Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Solar still with vapor adsorption basin: Performance analysis

R. Kannan a, C. Selvaganesan b, M. Vignesh b, B. Ramesh Babu b, M. Fuentes c, M. Vivar d,
I. Skryabin d, K. Srithar b, *
a

Roever Engineering College, Perambalur, Tamilnadu 621212, India

Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, Tamilnadu 625015, India
c
Grupo IDEA, Universidad de Jaen, Jaen 23071, Spain
d
Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australia
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 14 December 2012
Accepted 8 July 2013
Available online 31 July 2013

In this work, a vapor adsorption type solar still was designed, fabricated and tested at Thiagarajar College
of Engineering, Madurai, India. A vapor adsorbent pipe network comprising activated carbonemethanol
pair was integrated with the basin. Losses from the bottom of the still are considerably reduced due to
sensible heat absorption by the activated carbon and latent heat of vaporization by methanol. Also water
circulated through the inner tube of the adsorbent bed is used as a feed to basin, thus enhancing the
evaporation rate during day time. The increase in temperature of the basin due to adsorbent bed and
condensation of methanol vapor, augments the evaporation rate during the night time also. Sponges,
gravels, sand and black rubbers were used in the vapor adsorption type solar still for improving the yield.
Experimental results were compared with ordinary conventional basin type still. The governing energy
balance equations for both conventional and vapor adsorption type solar still were solved analytically
and compared with experimental results. Theoretical analysis gave very good agreement with experimental results.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Solar still
Vapor adsorption
Desalination
Efciency
Water purication

1. Introduction
As population of this planet has rapidly grown, we have
increasingly tapped deeper into our planets fresh water resources.
The trend of population growth is quite obvious. The availability of
water in sufcient quantities and quality is a challenge of signicant importance in many regions as it is scarce and unevenly
distributed resource. Water scarcity is a function of supply and
demand and an indicator of the gap between them.
The increased demand associated with uncontrolled development, inadequate management practices, overpopulation, mass
tourism, intensive agriculture, and over consumption results in a
complexity of interrelated problems affecting social, economic and
natural aspects of everyday life. As a result many regions are now in
a perpetual state of demand consistently exceeding supply.
Solar distillation extracts potable water from a salty or polluted
source using a simple process which is particularly well-suited for
use on small scale in remote or developing regions. Solar stills of

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 91 984 2185302; fax: 91 452 2483427.

E-mail address: ponsathya@hotmail.com (K. Srithar).
0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.07.018

diverse designs, many equipped with numerous improvements,

have been widely studied and put into use.
Tiwari et al. [1] reviewed the present status of solar distillation.
The basic heat and mass transfer relation responsible for developing, testing procedure for various designs of solar stills have also
been discussed.
Tanaka and Nakatake [2] have proposed a novel compact
multiple-effect diffusion-type solar still consisting of a heat-pipe
solar collector and a number of vertical parallel partitions in contact with saline-soaked wicks to increase the evaporation rate.
Abu-Hijleh and Rababah [3] have done the experimental study
of a solar still with sponge cubes in basin. The effects of sponge cube
size, volume ratio of sponge, water depth, water salinity and the use
of black coal and black steel cubes were also investigated. The study
showed that the daily output of such a still could be greatly
enhanced using sponge cubes.
Badran et al. [4] designed a solar still augmented with at plate
collector. The still inlet was connected to a locally made n-tube
collector such that its outlet was fed to the still basin instead of
the common storage tank. Velmurugan and Srithar [5] integrated a
mini solar pond for enhancing the productivity of solar still. Also
they reviewed [6] various applications of solar pond. Fins [7,8],
stepped solar still [9] were also used to enhance the productivity of

