
the atoms. Isotopes of the same element therefore have identical chemical
properties.

Emetic
causes vomiting

EMBOLUS
An abnormal piece of matter in the bloodstream. It may consist of a clot, air
bubble, clump of cells, or a foreign object.

Embryo
Foetus in the early stages of development, before the fourth month.

EMBROCATION
The application of a liquid to a part of the body by rubbing.

Emollient
Used in relation to substances which have a softening and soothing effect.

Emmenagogic
inducing or regularizing menstruation; euphemism for abortifacient

Emollient

A substance which, when applied externally, softens and soothes the skin.

EMULSION
An oily or resinous substance suspended in water, the agency of mucilaginous or
adhesive substances.

EMUNCTORY
An excretory organ or duct.

Endocrine gland
gland that secretes a hormone directly into the blood stream.

Endocrinology
Study of the endocrine glands.

ENFLEURAGE
the process of absorbing the fragrance (as essential oil) from living flowers of
the same kind into specially purified, preserved fat over a period of many hours.
Enfleurage has been commercially obsolete since the 1960s.

Enucleate
To remove an object from its place in the surrounding tissue without damage.

ENURESIS
Urinary incontinence. Bed-wetting.

ENZYME
a biochemical catalyst, such as the zymase of yeast used in fermenting,
substance which speeds up chemical reactions.

Epitasis
1. A film floating on the urine.
2. Stoppage of bleeding.
3. Nosebleed.

EPITHELIAL
Lining cells that comprise the skin and mucous surfaces.

EQUILIBRIUM
A state of balance

erethism
abnormal irritability or sensitivity essential oil: plant volatile oil obtained by
distillation

ERYSIPELAS
An acute, infectious condition due to Streptococcus pyrogenes characterized by
a spreading skin inflammation.

ERYTHROCYTES
Red blood cells.

ESCHAR
A dry crust of dead tissue.

ESCHAROTIC
A substance producing an eschar.

ESSENCE

A highly refined fluid substance that provides the basis of reproduction,

development, growth, sexual power, conception, and pregnancy.

ESSENTIAL OIL
The term essential oil is frequently used quite loosely, to refer to any fragrant
product from a natural source, whether distilled, extracted or expressed. Most
commercial essential oils do not, in fact, conform to a strict definition, which may
be stated as follows: An essential oil is a totally volatile product, obtained from a
natural source of a single species, which corresponds to that species in chemical
composition and odour.

Essential fatty acid

a group of chemicals vital for maintaining health and needed for a number of
bodily processes, including the production of prostaglandins.

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

these are classified by chemical structure and the two groups most commonly
found in supplements ate known as omega-six and omega-three acids. The
omega-six group includes arachidonic acid and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) while
the omega-three category includes linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid and two
commonly found in fish oil eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA). In recent years these acids have been found to be of significant
nutritional importance and lack of them is believed to contribute to a very wide
range of common Western ills including arthritis, skin diseases, menstrual and
menopausal problems and heart disease. A number of acids can be metabolised
in the body from linoleic acid but only when in its chemical cislinoleic form.

Commercially produced vegetable oils often convert this form into trans-linoleic
acid in processing and this is less beneficial. Gamma-linolenic acid is found in
evening primrose oil, borage oil and blackcurrant oil and these oils also contain
substantial amounts of cislinoleic acid. Alpha-linolenic acid is found in significant
amounts in linseed, hemp seed and pumpkin seed oils with less in walnut and
soybean oils. Not all essential fatty acids are beneficial erucic acid is believed
to damage heart tissue, for example, and is found in high proportion in certain
varieties of rape seed (and in trace amounts in some borage seed extracts). The
essential fatty acids are important in the production of prostaglandins. More
than 50 of these have been identified and they have wide-ranging and important
functions in the body. The PGE1 series is particularly beneficial and these are
often at low-levels in people who are prone to allergies, depressives, alcoholics
and diabetics. In the usual metabolic pathway cis-linoleic is converted to gamma-

linolenic acid which in turn is made into dihomogamma-linolenic acid in the body
which is then used to make PGE1.

Essential oil
volatile chemicals extracted from plants by such techniques as steam
distillation, highly active and aromatic.

ESTER
The organic product of a reaction between an alcohol or phenol and a carboxylic
acid

ETHER
An organic compound the molecules of which are characterized by the presence
of an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrocarbon chains, ring systems or other
hydrocarbon molecule structures.

eubiotic
brings about conditions favourable to life and healing

EUGENOL
An extract of cloves.

eupeptic
aiding digestion

EVAPORATION
the physical change of a liquid or solid to the vapour state.

EVOCATIVE PROPERTY

The property of a certain kind of sensation, such as a particular odour, to cause

immediate and vivid recall of the circumstances with which the same sensation,
or a very similar one, was emotionally associated at some time in the past.

Exacerbation
Periods when a disease, or pain, becomes worse.

EXANTHEMATOUS
Characterized by skin eruptions.

Expectorant
A substance that loosens phlegm of the mucous membranes, facilitating its
expulsion.

Excess
Too much of something, usually heat, cold, damp, yin, or yang. Excess cold: A
condition of too much coldness in the body; see Cold.

Excess heat
A condition of too much heat in the body; see Heat.

Excess yang
The same as excess heat, with symptoms of high fever, restlessness, red
complexion, loud voice, aggressive actions, strong odours, yellow discharges,
rapid pulse, and hypertension.

Excess yin
An imbalance of excessive fluids in the body, with symptoms of oedema,
excessive fluid retention, lethargy, a plump or swollen appearance, and overall
signs of dampness; however, those with excess yin may have adequate energy.

Expectorant
enhances the secretion or sputum from the respiratory tract so that it is easier
to cough up.

Exocrine gland
gland that secretes substances into a duct leading to the area where it is used,
for example, salivary gland

EXTENDING
the practice of increasing the quantity of an aromatic material by the addition of
a cheaper material without altering the properties, in particular the odour and
appearance, of the material to a generally perceptible extent.

Exterior
See External.

External
The location of illnesses, such as colds, influenza, fevers, skin eruptions, sore
throats, and headaches, on the surface of the body.

EXTRACT
the soluble matter obtained from a natural source, such as jasmine flowers, by
washing with a pure, volatile solvent and subsequent recovery of the solvent by
distillation, usually under reduced pressure. Extracts are made in a variety of
ways, depending upon the best method of drawing the principles from the plant.
Decoctions, infusions, and tinctures can all be considered extracts in some sense
of the word.

EXUDATE
A resinous product, such as benzoin, frankincense or myrrh, produced by the
cambium of a woody plant, either naturally or in response to wounding or
removal of bark.

FAMILY
A group of related genera

FAUCES
The throat, from the mouth to the pharynx

FEBRIFUGE
A remedy which helps dissipate a fever. Sometimes called antipyretic.- as in the
fermentation of grape sugar (dextrose) by the zymase of yeast in the making of
wine. Useful perfume ingredients can be produced by the bacterial fermentation
of certain terpenes.

FIBROMYALGIA
A soft tissue, non-articular (joint) rheumatic syndrome with symptoms of chronic
pain.

FILAMENT
The stalk of a stamen supporting the anther

FILIFORM
Threadlike

FIXATIVE
a material, such as Sandalwood Oil, capable of prolonging the effects of the
main fragrance theme of a perfume. Resinoids are excellent fixatives by virtue of
their content of odourless resin.

FIXED OIL
such as a vegetable oil, which is non-volatile at ordinary temperatures and
atmospheric pressure.

Flatulence
Gas in the stomach or bowels.

FLAVEDO
the coloured part of the rind of a citrus fruit

Flavonoids
Active plant constituents, who improve the circulation and may also, have
diuretic, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic effects.

FLORET
a small flower, usually one of a cluster, such as the florets of hyacinth or lilac
blossom which together form complete flowers.

FLORIENTAL
an oriental type perfume displaying emphasis on floral notes, such as those of
exotic flowers jasmine, tuberose, gardenia, etc.

FLOWER
The reproductive structure of a plant.

FLUIDEXTRACT
A liquid extract prepared so that 1ml of product equals 1gm of medicinal herb.

FLUX, BLOODY
Dysentery

Folic acid

closely linked with B2, folic acid is important for healthy function of the central
nervous system and also in blood formation. Supplements in pregnancy are
believed to reduce the risk of spina bifida.

FOND
the French word for base, or foundation, used in reference to the base of a
perfume.

FRACTION
In chemical and perfume technology, a separately collected portion of the
distillate from the distillation of an essential oil or crude aroma chemical

FRANKINCENSE
A resinous exudate from the trunk of the tree Boswellia carterii and other
species of Boswellia. Known also as olibanum.

FREE RADICAL
these are combinations of molecules with highly reactive forms of oxygen which
can react with other parts of the body to oxidise and destroy cells. They are
believed to be responsible for a number of inflammatory conditions, druginduced damage, degenerative arthritis, and immunity changes and contributes
towards ageing, cancer and cardiovascular disease. Substances which
themselves react with and neutralize these free radicals are thus potentially
extremely important. A number of herbs contain anti-oxidant chemicals and
beta-carotene is one of the most effective freely occurring antidotes. Unstable
compounds that reacts quickly with other molecules to cause tissue damage and
destruction.

FREEZE-DRIED
The process of taking fresh plant material and subsequently freezing it at very
low temperatures, then gently heating to remove the liquid; this process
produces stable herbal products if kept away from light and humidity.

FREQUENCY
number of complete vibrations cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz).

FROND
The leaf of a fern.

FRUIT
The seed-bearing part of a plant.

FUNNELFORM
Descriptive of a flower whose corolla tube widens gradually and uniformly from
the base.

FURUNCULOSIS
A systematic condition characterized by the repeated formation of boils.

FURANOCOUMARINS
derivatives of coumarin, certain of which are phototoxic, found as constituents
of citrus oils and some other essential oils. Known also as bergaptenes and
methoxy-psoralens, although the latter is not an accurate description.

GALACTAGOGUE
Promotes secretion of milk. lactogenic

GAMMA-LINOLENIC ACID
see Essential fatty acids

GASTROINTESTINAL TONIC
relieves dyspepsia and stimulates the muscles of intestines

GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

An analytical technique for separating the constituents of a minute sample of a

mixture of volatiles, such as a natural aromatic material or a perfume, and
recording the results of the analysis. The sample is vaporized and the
constituents separated by virtue of differences in their solubilitys in a nonvolatile absorbent coating the inner walls of a long capillary tube (the
chromatography column) through which they pass. The vaporized sample is
carried through the column in a slow stream of helium or nitrogen, and all
constituents are kept in the vapour state by means of hot air circulating round
the column. The results of the analysis are recorded as a series of peaks, drawn
by a pen recorder, each one of which corresponds, with respect to its position, to
a constituent of the sample.

GASTRALGIA
Stomachache.

GASTRITIS
Inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the inside of the stomach

GASTRIC
anything that is concerned with the stomach.

Gastro-enterology
Study of the alimentary canal

GEMMOTHERAPY
A plant extract taken from germinating plant bulbs.

Genital
anything that is concerned with the sexual organs

GENETIC
Pertaining to the means whereby inherited characteristics of a living organism
are transmitted from one generation to the next.

GENETIC CODE
The sequence of information, in the form of units of three organic, nitrogencontaining BASES called codons, which, as present in genes, determines the
composition of all proteinaceous matter (protein) in a plant or animal cell. Each
codon codes for the biosynthesis of one specific amino acid of the molecular
chain of a protein.

Genitourinary disease
Study of disease of the urinary and reproductive systems.

GENOTYPE
The genetic constitution of an organism, as determined by its genetic code.

Genus
important botanical classification of related but distinct species given a common
name; genera (pl.) are in turn grouped into families; the first word of the
binomial botanical name denotes the genus

Geriatrics
Care of the elderly.

Gestation Period
of time between conception and birth

GLEET
Chronic inflammation of the urethra with mucous discharge

GLYCOSIDE
A member of a family of plant cell constituents which on hydrolysis undergo
partial decomposition to a sugar and another compound, called an aglycon.

Some aglycons are volatile and, if formed during the distillation of an essential
oil, appear as constituents of the oil. Sugar-derivative found in certain plants e.g.
digoxin, used to treat heart failure

Gonadotropic
stimulates the testes and/or the ovaries

GRAISSE
A French word, meaning grease, formerly used in perfumery in reference to the
mixture of purified fats used in the enfleurage process.

Gynaecology
Study of womens diseases

HABIT
the general appearance of a plant.

HAEMOSTATIC
Stops the flow of blood; type of astringent that stops internal bleeding or
haemorrhaging

Haemostatic
any substance used to stem internal bleeding.

Haematology
Study of the blood cells.

HAEMATURIA
Blood in the urine.

Haemopoiesis
Production of blood cells.

HAEMORRHOIDS
See PROLAPSED ANI.

Hallucinogen
agent affecting any or all of the senses, producing a wide range of distorted
perceptions and reactions

HARMONY
In perfumery, a pleasing blend of fragrance notes having a smooth, unified
effect.

HEAD
A flower spike or raceme shortened to form a compact, flattened to globose
cluster.

Heat, HEAT SIGNS

Hypermetabolism with symptoms of fever and concurrent little chills;
restlessness; constipation; thirst; aversion to heat and craving for cold; burning
digestion; infections; inflammations; dryness; red face; sweating; strong
appetite; haemorrhaging; blood in the vomit, urine, stool, nose, or mucus; strong
odours, sticky or thick yellow bodily excretions; irritability; scanty, dark yellow
urination; and swollen, red, and painful eyes or gums and red skin eruptions; and
hyper- conditions, such as hypertension.

Hepatic
any substance which affects the liver, whether helpfully or harmfully, used in
connection with substances having an effect upon the liver.

Hepatoprotectant

reduces damage to liver cells caused by toxins

HERB
A plant that has no woody tissue and that dies down to the ground at the end of
a growing season. Non-woody soft leafy plant, plant used in medicine and
cooking

HERBACEOUS
Herblike; not woody

HERBAL MEDICINE
The use of plant materials to promote an amelioration of symptoms and to
provide a nutritional effect on the body.

Herbarium
A collection of dried plants systematically arranged to permit easy study of them

HERPES
An acute skin inflammation consisting of patches of small blisters.

HERPES ZOSTER
Shingles

Haemostatic
Drugs used to control bleeding.

HEART WOOD
the internal, non-living part of a woody stem, branch or tree-trunk.

HEDONIC
pertaining to pleasant and unpleasant sensations, or sensual pleasure

Hepatic
anything concerned with the liver.

HERBIVORE
A plant-eating animal

Heredity
Passage of family characteristics from parents to child

HERTZ
Unit of frequency in cycles per second.

HESPERIDIUM
A partitioned berry with a leathery, removable rind e.g., orange

Histidine
see Amino acids

HISTOLOGY
the study of the fine structure of animal and plant tissues

HOARY
Closely covered with short and fine whitish hairs

HOLISTIC MEDICINE

any form of medicine in which treatment is decided after consideration of the

condition of the entire organism to be treated, rather than by deduction from the
symptoms of the disorder.

HOMOEOPATHY
A field of medicine based on the science of micro doses and the Law of
Similars. Tiny amounts of drugs, which would produce in a healthy, body
symptoms similar to those of the disease

Homogenous
Same consistency all the way through

HOMEOSTASIS
The state of balance or equilibrium in the body, characterized by the absence of
disease.

HOMOTOXICOLOGY
A branch of homoeopathy relying on metabolic catalysts to facilitate
detoxification.

Hormone
a chemical substance produced in the body that can affect the way tissues
behave. Hormones can control sexual function as well as emotional and physical
activity. Chemical produced in one part of the body, an endocrine gland,
andcarried to another area where it has a specific effect.

Hot
Overactive metabolism.

Hybrid
natural or manmade plant produced by the fertilization of one species by
another; indicated by x as in Menthe x piperita

HYDROCARBON
a compound composed of molecules consisting of atoms of carbon and
hydrogen only.

HYDROGEN BOND
a weak, electrostatic bond formed between oppositely charged parts of polar
molecules, such as the oxygen atom of an alcohol molecule and the hydroxyhydrogen atom of another molecule of the same or a different alcohol.