R. Kannan et al. / Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

the solar still. Also an extensive review on solar desalination system

has been carried out by Velmurugan and Srithar [10].
Leite and Daguenet [11] have proposed a predictive model for an
adsorption solar cooling system using the activated carbon and
methanol pair and found its numerical simulation. Wang et al. [12]
have done a research of a combined adsorption heating and cooling
system. The experiments showed the potentials of the application
of the solar powered hybrid water heater and refrigerator. Dai and
Sumathy [13] investigated the heat and mass transfer in the
adsorbent of a solar adsorption cooling system. A mathematical
model, which accounts for the heat and mass transfer of sorption
(adsorption and desorption) processes as well as the effects of nonequilibrium and non-uniform temperature and pressure distribution, was developed and experimentally validated.
Liu et al. [14] proposed a new adsorption refrigeration system,
without refrigerant valves, and solved the problem of mass transfer
resistance resulting in pressure drop along refrigerant passage in
conventional systems when methanol or water is used as a refrigerant. Anyanwu and Ogueke [15] proposed the thermodynamic
design procedure for solid adsorption solar refrigeration using
activated carbon/methanol, activated carbon/ammonia and zeolite/
water adsorbent/adsorbate pairs. Sumathy and Zhongfu [16]
described the operation of a solar-powered ice-maker with the
solid adsorption pair comprising activated carbon and methanol.
The literature survey showed that higher water temperatures
resulting in the increase in evaporation rate are achieved by
decreasing the saline water depth in the basin, by increasing the
exposure area or by preheating the saline water by some other
sources before it enters the still or by combining all. The vapor
adsorption solar refrigeration techniques using activated carbone
methanol or activated carboneammonia pairs gave good result in
solar cooling process because of the higher sensible heat of activated carbon and the latent heat of methanol/ammonia.
The objective of this work is to increase the temperature of saline water by utilizing an adsorbent bed pipe network with activated carbonemethanol pair embedded in the basin of the solar
still. In an inner tube of the adsorbent pipe network, saline water is

259

circulated from the storage tank. This preheated water is used as a

feed to the still. An outer pipe of the adsorbent pipe network is
enclosed with activate carbonemethanol pair and sealed at both
ends. The temperature of the saline water is further augmented by
means of adding the sensible heat storage materials like sponge,
sand and rubber on the basin. Also adding sponges in the basin will
increase the exposure area to solar radiation and thus evaporation
rate is increased. Results showed that there is good improvement in
distillate production in both day and night times. Theoretical
modeling is also carried out to validate the experimental results.
1.1. Experimentation
The vapor adsorption type solar still system comprises vapor
adsorbent bed is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The solar still consists of a
25 mm thick plywood box with dimensions depicted in Figs. 1 and
2. Holes are provided for the distilled water output and for the
brackish water input. Outer sides of the wooden box are covered by
the metal sheet in order to protect the box from solar radiation and
rain. The basin of the still is made up of 2 mm galvanized iron (GI)
sheet selected due to its good conductivity and low cost. The dimensions of the basin are 1  1 m2. A 0.2 m gap between the side of
the basin tray and the wooden box is lled with saw dust. This acts
as insulation and prevents the side loss of heat through conduction.
The basin is coated with black paint to increase the radiation
absorption.
The condensing surface in the still is simply a 1.1  1.1 m2
sloping glass cover. Distilled water condensed on the glass surface
is collected by a piece of gutter attached at the bottom of the
sloping cover and directed to a measuring jar. The slope was
selected as 10 angle, which is the latitude of Madurai, Tamil Nadu,
India. The still is positioned that the glass cover faced south direction during all experiments.
The only modication made in the basin plate of the vapor
adsorption type solar still is the integration of a concentric pipe line
network in the basin as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. An inner pipe of this
network is 0.025 m in diameter and is enclosed with an outer pipe

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the vapor adsorption type solar still.

260

R. Kannan et al. / Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

The following modications were made in the vapor adsorption

still while conventional still was running throughout the periods
without any change for comparison purpose.
1.1.1. Still with sponges
Sponges were made to ow over the saline water surface in the
basin in order to increase the free water surface area. In this
experimental setup, 150 sponges were used. All the sponges are
35 mm by 35 mm by 20 mm in size with the volumetric ratio between sponge and water of 20% [3]. Due to capillary action, sponges
sucked saline water thereby increasing the evaporation rate.

Fig. 2. Top view of the adsorbent bed.

(diameter of 0.05 m) sealed at both ends as shown in Fig. 2. The

space between the inner and the outer pipes contains an activated
carbonemethanol pair acting as an adsorbent bed. During the day
time, brackish or saline water is circulated from a storage tank
through the inner tube where water is preheated and collected in
collection tank. It is pumped back to the storage tank for continuous
circulation. The storage tank and the collection tank each is made of
PVC (poly vinyl chloride plastic) and having the capacity of 30 L.
PVC is selected due to its ability to handle high salinity water.
Therefore preheated water is supplied as a feed to the basin
during the day time. During the night time heat will be released to
saline water in the basin through the liberation of latent heat from
the methanol vapor and the sensible heat from the activated carbon. Hence both day and night time the evaporation will be
enhanced.
The working principle is as follows:
The saline water from the storage tank is allowed to ow
through the inner tube of the adsorbent bed through the valve V1.
The water will be preheated and returned to the storage tank
through a collection tank by the pump. Feed to the still is supplied
from the storage tank through the valve V3. When solar radiation
falls on the basin and adsorbent water evaporates and condenses
on the bottom side of the glass. The evaporation rate in the vapor
adsorption still is increased because water is preheated before
entering the basin and also because of the increase in effective
exposure area of the adsorbent bed, which act as a n. The
condensed water is collected in the measuring jar through a pipe
provided at the bottom of the still. As the evaporation takes place,
the saline water level in the solar still decreased. Make-up water is
added hourly to the still from the storage tank through valve V3.
For comparison, a conventional still without any modication
was also made run in parallel. This vapor adsorption solar still
system along with a conventional solar still had been fabricated and
tested at Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, India during
January 2010eJune 2010 where year round maximum solar radiation is obtained during this period.
Copper-constantan thermocouples integrated with a temperature indicator and selector switch were used for temperature
measurements. The thermocouples were xed at the following
locations: still basin plate, adsorbent bed, water at basin plate, inlet
and outlet of saline water in the adsorbent bed and inside of the
glass cover. To measure solar radiation a calibrated KippeZonen
pyranometer was used. Wind velocity was measured by vane type
digital anemometer and distilled water output was measured by
the measuring jar.

1.1.2. Still with sponge and gravels

The experiments were repeated with sponges and small quantity of sensible heat storage materials like gravels added in the still
basin. Gravels with a total mass of 0.5 kg were used in the vapor
adsorption type solar still.
1.1.3. Still with sponge and sand
Sand as a heat storage material was lled on the basin surface
and sponges were made to ow over the saline water surface. Two
kg of ne river sand was used.
1.1.4. Still with sponge, sand and black rubber
Black rubbers were added in addition to the sand and sponge in
the vapor adsorption type solar still, as a heat storage medium. A
larger fraction of solar radiation was absorbed resulting in
enhanced productivity of the solar still.

1.2. Theoretical simulation

The basin plate temperature, water temperature and glass
temperature can be evaluated at every instant by solving the energy
balance equations for the absorber plate, saline water and glass of
the solar still respectively.
In the case of conventional solar still, the solar energy absorbed
by the basin plate is equal to the summation of heat stored in the
basin plate, energy lost by convective heat transfer between basin
and water and side losses. This can be written as [5,7e9],

ItAb ab mb Cp; b


dTb
Qc; b-w Qloss
dt

(1)

For vapor adsorption solar still the energy balance equation can
be rewritten by including the sensible heat gain by the activated
carbon and latent heat gain by the methanol.
So Eq. (1) is modied as,

ItAb ab

dT 

b
mmet hfg; met
mb Cp; b mact Cp; act
dt
Qc; b-w Qloss

(2)

Energy received by the saline water in the still (from sun and
base) is equal to the summation of energy lost by convective heat
transfer between water and glass, radiative heat transfer between
water and glass, evaporative heat transfer between water and glass
and sensible energy gained by the saline water. This can be written
as [5,7e9],

Itaw Aw Qc; b-w Qc; w-g Qr; w-g Qe; w-g



dTw
mw Cp; w
dt

(3)

Energy gained by the glass cover (from sun and convective,

radiative and evaporative heat transfer from water to glass) is equal

R. Kannan et al. / Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

to the summation of energy lost by radiative and convective heat

transfer between glass and sky, and energy gained by glass [5,7e9].