HYDROGEN ION
a hydrogen ion is a proton as produced, for example, by the dissociation of a
molecule of an acid. In aqueous solution, a hydrogen ion combines immediately
with a water molecule to form an oxonium ion.

Hydrogue
Having the property of removing accumulations of water or serum. Causing
watery evacuations.

HYDROLYSIS
the decomposition of a compound by water esters, for example, may under
suitable conditions be hydrolysed to the alcohols and carboxylic acids from which
they are derived.

HYDROTHERAPY
The use of water in varying temperatures and physical applications to promote
healing in the individual.

HYGROSCOPIC
Water-attracting, having the ability to readily attract and retain moisture.

HYPANTHIUM

An enlargement of the receptacle below the calyx that surrounds the gynaecium
and fruits (i.e. Rosaceae)

HYPERACIDITY
excessive digestive acid causing a burning sensation

HYPERGLYCAEMIC
increases blood sugar levels

hypermenorrhoea
profuse or prolonged menses

HYPERTENSIVE
Increases arterial tension.

Hyperthyroid agent
increases production of thyroid hormonal output

HYPNOTIC
Powerful nervine relaxant and sedative that induces sleep

HYPERTENSIVE
increases blood pressure

Hypocholesterolemic
lowers cholesterol levels in the blood

HYPOGLYCAEMIANT/Hypoglycaemic
anti-diabetic Lowers blood sugar level

HYPOGYNOUS
Flowers in which calyx, corolla and stamens are inserted below the ovary: ovary
superior.

HYPOTENSIVE
Lowers arterial tension lowers blood pressure, especially when it is elevated

IATROGENIC DISEASES
Doctor caused diseases.

Illusion
Incorrect reception of something actually present

Immunity
Bodys ability to resist infection

Immunology
Study of the way the body reacts to disease.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
The non-specific innate, immune system that includes production of
lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, interleukins and interferon

IMMUNOMODULATION
The act of creating homeostatic balance in the immune system.

Immunosuppressant
inhibits chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and/or antibody production

INCISED
Sharply and irregularly slashed or cut.

INDIGENOUS
Native; naturally occurring

Infection
Invasion of the body by pathogenic organisms

Ingestion
Act of taking substances into an organism, for example, eating food or the
ingestion of bacteria by a white blood corpuscle

Inferior
Situated below.

Inflammation
Response of tissues to injury or infection. The signs are heat, redness, swelling
and pain.

INFLORESCENCE
a collection of florets, together forming a complete flower, as found in the
blossoms of hyacinths and members of the botanical family of Compositae, e.g.
dandelions and daisies.

INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY (IRS)

an instrumental technique for measurement of the absorption of infrared
radiation (heat rays) over a range of frequencies by the molecules of a material,
such as an aroma chemical, essential oil or perfume compound. The infrared
spectrogram, which is the analytical result of the IRS of a material, is extremely

useful for purposes of identification as, like a fingerprint, it is unique to that

material under standardized conditions of analysis.

INFUSION
An extract made by pouring boiling water on plants and letting the mixture
steep. Cold infusion may also be employed.

Immunostimulant
improves leukocyte production and/or function, especially phagocytosis

Infusion
An extract of some substance derived by soaking the substance in water. A tea
is an infusion. With herbs, the usual infusion is made by combining an ounce of
the dried and powdered herb with a pint of boiling water and allowing them to
steep for five to ten minutes. This is the simplest and most common method of
extracting the medicinal principle from dried botanicals.

Infusion
a herbal extract made by pouring boiling water on to a herb and leaving for 10
minutes before collecting the liquid: generally also called a herbal tea or tisane.

Iron
this is essential for producing the haemoglobin of out red blood cells and is thus
vital for oxygen transport around the body. Deficiency is common in
menstruating women and can lead to iron-deficient anaemia. It is often included
in multi-vitamin/multi-mineral supplements but excess can lead to constipation.

Inhibition
Slowing down or stopping of a reaction, either chemical or neurological.
Intelligence Individuals capacity to think rationally, learn and react to the
environment.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

the study of the chemical behaviour of elements, and of compounds of

elements, other than carbon, but including ionic compounds such as carbonates,
and simple molecular compounds such as carbon dioxide.

Insecticide
Having the property of killing insects.

INSPISSATED
Thickened as by evaporation.

Interior
See Internal.

Internal
The location of an illness, such as conditions affecting chi, blood, fluids, and
internal organs, inside the body.

INTERNODE
The part of a stem or branch between nodes.

INTERRUPTED
Descriptive of a structure, the pattern or sequence of whose elements is broken
by the insertion of other elements

ION
an electrically charged atom or group of atoms, such as the sodium ion

IONIC ASSOCIATION
The association (NB not combination) of ions to form an ionic compound, such
as sodium chloride

IRREGULAR
A flower without radial symmetry.

Irritant
Causing irritation.

IRS
see INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

Ischaemic
Insufficient blood supply to a part of the body

Isoleucine
see Amino acids.

ISOLATE
a term usually employed to refer to a single constituent separated from a
mixture of volatiles such as an essential oil. Typical examples are citral from
Lemongrass Oil and linall from Rosewood Oil.

ISOMETRIC
Equal parts. Means the same length and is used medically to mean
contraction of a muscle without bending a joint.

ISOTOPES
atoms of the same element containing different numbers of neutrons. The
isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties, but different
physical properties, such as relative atomic mass and hence density.

JAUNDICE
Yellowness of the skin due to liver disease.

KETONE
an organic compound characterized by the presence in its molecules of a
carbonyl functional group bonded to two hydrocarbon radicals.

Lactobacillus acidophilus
this is one of the beneficial bacteria found in the large bowel, which help to
process our food and remove toxins. It can become deficient due to dietary
imbalance and over use of antibiotics so supplements can often be helpful. The
bacteria also convert milk into yoghurt so eating live yoghurt can often be almost
as effective. A number of other bacteria are also packaged in supplements
notably the Bifidobacterium.

LANCEOLATE
Widening to a maximum near the base and tapering to a point at the apex

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

The quantity of heat required to melt a given mass of a solid to liquid at the
melting point. This same quantity of heat is given out by the same weight of the
liquid when it solidifies at the melting point. The melting point of a solid may
therefore be defined as that temperature at which the liquid and solid states of a
substance can coexist: an equilibrium temperature when the rate at which
melting is taking place is equal to the rate of solidification.

Lateral
Concerning the side.

LATERAL
Occurring on or growing from the side - compare terminal

LAXATIVE

Facilitates the evacuation of stool and increase its volume by increasing

peristalsis of the intestine or by hydrating the stool. A gentle cathartic, helps to
promote bowel movements.

LEAF
A vegetative organ which, when complete, consists of a flat blade, a petiole or
stalk and usually two small leafy appendages at the base of the petiole

LEAFLET
A division or part of a compound leaf

LECITHIN
a dietary fat composed of choline, glycerol and certain fatty acids, which is used
to treat cholesterol problems and to help dissolve gallstones.

LEGUME
A one-celled fruit that splits along two sutures or seams e.g., pea

LEUCOCYTES
White blood cells

LEUCORRHOEA
a whitish discharge from the vagina.

Libido
Term used by Freud to describe the instinctive sexual drive in men and women.

LICHEN
A skin inflammation characterized by numerous small elevations.

LIMEWATER
An aqueous solution of 0.14% calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. See appendix to
glossary.

LINEAR
Long and narrow, with nearly parallel sides

LINT
Linen.

LIP
One of the parts in a corolla or calyx divided into two unequal parts.

Lipase
see Digestive enzymes.

Lipid
a fat or fat-like substance insoluble in water and soluble in fat solvents; fat-like
chemicals (such as cholesterol) that are present in most tissues and are
important structural materials for the body.

Lipophilic
having strong affinity for lipids maceration: the extraction of substances from a
plant by steeping in a fixed oil

Lipotropic
improves the removal or decreases the deposit of fat in the liver

Lipolytic
breaking down fat

LITHOTROPIC
Dissolves or discharges urinary and biliary concretions.

LOBE
A part or division, especially when rounded, of an organ.

Lubricant
reduces friction.

LUPUS
a chronic tubular skin condition characterized by nodules of granulated tissue.

LUTEOTROPIC
Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum, stimulates progesterone
secretion.

LYRATE
Lobed to resemble a lyre, with the terminal lobe largest and the lower lobes
smaller

LYSINE
see Amino acids.

MACERATION
The process of allowing a definite weight of extractable matter to soak, in a
closed vessel for several days, in a definite weight of alcohol of given strength to
produce a crude tincture. The tincture is filtered and adjusted to standard
strength with respect to its odour or content of an active ingredient, allowed to
mature and finally filtered bright ready for use. Tinctures are today almost
obsolete in both perfumery and pharmacy. The process of placing solid

ingredients in specified quantities and the liquid solvent into a closed container
and allowing it to stand for a period of at least 72 hours. Stirring and frequent
agitation is recommended.

Magnesium
like potassium, magnesium is important in cell mechanism as well as needed for
bone and teeth formation. Average daily requirement is around 400800 mg and
deficiency can be common if the diet is high in refined and heavily processed
foods. As with calcium, bran can also reduce absorption. Magnesium
supplements are often given for premenstrual problems.

Malignant
Tendency to go from bad to worse, particularly used in reference to cancer.

Manganese
this element is found in bone, soft tissues, the liver, kidney and pituitary gland
and deficiency can lead to birth defects and reduced fertility. It is found in leafs
green vegetables, whole grains and tea. Since the body loses 4 mg of
manganese a day supplements of this order would seem reasonable.

MASS NUMBER
the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mastication
Chewing of food.

MASTODYNA
Breast pain.

MATCHING
the copying of a perfume or complex perfume ingredient for the purpose of
duplicating its fragrance and other properties

MATERIA MEDICA
A book listing homoeopathic or herbal agent by ingredient with uses.

MATURATION
The ageing of a finished alcoholic perfume until fully mellowed

Maturation
State of full development.

Medial
Towards the mid-line

Medulla
Term for the central part of an organ, for example, the medulla of the adrenal
gland.

Meiosis
Cell division in which there is a splitting to form a gamete with halving of each
chromosome to form a chromatid.

MELTING POINT
The temperature at which a solid changes to liquid

MEMBRANE
In biology, a thin, flexible sheet of tissue, such as the epidermis of the skin or of
a leaf

Membrane stabilizer

protects biological membranes from lipid peroxidation caused by free-radicals

Menarche
Onset of menstruation at puberty.

MENORRHAGIA - Excessive uterine bleeding at time of menses.

Menopause
Final cessation of menstruation in women usually occurring around the middle or
late forties.

Menstrual cycle
Sequel of events that occurs due to hormonal changes beginning and ending
with the onset of menstruation. This usually takes about 28 days.

Menstruation
Monthly period of uterine bleeding that occurs when the lining is shed.

Meridians
The pathways along which chi circulates to supply energy and nourishment to
the organs and the surface of the body

Metabolic modulator
improves the efficiency of protein, lipid, and/or carbohydrate use by various cells

Metabolic rate
at which an individual consumes energy reflected directly in the bodys oxygen
intake.

Methionine

see Amino acids.

Menthol
a volatile oil with a peppermint aroma extracted from various mints (including
peppermint), which is carminative, locally anaesthetic, decongestant and
antiseptic. Used in a number of herbal products for colds and indigestion.

METRORRHAGIA
Prolonged uterine bleeding, usually at irregular intervals.

MICRO LITRE
One millionth of a litre

MIDDLE NOTE
a fragrant note of intermediate volatility and lasting power.

Migraine preventive
lessens frequency of attacks by reducing inflammatory and vaso-active
substances

MISCIBLE
Capable of complete mutual dispersion in another substance. Liquid aromatic
materials are in most cases mutually miscible in all proportions.

MITRAL DISEASE
Disorder of the valve in the heart between the left auricle and ventricle.

Micturition
Act of urination; passing water.

Mitosis
Division of a cell to produce an identical one that contains the same number of
chromosomes

MOLAR
In chemistry, a molar solution is a solution containing one MOLE of a dissolved
solute per litre of solution.

MOLARITY
The number of moles of a solute dissolved in one litre of a solution.

MOLE
In chemistry, the quantity of a weight.

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
Term used in reference to the shape of a molecule, as determined mainly by the
nature and direction of the bonds holding its atoms together.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT
To a close approximation, the molecular weight of an element or compound is
the ratio of the weight of one molecule of the substance to the weight of one
atom of hydrogen taken as one atomic weight unit.

MOLECULE
The smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist on its own

MONOMER
a chemical compound capable of undergoing polymerisation

Morphine antagonist

reduces effects of, and desire for, morphine

Motile
something that moves by itself

Motility
Movement.

Moves blood
See Regulates blood

MS
MASS SPECTROMETRY

MUCILAGE
A thick substance derived from plants and often used for both its soothing action
on membranes and its adhesive properties. Complex sugar molecules found in
plants that are soft and slippery and provide protection for the mucous
membranes and inflamed surfaces.

Mucilaginous
Mucous-like, slimy; offers a soothing quality to inflamed parts.

Mucous membrane
Thin, delicate lining, found in many of the bodys internal surfaces, which is
moistened with mucus secreted by the mucous glands in the membrane.

Mucus
Semi-liquid substance secreted by the mucous glands in the mucous
membranes

MYOLOGY
Study of muscles

MYALGINAL
Muscle pains.

Mydriatic
Causing dilation of the pupil.

Myodepressant
reduces functional muscular activity by inducing relaxation

MYCOSTATLC
Prevents the growth or reproduction of fungi.

MYOTIC
Contracting the pupil.

NARCOTIC
Depresses central nervous system, thus relieving pain and promoting sleep.

Nasal
concerning the nose.

NASCENT
A term applied to gaseous substances at the moment they are formed in a
chemical reaction, or liberated from a solution. Being born; coming into
existence; beginning to develop.

NATUROPATHY
A system of medicine relying on various disciplines including herbal, nutritional,
homoeopathic, physical medicine (chiropractic), hydrotherapy and other noninvasive forms of treatment.

Nauseate
causes an unpleasant sensation of impending vomiting

NECROSIS
Localized tissue death.

Nephritic
Drugs having an action upon the kidneys.

NEPHRITIS
Inflammation of the kidney.

NERVINE
Applied to drugs used to restore the nerves to their natural state, agent calming
nervous excitement and strengthens the nerves; taken for conditions of
nervousness, anxiety, insomnia, emotional instability, pain, cramps, spasms,
tremors, stress, muscle tension, and epilepsy.

NERVOUS IMPULSE
A wave of electrical negativity which flows over a nerve fibre from the point of
stimulation to a synapse

NEURASTHENIA
Nervous exhaustion.

Neurology
Study of the nervous system

Neuropathy
Degeneration of a nerve

Neuroprotective
protects the nervous system

NEUTRON
An electrically neutral particle of unit mass present in the nuclei of the atoms of
all elements other than hydrogen of unit atomic mass. The effect of the presence
of neutrons in an atomic nucleus containing more than one proton is to bind the
protons together.

Niacin - see Vitamin B3

Nicotinamide
also known as niacinamide, see Vitamin B3

Nicotine antagonist
reduces effects of, and the desire for, nicotine

Nicotine substitute
mimics the physiologic effects of, and reduces desire for, nicotine

Nicotinic acid
see Vitamin B3

NM NANOMETRE(S)
a nanometre is one thousand millionth of a metre; a millionth of a millimetre.

NODE
The place where a leaf grows or can grow.

NUT
A hard-walled, one-seeded fruit that does not split spontaneously e.g., hazelnut.

NUTRICEUTICAL
An agent derived from food that may have pharmacologic activity in the body.

NUTRITIONAL THERAPY
The use of nutritional agents - vitamins, minerals, cofactors, to support bodily
function and have therapeutic effect.

Nutritive
provides nourishment required for normal cellular action increases weight and
density.

Obstetrics
Care and delivery of the pregnant woman.

Occipital
anything to do with the occiput - the back of the skull

ODOUR BALANCE
the odour effect of a blend of aromatic materials in which none of the
constituent fragrance notes is more prominent than any of the others.

ODOUR NOTE
a distinctive odour impression, i.e. one that can be recognized and identified.

ODOUR PROFILE
a complete description of an odour in written, diagrammatic or graphical form,
resulting from olfactory evaluation or instrumental measurement.