Itag Ag Qc; w-g Qr; w-g Qe; w-g



dTg
Qr; g-sky Qc; g-sky mg Cp; g
dt

(4)

hc; w-g 0:884

261



Pw  Pg Tw 273:15 1=3

Tw  Tg 
268:9  103  Pw

(13)

The radiative heat transfer between water and glass was

determined by Refs. [5,7e9],



Qr; w-g hr; w-g Aw Tw  Tg

(14)

Initially water temperature, glass temperature and plate temperature were taken as ambient temperature and the change in
basin temperature (dTb), increase in saline water temperature (dTw)
and glass temperature (dTg) were computed for every time interval
(dt) of 5 s by solving Eqs. (1), (3) and (4) respectively in the case of
conventional still and the temperatures obtained by solving Eqs.
(2)e(4) respectively for vapor adsorption type solar still. For evaluation of above said temperatures in the simulation, the experimentally measured values of solar radiation and the ambient
temperature of the corresponding day and hour were used. This
iteration was performed for total duration from 9am to 5pm of a day.
The mass of water in the still was taken as 3.75 kg. The mass of
water equivalent to the condensate (mcon), was added every half an
hour and the constant level of water was maintained in the stepped
solar still. The area of saline water (Aw) was equal to area of the
basin. Mass of the glass (mg) was taken as 12.5 kg. The absorptivity
of the still, ab was taken [7,8] as 0.95. The absorptivity of the water,
aw and absorptivity of the glass, ag were taken as [7,8] 0.05.
For the next time step, the parameter was redened as,

where eff

Tw Tw dTw

(5)

he; w-g

Tg Tg dTg

(6)

The radiative heat transfer between glass and sky was given in
Refs. [5,7e9],

Tb Tb dTb

(7)



Qr; g-sky hr; g-sky Ag Tg eTsky

The radiative heat transfer coefcient between water and glass

was given in Refs. [5,7e9],

h

2 i

hr; w-g eff s Tw 2732 Tg 273
Tw Tg 546
(15)


1
1
1
1
w g

(16)

The evaporative heat transfer between water and glass was

given in Refs. [5,7e9],



Qe; w-g he; w-g Aw Tw  Tg

(17)

The evaporative heat transfer coefcient between water and

glass was given in Refs. [5,7e9],

16:273  103


pw  pg

hc; w-g 
Tw  Tg

(18)

(19)

The total condensation rate was given in Refs. [5,7e9],

dmcon
dt


he; w-g

Tw  Tg
hfg

The radiative heat transfer coefcient between glass and sky

was given in Refs. [5,7e9],

!
(8)

The total solar ux on an inclined surface was obtained from

Refs. [5,7e9],


It Ig  Id



cosqi
cosqh



1 cosb
Id
2

(9)

where qi and qh were the incidence angle on an inclined surface and

horizontal surface respectively and were obtained from Refs. [8,9].
The convective heat transfer between basin and water was
taken from Refs. [5,7e9] as,

Qc; b-w hc; b-w Ab Tb  Tw

(10)

The convective heat transfer coefcient between basin and

water, hc, b-w was taken from Refs. [5,7e9] as 135 W/m2 K.
The heat loss from basin to ambient was calculated from Refs.
[5,7e9],

Qloss Ub Ab Tb  Ta

(11)
2

h

4 i.
4 
Tg  Tsky
hr;g-sky s Tg 273  Tsky 273

(20)

The effective sky temperature was taken from Refs. [5,7e9],

Tsky Ta  6;

(21)

The convective heat transfer between glass and sky, Qc,g-sky was
given in Refs. [5,7e9],



Qc; g-sky hc; g-sky Ag Tg eTsky

(22)

where hc,g-sky was taken from Refs. [5,7e9],

hc; gsky 2:8 3:0 V

(23)
2

The partial pressure of water vapor in the air in N/m , is calculated for given temperature ( C) using the following correlation
[5,7e9].

p 7235e431:43T 10:76T 2

(24)

where Ub was taken from Refs. [5,7e9] as, 14 W/m K.

The convective heat transfer between water and glass was given
in Refs. [5,7e9],

The latent heat of evaporation of water in J/kg, at given basin

water temperature ( C) is given by the following correlation [5,7e
9].