ODOUR PURITY
The extent to which the odour of a test sample of an aromatic material or
perfume conforms to the odour of a standard sample of the same product.

Oestrogen
One of the group of female sex hormones which is principally produced by the
ovary before ovulation but also from the adrenal glands.

Osteogenic
contributes to the formation of bone

Oestrogenic
produces effects similar to oestrogen

Officinalis
used in medicine; recognized in the pharmacopoeia

OLFACTORY
pertaining to the sense of smell

OLFACTORY FATIGUE

Temporary loss of sensitivity to the odour of an odorant continuously smelled

over a period of time. Fatigue to a certain odour leaves the nose fully sensitive to
all other odours that it is able to detect. Recovery from olfactory fatigue is rapid
and complete when the responsible odorant is no longer smelled.

OLIGOTHERAPY
The use of ionised trace minerals to activate enzyme substrates.

Oncology
Study of cancer

OPHTHALMIA
Inflammation of the mucous membrane covering the eye.

OPTHALMOLOGY
Study of the eye and sight

Optic
anything to do with the eye and sight

ORBITAL
A region of space around the nucleus of an atom where an unpaired electron or
an electron pair is most likely to be found

Organs
The organs in traditional Chinese medicine are conceptualised differently than in
Western medicine: organs have energetic rather than physical functions; they
are dynamic, interrelated processes that occur throughout every level of the
body. Yin organs include the heart, lungs, kidneys, spleen, and liver; yang organs
include the small intestine, large intestine, urinary bladder, stomach, and
gallbladder.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The study of the chemical behaviour of compounds of carbon, other than
carbon-containing ionic compounds such as carbonates and simple molecular
compounds such as carbon dioxide.

ORGANIC COMPOUND - A carbon compound other than a simple, ionic compound

containing carbon, such as a carbonate or similar molecular compound such as
carbon dioxide.

Organic grown
without the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, etc.

Organism
Living thing, whether animal, plant or microbe.

Organoleptic
concerned with testing the effects of a substance on the senses particularly
taste and smell

Orthopaedics
Study of bone disease.

Osmosis
Selective passage of the molecules of a liquid through a semi-permeable
membrane between solutions of different concentrations. Water from a weaker
solution moves through the membrane to dilute a stronger one.

Osmotic
pressure required stopping water from passing through a membrane into a
solution; for example, osmotic pressure occurs when fluid is forced back into the
capillary system after it has been forced out into the body tissues by the blood
pressure.

Osteology
Study of bones.

OSTEOMYELITIS
Inflammation of the bone marrow.

OTOLOGY
the branch of medicine dealing with the ear and its anatomy

Otorhinolaryngology
Study of the ear, nose and throat.

OTORRHEA
A discharge from the outer ear.

Ovulation
Release of a mature ovum from an ovary

OXIDATION
a chemical reaction in which oxygen combines with an element or compound, or
in which hydrogen is removed from a compound. A more fundamental concept is
that oxidation is the loss of one or more electrons by an atom, ion or molecule.

OXYTOCIC
An agent that promotes evacuation of the uterus by stimulating myometrial
contraction - the contraction of the uterus.

OZONATED

The use of excited molecules of oxygen for purification of air and water and the
destruction of anaerobes and other pathogens

OZONIC
A fresh odour note, similar to the odour of ozone often found in the fragrances of
modem consumer products, such as domestic laundry detergents.

Oestrogenic
simulating the action of female hormones

pH
A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution, expressed as a
numerical value on a scale from 0 - extremely acidic to 14.0 - extremely alkaline.
A pH value of 7.0 expresses neutrality.

Paediatrics
Study of childrens diseases

Palmar
Anything concerning the palm of the hand.

Palpation
To examine a patient with the hand

PARTURIENT
Applied to substances used during childbirth; a substance that induces labour.

PARTURITION
Act of giving birth to a child.

Patent
Open.

PATHOGENIC
that which gives origin to a disease, for example, a virus is the pathogenic
organism of influenza.

Pantothenic acid
see Vitamin B5

Pectoral
Used in connexion with drugs used internally for affections of the chest and
lungs.

Perennial
a plant, which continues a cycle of new growth and flowering for many seasons
between germination of the seed and death

Percutaneous
applied through the skin

Peptone
partly digested protein.

Perception
Overall awareness of the environment from the interpretation of sensory
information

PERCOLATION

The process of extracted bioactive constituents from plants using a percolator in

the preparation of tinctures or fluid extracts.

PERIODIC TABLE
An arrangement of the chemical elements in the order of their atomic numbers
showing the regular recurrence of many of their properties, particularly chemical
properties.

Peripheral
Towards the outside.

PESSARY
A vaginal suppository

Pharmacokinetics
study of absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination of drugs

Pharmacology
Study of drugs in relation to medicine

PHARYNGEAL
Pertaining to the pharynx (musculo-membranous sac behind the mouth).

PHOSPHATURIA
The presence of phosphates in the urine.

Phosphorus
like calcium, this is important for bone and teeth formation. It is also needed to
activate a number of the B vitamins. Deficiency is rare as it is found in many
foods.

Photosensitization
abnormally increased sensitivity of the skin to ultraviolet radiation or natural
sunlight can follow ingestion of or contact with various substances

Phylalanine
see Amino acids

Physiology
Understanding of the workings and functions of living organisms

PHYTOEQUIVALENCE
Standardization of a botanical agent so as to attain a consistent delivery of
active compounds.

PHYTOESTROGEN
A plant-based oestrogen.

PHYTONUTRITENTS
Nutrients - vitamins, minerals, etc. coming from plants.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The manufacture of the sugar glucose in the leaves of a green plant from carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll, using sunlight as a source of
energy and with the evolution of oxygen.

PHYTOTHERAPY
treatment of disease by the use of plants and plant extracts; herbalism.

PHOTOTOXIC

this term describes the property of a substance to exert a toxic effect in the
presence of light, particularly sunlight as, for example, bergaptene in Bergamot
and some other essential oils.

PILES
Haemorrhoids.

Physic
a medicinal substance or preparation.

PITYRIASIS
A skin condition characterized by the presence of fine scales.

Plantar
Concerning the sole of the foot.

POLYMENORRHOEA
unusually short menstrual cycles

Posterior
Towards the back or situated behind

Potassium
this is present in every cell in our bodies and is important for healthy heart
function, the nervous system and for maintaining normal blood glucose levels.
Excessive use of diuretics can deplete the bodys natural reserves of potassium
and supplements are often then needed. Daily intake should be around 2-4 g and
it is plentiful in fresh fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Potassium and sodium
balance is important and meat eaters tend to have more sodium and could often
benefit from additional potassium.

Poultice
Material applied to the surface of the body as a remedy for some disorder.
Usually, a poultice is made of fresh vegetable matter that has been crushed or
soaked into a limber mass, then placed between two pieces of cloth for
application.

Pregnancy
Time from the moment of fertilization to parturition

PRIAPISM
Abnormal erection of the penis, usually not accompanied by sexual desire

Probiotic
favouring the beneficial bacteria in the body, while inhibiting harmful microbes;
literally for life as distinct from antibiotic, against life

Progesterone
Hormone produced by the ovary in the second part of the menstrual cycle to
maintain the endometrium during implantation of the blastocyst.

Pronation
Placing or holding of the palm of the hand downwards

PROPHYLACTIC
something that is given to try and prevent a disease occurring

PROLAPSE
a falling down of a part.

PROLAPSUS ANI

a condition in which the lower part of the intestinal tract extrudes through the
external anal sphincter.

PROLAPSUS UTERI
Downward displacement of the uterus.

Propolis
a resinous substance collected by bees from buds, leafy stalks and twigs. It is
reputedly an anti-infection compound.

PROSTAGLANDIN
A component of body processes derived from unsaturated fatty acids.

Protease
see Digestive enzymes

PROTEIN
a natural polymer of very high molecular weight, present in all living matter. The
linking together of amino acid molecules, with the elimination of water
molecules, forms a protein.

Protein Complex
nitrogen-containing substance concerned with building the bodys fabric.

PROTON
A positively charged particle of unit atomic mass, which occurs in the nuclei of
all atoms

PROTOPLASM
The complex, an organized, colloidal content of all living cells.

Parasiticide
Destroying parasites.

Protuberance
Bulge or swelling

Proximal
Close to a certain place.

PRURIGO
A chronic skin condition characterized by severe itching and the presence of
small, deep-seated skin elevations, especially about the knees and elbows.

PRURITIS
Itching.

PSORIASIS
A chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by reddish patches covered
with white scales. it may affect the knees, elbows, of scalp.

PSYCHIATRY
Study of mental illness.

Psychopharmaceutical
pertaining to drugs affecting the mind or mood

Psychotropic
of a drug, affecting the brain and influencing behaviour

Puberty
Period during which the sexual organs reach maturity with the development of
the secondary sexual characteristics, such as growth of hair, breast development
and change of voice.

PURGATIVE
strongly laxative

Purgative
Drugs that evacuate the bowels, more drastic than a laxative or aperient. A
strong cathartic given to relieve severe constipation.

PURULENT
Characterized by the presence or formation of pus.

PYEMIA
The presence of fever-producing microorganisms circulating in the blood,
accompanied by abscesses that form wherever they lodge.

Pyridoxine
see Vitamin B5

Quickening
when the foetus is first felt to move by the mother is the onset of quickening.

Raceme
a simple clustering of flowers on nearly equal-length stalks along a stem with
the lowest flowers blooming first and the youngest blossom at the top.

RACHITIC
having or pertaining to rickets

RADICAL
An atom or group of atoms having one or more unpaired electrons; symbol R.

REACTION PATHWAY
A succession of chemical reaction steps in which the product of one reaction is
caused to undergo a further reaction to give an intermediate product until a
required product is finally formed.

REACTIVE
In chemistry, a term applied to a substance which readily undergoes chemical
change.

RECEPTOR
In biology, a cell or collection of cells capable of responding to a particular kind
of stimulus, such as odorous molecules

RECONSTITUTION
In perfumery, the synthetic or largely synthetic reproduction of an aromatic
material of natural origin, the term is also used to refer to the product of an
exercise of this kind.

REFRIGERANT
A substance which cools and reduces fever. Seldom used, it is much the same as
febrifuge and antipyretic.

Regulates blood
Smoothes the flow of blood in the body; symptoms for which blood regulators
are taken include bleeding, haemorrhaging, excessive menstruation, localized
stabbing pain, abdominal masses, ulcers, abscesses, and painful menstruation.

Regulates energy
Smoothes the flow of chi in the body; symptoms of chi stagnation include dull,
aching pain; abdominal distension, and pain; belching; gas; acid regurgitation;
nausea; vomiting; stifling sensation in chest; pain in the sides; loss of appetite;
depression; hernia pain; irregular menstruation; swollen, tender breasts; and
wheezing.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

The ratio of the mass of one atom of an element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom
of the isotope carbon-12 taken as 12 atomic mass units precisely

Relaxant
relaxes tense and overactive nerves and tissues.

Resolvent
a term used to denote substances applied to swellings in order to reduce them.

RESPIRATION
The production of energy in an animal or plant cell by the enzyme-catalysed
combustion of foodstuffs, chiefly glucose

Rheumatism
an ailment characterized by stiffness of the joints or muscles

Rhizome
an elongated, thickened, usually horizontal, underground plant stem, which
sends out roots below and shoots above. It is differentiated from ordinary
rootstock by the presence of nodes, buds, and occasionally scale-like leaves.

Riboflavin

see Vitamin B2.

RICKETS/RACHITIS
Vitamin D deficiency resulting in improper bone formation of decalcification.

ROB
Thickened juice of ripe fruit mixed with honey or sugar to the consistency of
syrup.

Royal jelly
a bee product used to feed the queen that allows her to become fertile. It is a
rich source of vitamins and minerals and is used as a tonic supplement. Views on
its efficacy vary and as a supplement it needs to be taken for several months
before any real benefit can be seen. It should be avoided by those allergic to bee
stings.

RUBEFACIENT
A substance which, when rubbed into the skin, reddens the skin by attracting
blood to the area

SAGITTATE
Resembling an arrowhead in shape.

SAMARA
a winged fruit that does not split spontaneously e.g. maple

Saponins
active plant constituents similar to soap and producing lather with water. They
can irritate the mucous membranes of the digestive tract that, by reflex, has an
expectorant action. Some saponins ate chemically similar to steroidal hormones.

SATURATED COMPOUND
An organic compound the molecules of which contain no multiple bonds.

SATURATED SOLUTION
a solution containing as much of a solute as the solvent can hold at a stated
temperature.

SCALE
A small, usually dry leaf that is closely pressed against another organ.

SCAPE
A leafless flower stalk that grows from the ground.

SCARIFICATION
A process of scraping as used, for example, in the mechanical expression of
Bergamot Oil from the peel of the fruit.

SCROFULA - An infection and enlargement of the lymph glands. Thanks largely to

modern sanitation scrofula is no longer common. Tuberculosis affecting the
lymph nodes in the neck area.

SCURVY
A nutritional disease due to a deficiency of vitamin C characterized by
weakness, capillary fragility, and spongy gums.

SEDATIVES
Herbs that lower the functional activity to an organ or part of the body, thereby
tending to calm, moderate or tranquillise; sedates or calms the mind and spirit;
conditions for which sedatives are taken include insomnia, anxiety, nervousness,
irritability, fright, and hysteria.

Selenium
a highly fashionable supplement in recent years, selenium deficiency has been
associated with preventing heart disease and cancer so is frequently added to
broad-spectrum supplements. It should be commonly found in vegetables and
cereals, as it is a naturally occurring trace element, however, over-cropping can
deplete the soil so deficiency could be increasing.

SENSORY
In general, pertaining to the senses, in perfumery the term refers specifically to
the sense of smell as, for example, in the expression sensory perception,
meaning the process of smelling.

SEPAL
A leaf or division of the calyx

SEPSIS
Same as septicaemia q.v.

SEPTICAEMIA
An infection characterized by the presence of microorganisms and their toxins in
the bloodstream.

SERRATE - Saw-toothed, with the teeth pointing toward the apex; saw like tooth many herbs have serrated leaves.

Sessile
A term used to refer to leaves and flowers that have no stalk.

Seven Emotions
The Seven Emotions are a major cause of illness. They are sadness, fright, fear,
grief, anger, joy - over excitability and melancholy or pensiveness.

SHEATH
An expanded or tubular structure that partially encloses a stem or other organ.

SHELF LIFE
the period of time following manufacture during which a product remains fit for
use.

Shen
The overall spirit and mental faculties of a person, including enthusiasm for life,
charisma, and capacity to behave appropriately, be responsive, speak
coherently, think and form ideas, and live a life of joy and spiritual fulfilment.

SHINGLES
Herpes zoster q.v.

SHOOT
A stem or branch and its leaves, especially when young.

SHRUB
A woody plant that produces no trunk but branches from the base.

Sialagogue
A substance which causes an increase in the flow of saliva.

SIDE REACTION
An unwanted chemical reaction, yielding an impurity, which takes place during a
reaction for producing a required product.

SIMPLE

Not compounded (leaves) or branched (stems, flower clusters). An herb used as

a remedy on its own.

SMOOTH
Not rough

Sodium
while potassium is found inside our cells, sodium tends to exist outside and this
balance is important in the transmission of nerve impulses. Most dietary sodium
comes from table salt as well as from use of monosodium glutamate (the tasty
powder of Chinese cuisine). Excess can raise blood pressure and the average
intake in the Western world is already well above minimum nutritional needs.

SOLITARY
not growing as part of a cluster or group.

SOPORIFIC
A substance that tends to induce sleep.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION
The separation of soluble matter from a natural source material by a pure,
volatile solvent, as in the preparation of extracts from aromatic sources, also of
absolutes from concretes.

SPADIX
A fleshy spike.

Spasmolytic
agent decreasing muscular spasms

SPATHE

One or tow bracts enclosing a flower cluster especially a spadix.

SPATULATE
Shaped like a spoon, with a narrow end at the base

SPECIES
A group of plants that can interbreed with each other

SPECIFIC
A remedy having a curative effect on a particular disease or symptom

SPECIFICATION
A statement of important properties of a product, to which all other samples or
batches of the same product must conform to be acceptable

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water
measured at a stated temperature.