Qc; w-g hc; w-g Aw Tw  Tg

hfg 2503:3e2:398  T  1000

(12)

where the convective heat transfer coefcient between water and

glass was given in Refs. [5,7e9],

(25)

The specic heat capacity, in J/kg K, of the water vapor inside the
still is calculated using the following correlation [5,7e9].

262

R. Kannan et al. / Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

Cp; w 999:2 0:14339  Tw

 


2
3
e 0:000000067581  Tw
0:0001101  Tw

Table 1
Accuracies and ranges of measuring instruments.

(26)
The mathematical simulation was performed for different type
of operations as discussed below:
1.2.1. Still with sponges
To augment the evaporation rate, sponges of uniform sizes, were
added. In simulation, the area of the free surface water Aw was
taken as 1.35 m2 including sponge exposure area. The equations
and other parameter remain the same.
1.2.2. Still with sponge and gravels
Gravel is one of the high solar thermal energy storage materials.
Addition of gravels in the basin surface increases the water temperature and thereby increasing the evaporation rate. Approximately 0.5 kg of gravels were placed along with the sponges of the
same quantity as in Section 1.1.1. The mathematical model of the
simple basin still discussed in Section 1.2, was used for this modication also, except the area of the free surface water Aw was taken
as 1.35 m2 including sponge exposure area. Also Eq. (2) was modied
as follows by considering mass and specic heat of the gravels.

ItAb ab

mb Cpb mact Cp; act mgr Cp; gr

dT 
b

dt

mmet hfg; met Qc; b-w Qloss

(27)

1.2.3. Still with sponge and sand

The same area Aw as in Section 1.2.1 was used and Eq. (2) was
modied by considering sensible energy of the sand, giving:

ItAb ab

mb Cpb mact Cp; act ms Cp; s

dT 
b

dt

mmet hfg; met Qc; b-w Qloss

(28)

1.2.4. Still with sponge, sand and black rubber

In addition to sensible energy of the sand, here sensible energy
of the black rubber is added in Eq. (2).

dT 

b
ItAb ab mb Cpb mact Cp; act ms Cp; s mbr Cp; br
dt

Sl. No.

Instrument

Accuracy

Range

% Error

1.
2.
3
4

Thermocouple
Solarimeter
Anemometer
Measuring beaker

1  C
0.025 W/m2
0.1 m/s
10 ml

0  Ce100  C
0e2000 W/m2
0e15 m/s
0e1000 ml

3%
3.5%
10%
10%

basin of the vapor adsorption type still was modied by adding

sponges, sand, gravel and black rubber and the performance of the
system was compared with that of the conventional solar still.
Comparison of theoretical and experimental results is also conducted in this section. Efciencies of the various modications are
tabulated.
1.4.1. Comparison of theoretical and experimental performance
Fig. 3 shows the production rate variations for the vapor
adsorption type still and the conventional solar still. The cumulative evaporation rate in the vapor adsorption still with sponge and
gravels is 3.96 kg/m2 for 8 h duration while the yield in conventional solar still is only 2.1 kg/m2 for the same duration. Increase in
exposure area by the addition of sponge and increase in sensible
heat due to gravels, accelerated the evaporation rate of the vapor
adsorption solar still by 47% than conventional solar still.
The comparison between theoretical and experimental performance was also plotted in Fig. 3. For simulation, actual experimentally determined operational and meteorological parameters
were used. Theoretical analysis agrees well with experimental
analysis. The maximum deviation between experimental and
theoretical was 2.3%.
1.4.2. Effect of various modications in solar still on distillate
production
Integration of vapor adsorption bed at the basin plate causes
increase in solar energy exposure, decrease in side loss and thereby
increase in saline water temperature. Addition of sponges enriches
the free water surface area and thus saline water temperature increases. Due to high volumetric capacity (rCp) of gravels, sand and
black rubber, more thermal energy was stored and so saline water
temperature increased. Results showed that the evaporation rate
was increased, when vapor adsorption solar still was modied with
sponge, gravel, sand and black rubber. Fig. 4 shows the variation of
evaporative heat transfer for all modications. Result shows that

mmet hfg; met Qc; b-w Qloss

(29)
The other equations and parameter were similar to the previous
modications.
Theoretical simulation was numerically solved by RungeeKutte
method of fourth order using MATLAB software at Australian National University, Canberra, Australia during AprileJune, 2011.
1.3. Error analysis
Accuracies of various measuring instruments used in the experiments are shown in Table 1. Solar radiation, temperatures at
various places, distilled water collection and wind velocity were
measured in hourly basis.
1.4. Results and discussion
Experiments were carried out in both vapor adsorption solar
still and conventional still during January 2010 and June 2010. The

Fig. 3. Theoretical and experimental comparisons.