SPIKE
A flower cluster in which sessile flowers grow along part of the length of the
peduncle.

SPIKELET
A small spike, particularly one of the few flowered spikes making up the
inflorescence of a grass.

Spirit
See Shen.

SPHINCTER
A muscle that opens and closes an orifice.

SPORE
a one-celled reproductive body produced by relatively primitive plants.

SPUR
a slender, hollow projection from a petal or sepal.

STAMEN
The male or pollen-bearing organ of a flower

STANDARDIZED
The process of concentrating an herbal extract to contain a known amount of a
bioactive marker. Standardization is a guarantee that what a consumer
purchases is what they are getting.

Sternutatory
Producing sneezing by irritation of the mucous membrane.

STIGMA
the part of the pistil in which pollen grains collects and germinates.

STIMULANT
Increases internal heat dispels internal chill and strengthens metabolism and
circulation, causes CNS excitation. A substance which increases or quickens the
various functional actions of the body, such as quickening digestion, raising body
temperature, and so on. It does this quickly, unlike a tonic, which stimulates
general health over a period of time. And unlike a narcotic, it does not
necessarily produce a feeling of general well being, a feeling a narcotic produces
by depressing nerve centres.

STIPULE
An appendage, often leaf-like at the base of a petiole or leaf; often paired.

STOMACH HEAT
A condition of too much heat in the stomach, with signs of bad breath, gum
bleeding and swelling, mouth ulcers, frontal headaches, burning sensation in the
stomach region, and extreme thirst.

STOMACHIC
Increases stomach function.

STRETCHING
a form of adulteration of a costly aromatic material with cheaper material with
the object of increasing the quantity without noticeably altering the odour
character or strength. It should be noted that certain products so stretched are
perfectly usable as ingredients of consumer product perfumes, where the
genuine counterparts would be too expensive to use or simply not available in
sufficient quantities for bulk usage.

STROBILE
A cone or cone like structure.

STYLE
The slender elongated part of a pistil.

Styptic
A substance that stops or checks bleeding. It is usually an astringent, which
shrinks the tissues, thus closing exposed blood vessels.

SUBJECTIVITY

Dependence on human judgment and opinion

SUBLIMATION
In chemistry, the vaporization of a solid or the solidification of a gas or vapour,
without the appearance of the intermediate liquid phase

SUDORIFIC (DIAPHORETIC)
Stimulates production and secretion of perspiration

SULPHOZONE
A defunct proprietary medicine

SURFACE TENSION
the stretching force acting at the surface of a liquid. The existence of surface
tension at the surface of water is shown by the rapid bursting of bubbles formed
by vigorous agitation of the water. The addition of a surfactant reduces the
stretching forces that break the bubbles, rendering them more permanent.

SUTURE
a natural seam or groove along which a fruit splits.

SYNAPSE
a narrow gap between the endings of two nerve fibres in close association,
across which nervous impulses are transmitted chemically.

SYNTHESIS
the building up of a more complex chemical compound from elements or from
simpler compounds

Systemic
affecting the whole body.

TCM
Abbreviation for traditional Chinese medicine.

Taenicide
Applied to drugs used to expel tapeworm

Tannin
active plant constituents that are astringent and combine with proteins. The
term is derived from plants used in tanning leather.

TAPROOT
A single main root that grows vertically into the ground.

Taste
Sensation of flavour that occurs when the sensory areas of the tongue are
stimulated.

Taurine
see Amino acids.

Taxonomy
scientific classification of living things

TENDON
Strong, fibrous bundle which joins a muscle to a bone.

TENESMUS
Painful straining to urinate or evacuate without success.

TERMINAL
Occurring at or growing from the end opposite the base, compare lateral.

TERNATE
Occurring in threes or divided into three parts.

TERPENES
A chemical family of aromatic substances frequently found in volatile oils of
plants.

THERMOSTATIC CONTROL
The automatic control of temperature within narrow limits by means of a
thermostat. This form of control is applied to the column of a gasliquid
chromatograph, which is contained in an oven fitted with a computer controlled
thermostat and a fan to distribute heated air evenly throughout the length of the
column. The oven temperature is usually set to increase progressively to a
predetermined maximum during an analysis.

Thiamine
see Vitamin B,

Thorax
Chest compartment enclosed by the ribs, backbone and diaphragm. It contains
the lungs, the heart, major blood vessels and the oesophagus.

THORACIC
Pertaining to the chest area

Threshold

Critical level of a stimulus to produce a response; for example, a feather lying on

the skin may not be noticed, but a piece of gravel is above the threshold for
feeling.

Thrombosis
Formation or development of a clot of blood

thymoleptic
antiseptic

Thyroid gland
Endocrine gland in the neck that produces hormones to stimulate the bodys
metabolism, it requires iodine for normal function.

TINCTURE
A liquid extract prepared from herbal materials in a ratio of 1:5w/v (1 part herb
to 5 parts solvent) to 1:10w/v (1 part herb to 10 parts solvent).

Tisane
see infusion.

Tissue
Large areas of similar cells, for example muscle tissue.

TISSUE, GRANULATED
The red tissue, rich in capillaries, that forms in the early stages of healing.

Tocopherol
see Vitamin F.

TONIC
Herbs that increase system tone, energy, vigour and strength and restoring,
nourishing and supporting for the entire body

Tonify
a tonic action: strengthening and restoring for the system.

Tonification
Nourishing, strengthening, building, and improving the condition of either chi,
blood, yin, or yang in the body.

TOP NOTE
The first sensory impression perceived on smelling an aromatic material,
perfume or perfumed product, it consists of the vapours of the most volatile
together with some proportion of the less volatile ingredients of the perfume.

Topical
local administration of a herbal remedy.

Torsion
Act of twisting

Toxicopectic
promotes the neutralizing of a poison in the body

Traction
Action of pulling on a muscle or organ by means of weights to correct an
abnormal condition.

Trichome

hair like structure on the epidermis of a plant

TRANSPIRATION
The evaporation of water from the leaves of a green plant. This process
eliminates excess water from the plant, cools the leaves for maximum efficiency
of photosynthesis and assists the transport of water and dissolved nutrients from
the root system to all other living parts of the plant.

Transient
something that occurs only for a short time

Trauma
Wound or injury; emotional upset that may lead to mental illness.

TREACLE
thick brown syrup, as molasses, a residue from refining sugar.

TREE
a woody perennial plant, generally over ten foot tall at maturity, with one or few
main trunks.

Tremor
Trembling.

TRIFOLIATE
having three leaves.

TRIFOLIOLATE
having three leaflets

TRIPINNATE
Descriptive of a pinnate leaf having pinnate leaflets with pinnate pinnules.

TRITURATE
To reduce to powder by rubbing, pulverize.

TRIPLE BOND
a linkage between two atoms consisting of three bonding pairs of electrons.

TRISPLANCHNIC
Refers to the sympathetic nerves.

TUBER
A thick, fleshy part, usually of a rootstock.

TUMOUR
An abnormal tissue growth characterized by swelling or enlargement. Tumours
may be malignant (cancerous) or benign.

Tryptophan
see Amino acids.

Tyrosine
see Amino acids.

UMBLE
a cluster of flowers formed by stalks of nearly equal length sprouting from a
common centre. The individual flowers form a flat or nearly flat surface. This type
of flower cluster is characteristic of the Umbelliferae or carrot family.

Urinary antiseptic
inhibits the growth of microorganisms in the kidneys, ureters, bladder and
urethra

Unconscious
Absence of normal wakefulness, the lack of awareness that occurs when there is
no response to normal stimuli. It is not, as a rule, applied to natural sleep.

Uterine spasmolytic
relieves strong, painful contractions of the uterus

UTEROLYTIC
An agent that relaxes the uterine tone

UTEROTONIC
An agent that increases the tone of the uterus

Uterotonic
increases the muscular tone of the uterus

VALVE
one of the parts into which a capsule divides when splitting.

Variety
indicates a botanical rank between subspecies and forma; abbreviated to var. as
in Citrus aurentium var. amara

VASOCONSTRICTOR

Contracts blood vessels; may raise blood pressure, especially in high and
prolonged doses.

VASODILATOR
Dilates blood vessels.

VASODILATOR
increases the flow of blood through the vessels by relaxing constrictions
(Ginkgo, Cayenne, Ginger, Lily-of-the-Valley, Baptisia, Prickly Ash Bark)

VEGETABLE OIL
non-volatile oil, consisting largely of esters of higher alcohols and higher
carboxylic acids, from a vegetable source such as sweet almonds, jojoba seeds
or wheat germ. Most purified vegetable oils are faintly odorous from traces of
volatiles they contain.

Venereology
Study of sexually transmitted diseases

Ventral
concerning the abdomen

Venous return
the blood flows back to the lungs and heart from the bodys extremities.

VERMIFUGE
A medicine that destroys intestinal worms and helps expel them. Also called
anthelmintic.

Vermifugal
expelling intestinal worms

VERMICIDE
Destroys worms.

VESICANT
A substance that causes blisters or sores. Poison ivy is a vesicant.

Virology
Study of virus disease.

Virus
Complex chemical dependent on living cells for its reproduction.

VISCERA
Collectively refers to the organs and other physical parts which fill the body
cavities.

Viscus
Usually means the bowel, but can be referred to any of the abdominal organs,
for example the liver and spleen.

Vitamin
One of a series of substances that are found in the normal diet and are required
in small amounts for the normal metabolism of the body and which the body
cannot make from raw materials because it lacks the enzymes needed for their
synthesis.

Vitamin A
A number of fat-soluble compounds, including retinol, retinal and retinoic acid
only found in animal produce (liver, kidney, whole-fat milk, butter and egg yolk).
A number of vitamin-A-type compounds are found in vegetables, generally as

orange/yellow pigments the most important is beta-carotene, and these are

water-soluble. Vitamin A is important for eye-function; it prevents drying of the
eye and corneal changes as well as light-sensitive functions. Vitamin A is also
important for maintaining the stability of cell membranes and is believed to be
helpful in pregnancy to prevent birth defects. Vitamin A can be toxic in excess.

Vitamin B
a complex group of chemicals that are all water soluble and found in such foods
as Brewers yeast, meats, wholegrain cereals and vegetable proteins. They are
chemically distinct but interact within the body in a number of metabolic
processes. Deficiency of individual B vitamins is rare, but is sometimes found
with vitamin B12 that is generally only found in animal products so can be
missing from strictly vegetarian diets. The B vitamins are referred to both by
number and name which can be confusing.

Vitamin B1 Thiamin
important in energy production and carbohydrate mechanism.

Vitamin B2 Riboflavin
needed for production of enzymes mainly found in the liver and important in
oxidising compounds to produce energy.

Vitamin B3 (nicotinic acid - also known as niacin - and nicotinamide)

used in hydrogen transport and enzyme production. Nicotinic acid is important
in cholesterol metabolism.

Vitamin B Pantothenic acid

regarded as a lesser B vitamin, B, is important in reactions involving
carbohydrates, fats and amino acids.

Vitamin B Pyridoxine
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine, important in protein metabolism and needed by the
body in direct proportion to the amount of protein consumed. It is also involved
in the metabolism of essential body chemicals including histamine,
hydroxytryptamine and serotonin that is important in brain chemistry so

deficiency of this vitamin can affect behaviour. Many women find vitamin
supplements helpful for premenstrual problems.

Vitamin B Cyanacobalamin
important in cell formation and production of red blood corpuscles, a deficiency
of B12 can lead to pernicious anaemia.

Vitamin C
helps to maintain healthy connective tissues and bones and is involved in the
normal metabolism of cholesterol. Deficiency leads to scurvy - once common on
long sea voyages - with bleeding and poor wound healing. Vitamin C is water
soluble and also involved in the protection of cortisol by the adrenal glands.
Vitamin C is a very widely used supplement and its supporters credit it with
prevention from a range of ills from the common cold to cancer. It is an effective
anti-oxidant and is also anti-viral and anti-bacterial. Dosages of up to 5 g a day
can be safely taken, although in high doses it can contribute to diarrhoea.
Vitamin C is found in fresh fruits and vegetables but is destroyed in cooking and
breaks down rapidly after harvesting so is highest in the freshest vegetables.

Vitamin D
this is essential for normal calcium metabolism and deficiency can lead to
rickets and other bone disorders. Regular exposure to sunlight has the same
effect on calcium metabolism and nutritionists now believe there is little
justification for vitamin D supplements since it can be synthesized naturally in
the skin. Vitamin D is found in oily fish, dairy fats, egg yolk and liver.

Vitamin E
also known as tocopherol, vitamin F is sometimes called the anti-old age
vitamin. The vitamin is fat soluble and found in many vegetable oils, nuts, lettuce
and eggs. It is an anti-oxidant and is believed to act as natures preservative,
helping prevent fats from going rancid. It can help protect the lungs from
pollutants and is often given as a supplement to those with high blood pressure
or heart problems. A daily intake of 8-10 mg is believed essential for adults.

Vitamin K
a group of compounds involved in the production of blood clotting factors,
especially prothrombin. It is found in many vegetables, liver, green tea and

cereals and is routinely given in injection to new born babies who often have
naturally low levels of vitamin K as the placenta cannot transmit fat soluble
substances and Vitamin K, like a number of other vitamins, comes into this
category.

VOLATILE
Descriptive of substances that evaporate when exposed to the air. Used also as
a generic name for low boiling-point constituents of a natural source of aroma or
flavour. Complex, often aromatic, substances with a low boiling point which
rapidly evaporate in the air. The smells associated with different herbs and
extracts are often due to such oils.

VOLATILITY
The speed or rate at which a substance evaporates. In perfumery, the concept
of volatility leads to the classification of aromatic materials as top, middle or
base notes.

VULNERARY
Herbs that promote the healing of wounds by protecting against infection and
stimulation of cell growth.

VULVA
The external female genitalia

VULVITIS
Inflammation of the vulva

VULVOVAGINITIS
Inflammation of both the vulva and the vagina

Warming
a remedy which increases body temperature and encourages digestive function
and circulation. Warming herbs are often spicy and pungent to taste.

WEN
Sebaceous cyst.

WHORL
a circular arrangement of three or more leaves, flowers or other parts at the
same point or level.

Wind
causes movement (or sometimes the lack of it), with symptoms of spasms,
twitches, dizziness, spasms, rigidity of the muscles, deviation of the eye and
mouth, stiff or rigid neck and shoulders, tremors, convulsions, vertigo, and
sudden onset of colds, chills, fever, stuffy noses, and headache.

XENOBIOTIC
An exotoxin or endotoxin that is foreign to the body.

Yang
The bodys capacity to generate and maintain warmth and circulation. Aspect of
being equated with male energy dry, hot, light, ascending

Yang deficiency
A condition of coldness due to lack of the heating quality of yang; symptoms
include lethargy, coldness, oedema, poor digestion, lower-back pain, the type of
constipation caused by weak peristaltic motion, and lack of libido.

Yin
The bodys substance, including blood and all other fluids in the body; these
nurture and moisten the organs and tissues. Aspect of being equated with
female energy damp, cold, dark, descending.

Yin deficiency

Deficiency heat that results in emaciation and weakness with heat symptoms,
such as night sweats; insomnia; a burning sensation in the palms, soles, and
chest; afternoon fever; nervous exhaustion; dry throat; dry eyes; blurred vision;
dizziness; and nervous tension.

Zang Fu
The theory of the organs; the hollow organs (fu) transport and the solid organs
(zang) store vital substances.

Zinc
has become more important as a dietary supplement in recent years as its role
in a number of metabolic processes has been recognized. Zinc is believed to help
strengthen the immune system and is often combined with vitamin C as antiinfection supplements for the winter. It also affects prostate function and, again,
is often included in products targeted at older men. It is also often recommended
in inflammatory diseases (notably rheumatoid arthritis and bowel disorders). Hair
loss and skin troubles can suggest zinc deficiency as can white spots on the
nails and an impaired sense of taste or smell.

ZYGOMORPHIC
A flower not radially symmetrical; it may be bilaterally symmetrical (divisible
into equal halves on only a single plane) or less regular in shape; also called
irregular.

ZYME
An obsolete term meaning fungus.

ZYMOTIC
Pertaining to an infectious disease produced by a fungus.

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