R. Kannan et al. / Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

263

Fig. 4. Variation in distillate production rate with various modications.

evaporation rate increased at an average value of 95%, when

sponge, sand and rubber were added in n type solar still. Also
during night time, the evaporation rate of conventional still is
0.4 kg/m2 while vapor adsorption solar still gives 0.7 kg/m2 which
is about 57% rise in distillate production.
1.4.3. Daily efciency and increase in productivity
The daily efciency, hd, is dened as energy out-put and energy
input. The energy output is obtained by summing up the hourly
distillate production mcon, multiplied by the latent heat of vaporization hfg. Energy input is the product of daily solar radiation I(t)
over the whole area A of the device. Mathematically it can be
written as:

hd

X
mcon hfg =
AIt

(30)

The daily efciency and percentage increase in productivity for

the various modications are given in Table 2. It was found that
maximum efciency was obtained when sponges, sand and black
rubber were added with the vapor adsorption still basin.

3.7 kg/m2. Thus the cost of water produced per day was Rs. 37.0
($0.83) and payback period was calculated as 270 days.
2. Conclusion
A novel solar still integrated with vapor adsorption bed at the
basin was designed, fabricated and characterized. To enhance the
productivity of the still, sponge, gravels, sand, black rubbers and
some of their combinations were used. The performance of the
novel still was compared with that of a conventional solar still. It
was found that distillate production rate in the vapor adsorption
was ranged between 3.1 and 4.3 kg/m2 while the conventional still
distillate production rate was between 1.9 and 2.3 kg/m2. The night
time distillate production rate was also augmented in the vapor
adsorption type solar still by two times than the conventional solar
still. The maximum distillate production rate and daily efciency
was obtained in the vapor adsorption solar still with sand, sponge
and black rubber combinations. The maximum deviation between
theoretical experimental analyses was less than 6%.
Nomenclature

1.5. Economic analysis

The payback period of the experimental setup depends on
overall cost of fabrication, maintenance cost, operating cost and
cost of feed water. The overall fabrication cost was Rs. 10,000 ($
223). The maintenance cost and the cost of feed water were
negligible. The cost per kg of distilled water was Rs. 10 ($0.22) and
the average productivity of the vapor adsorption type solar still is
Table 2
Daily efciency.
Sl. No.

Modications

Conventional
solar still

Vapor adsorption
solar still

Daily efciency

Daily efciency

Without any
modications
With sponge
With sponge and
gravel
With sponge and
sand
With sponge sand
and black rubber

61

75

e
e

78
79

86

93

2
3
4
5

English letters
A
area, m2
Cp
specic heat, J/kg K
I(t)
solar ux on an inclined collector, W/m2
Ig
global radiation intensity on a horizontal plate, W/m2
Id
diffuse radiation intensity on a horizontal plane, W/m2
P
partial pressure, N/m2
Q
heat transfer, W
T
temperature,  C
dt
time interval, s
h
heat transfer coefcient, W/m2 K
hfg
enthalpy of evaporation at Tw, J/kg
m
mass, kg
mcon
condensate, kg/m2
U
side heat loss coefcient from basin to ambient, W/m2 K
V
wind velocity, m/s
Greeks

a
b

emissivity
absorptivity
collector surface inclination, degrees

264

s
hd

R. Kannan et al. / Renewable Energy 62 (2014) 258e264

StefaneBoltzmann constant, W/m2 K4

daily efciency, %

Subscripts
a
ambient
act
activated carbon
b
basin
br
black rubber
c
convective
e
evaporative
g
glass
gr
gravel
met
methanol
r
radiative
s
sand
w
water
eff
equivalent
loss
side loss
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